The emergent post-colonial state in Cyprus

Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics

Volumn 37, Issue 1, 1999, Pages 31-55

  Panayiotopoulos, Prodromos ^a  

^a SWANSEA UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

COLONIALISM; INDEPENDENCE; NATIONALISM; POST-COLONIALISM;

CYPRUS;

EID: 0032854674     PISSN: 03063631     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/14662049908447781     Document Type: Article

References (116)

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2. J. Bujra, 'A Third World in the Making: Diversity in Pre-Capitalist Societies', in T. Allen and A. Thomas (eds.), Poverty and Development in the 1990s (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), 145-68; H. Bernstein, T. Hewitt and A. Thomas, 'Capitalism and the Expansion of Europe', in Allen and Thomas (eds.), Poverty and Development, 168-85; D.K. Fieldhouse, The Colonial Empires (Aldershot: Weidensfield, 1982); D. Potter, 'Colonial Rule', in Allen and Thomas (eds.), Poverty and Development, 204-21.
3. J. Bujra, 'A Third World in the Making: Diversity in Pre-Capitalist Societies', in T. Allen and A. Thomas (eds.), Poverty and Development in the 1990s (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), 145-68; H. Bernstein, T. Hewitt and A. Thomas, 'Capitalism and the Expansion of Europe', in Allen and Thomas (eds.), Poverty and Development, 168-85; D.K. Fieldhouse, The Colonial Empires (Aldershot: Weidensfield, 1982); D. Potter, 'Colonial Rule', in Allen and Thomas (eds.), Poverty and Development, 204-21.
4. J. Bujra, 'A Third World in the Making: Diversity in Pre-Capitalist Societies', in T. Allen and A. Thomas (eds.), Poverty and Development in the 1990s (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), 145-68; H. Bernstein, T. Hewitt and A. Thomas, 'Capitalism and the Expansion of Europe', in Allen and Thomas (eds.), Poverty and Development, 168-85; D.K. Fieldhouse, The Colonial Empires (Aldershot: Weidensfield, 1982); D. Potter, 'Colonial Rule', in Allen and Thomas (eds.), Poverty and Development, 204-21.
5. C. Coquery-Vidrovich, Africa, Endurance and Change South of the Sahara (London: University of California Press, 1988); H. Bernstein, H. Johnson and A. Thomas, 'Labour Regimes and Social Change under Colonialism', in Allen and Thomas (eds.), Poverty and Development, 185-204; E.A. Brett, Colonialism and Underdevelopment in Africa (London: Heinemann, 1973).
6. C. Coquery-Vidrovich, Africa, Endurance and Change South of the Sahara (London: University of California Press, 1988); H. Bernstein, H. Johnson and A. Thomas, 'Labour Regimes and Social Change under Colonialism', in Allen and Thomas (eds.), Poverty and Development, 185-204; E.A. Brett, Colonialism and Underdevelopment in Africa (London: Heinemann, 1973).
7. C. Coquery-Vidrovich, Africa, Endurance and Change South of the Sahara (London: University of California Press, 1988); H. Bernstein, H. Johnson and A. Thomas, 'Labour Regimes and Social Change under Colonialism', in Allen and Thomas (eds.), Poverty and Development, 185-204; E.A. Brett, Colonialism and Underdevelopment in Africa (London: Heinemann, 1973).
8. Colonial Office, Historical Survey of the Origins and Growth of Man-Man (London: HMSO, Command No. 1030, 1960); Coquery-Vidrovich, Africa, Endurance, 168-212.
9. Colonial Office, Historical Survey of the Origins and Growth of Man-Man (London: HMSO, Command No. 1030, 1960); Coquery-Vidrovich, Africa, Endurance, 168-212.
10. I.G. Shivji, Class Struggle in Tanzania (London: Heinemann, 1976); J. Saul, 'The State in Post-Colonial Societies: Tanzania', in H. Goulbourne (ed.), Politics and State in the Third World (London: Macmillan, 1983), 70-92; O. Odinga, Not yet Uhuru (London: Hill and Wang, 1985).
11. I.G. Shivji, Class Struggle in Tanzania (London: Heinemann, 1976); J. Saul, 'The State in Post-Colonial Societies: Tanzania', in H. Goulbourne (ed.), Politics and State in the Third World (London: Macmillan, 1983), 70-92; O. Odinga, Not yet Uhuru (London: Hill and Wang, 1985).
12. I.G. Shivji, Class Struggle in Tanzania (London: Heinemann, 1976); J. Saul, 'The State in Post-Colonial Societies: Tanzania', in H. Goulbourne (ed.), Politics and State in the Third World (London: Macmillan, 1983), 70-92; O. Odinga, Not yet Uhuru (London: Hill and Wang, 1985).
13. F. Anthias and A. Ayres, 'Ethnicity and Class in Cyprus', Race and Class, 25, 1 (1983), 59-77; P. Panayiotopoulos, 'Cyprus: The Developmental State in Crisis', Capital and Class, 57 (1995), 13-55.
14. F. Anthias and A. Ayres, 'Ethnicity and Class in Cyprus', Race and Class, 25, 1 (1983), 59-77; P. Panayiotopoulos, 'Cyprus: The Developmental State in Crisis', Capital and Class, 57 (1995), 13-55.
15. A. Pollis, 'Colonialism and Neo-Colonialism: Determinants of Ethnic Conflict in Cyprus', in P. Worsley and P. Kitromilides (eds.), Small States in the Modern World: The Conditions of Survival (Nicosia: Stavrinides Press, 1979), 47-77.
16. C. Leys, 'The Overdeveloped Postcolonial State: A Re-evaluation', Review of African Political Economy, 5 (1976), 39-48; J.B. Ghartrey, Crisis, Accountability and Development in the Third World. The Case of Africa (London: Avebury, 1987); H. Alavi, 'The State in Post-Colonial Societies: Pakistan and Bangladesh', in H. Goulbourne (ed.), Politics and State, 38-70; F. Halliday and H. Alavi (eds.), State and Ideology in the Middle East and Pakistan (London, Macmillan, 1988); J. Saul, 'The State in Post-Colonial Societies: Tanzania', in Goulbourne (ed.), Politics and State, 70-92.
17. C. Leys, 'The Overdeveloped Postcolonial State: A Re-evaluation', Review of African Political Economy, 5 (1976), 39-48; J.B. Ghartrey, Crisis, Accountability and Development in the Third World. The Case of Africa (London: Avebury, 1987); H. Alavi, 'The State in Post-Colonial Societies: Pakistan and Bangladesh', in H. Goulbourne (ed.), Politics and State, 38-70; F. Halliday and H. Alavi (eds.), State and Ideology in the Middle East and Pakistan (London, Macmillan, 1988); J. Saul, 'The State in Post-Colonial Societies: Tanzania', in Goulbourne (ed.), Politics and State, 70-92.
18. C. Leys, 'The Overdeveloped Postcolonial State: A Re-evaluation', Review of African Political Economy, 5 (1976), 39-48; J.B. Ghartrey, Crisis, Accountability and Development in the Third World. The Case of Africa (London: Avebury, 1987); H. Alavi, 'The State in Post-Colonial Societies: Pakistan and Bangladesh', in H. Goulbourne (ed.), Politics and State, 38-70; F. Halliday and H. Alavi (eds.), State and Ideology in the Middle East and Pakistan (London, Macmillan, 1988); J. Saul, 'The State in Post-Colonial Societies: Tanzania', in Goulbourne (ed.), Politics and State, 70-92.
19. C. Leys, 'The Overdeveloped Postcolonial State: A Re-evaluation', Review of African Political Economy, 5 (1976), 39-48; J.B. Ghartrey, Crisis, Accountability and Development in the Third World. The Case of Africa (London: Avebury, 1987); H. Alavi, 'The State in Post-Colonial Societies: Pakistan and Bangladesh', in H. Goulbourne (ed.), Politics and State, 38-70; F. Halliday and H. Alavi (eds.), State and Ideology in the Middle East and Pakistan (London, Macmillan, 1988); J. Saul, 'The State in Post-Colonial Societies: Tanzania', in Goulbourne (ed.), Politics and State, 70-92.
20. C. Leys, 'The Overdeveloped Postcolonial State: A Re-evaluation', Review of African Political Economy, 5 (1976), 39-48; J.B. Ghartrey, Crisis, Accountability and Development in the Third World. The Case of Africa (London: Avebury, 1987); H. Alavi, 'The State in Post-Colonial Societies: Pakistan and Bangladesh', in H. Goulbourne (ed.), Politics and State, 38-70; F. Halliday and H. Alavi (eds.), State and Ideology in the Middle East and Pakistan (London, Macmillan, 1988); J. Saul, 'The State in Post-Colonial Societies: Tanzania', in Goulbourne (ed.), Politics and State, 70-92.
21. M. Attalides, 'Forms of Peasant Incorporation in Cyprus during the Last Century', in M. Dimen and E. Friedl (eds.), Regional Variation in Modern Greece and Cyprus: Towards a Perspective on the Ethnography of Greece (New York: Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 268, 1976), 363-78; H. Alavi, 'Peasant Classes and Primordial Loyalties', Journal of Peasant Studies, 9 (1974) 23-62; E. Wolf, Kinship, Friendship and Patron-Client Relations in Complex Societies (London: Tavistock Publications, 1966).
22. M. Attalides, 'Forms of Peasant Incorporation in Cyprus during the Last Century', in M. Dimen and E. Friedl (eds.), Regional Variation in Modern Greece and Cyprus: Towards a Perspective on the Ethnography of Greece (New York: Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 268, 1976), 363-78; H. Alavi, 'Peasant Classes and Primordial Loyalties', Journal of Peasant Studies, 9 (1974) 23-62; E. Wolf, Kinship, Friendship and Patron-Client Relations in Complex Societies (London: Tavistock Publications, 1966).
23. M. Attalides, 'Forms of Peasant Incorporation in Cyprus during the Last Century', in M. Dimen and E. Friedl (eds.), Regional Variation in Modern Greece and Cyprus: Towards a Perspective on the Ethnography of Greece (New York: Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 268, 1976), 363-78; H. Alavi, 'Peasant Classes and Primordial Loyalties', Journal of Peasant Studies, 9 (1974) 23-62; E. Wolf, Kinship, Friendship and Patron-Client Relations in Complex Societies (London: Tavistock Publications, 1966).
24. G. Kitching, Development and Underdevelopment in Historical Perspective: Populism, Nationalism and Industrialisation (London: Methuen, 1989), 22.
25. G. Hill, A History of Cyprus. The Ottoman Province, The British Colony (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1952). Land belonging to Turkish religious organisations was referred to as Vaqffand (see D. Christodoulou, The Evolution of the Rural Land Use Pattern in Cyprus (London: Geographical Publications, 1959), 72-3).
26. G. Hill, A History of Cyprus. The Ottoman Province, The British Colony (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1952). Land belonging to Turkish religious organisations was referred to as Vaqffand (see D. Christodoulou, The Evolution of the Rural Land Use Pattern in Cyprus (London: Geographical Publications, 1959), 72-3).
27. S. Panteli, A New History of Cyprus (London: East-West Publications, 1984), 56-7; one visitor to the island during 1806 wrote that the Greeks were 'a community of slaves with their bishops as a rallying point. Through them the community exists'. Barbara Lyssarides, 'Unshaken Power of the Archbishops', Cyprus Weekly (Nicosia), 12 April 1996.
28. S. Panteli, A New History of Cyprus (London: East-West Publications, 1984), 56-7; one visitor to the island during 1806 wrote that the Greeks were 'a community of slaves with their bishops as a rallying point. Through them the community exists'. Barbara Lyssarides, 'Unshaken Power of the Archbishops', Cyprus Weekly (Nicosia), 12 April 1996.
29. Hill, A History of Cyprus, 444.
30. Ibid., 445.
31. Ibid., 459, 455.
32. U.A. Surridge, A Survey of Rural Life in Cyprus (Nicosia: Government Printer, 1930); Y. Lefki, I Rizes. Istoriki Meleti (Limassol: Papatsiakou Printers, 1984), 12-13; Government of Cyprus, Census of Population (Nicosia: Government Printers, 1931).
33. U.A. Surridge, A Survey of Rural Life in Cyprus (Nicosia: Government Printer, 1930); Y. Lefki, I Rizes. Istoriki Meleti (Limassol: Papatsiakou Printers, 1984), 12-13; Government of Cyprus, Census of Population (Nicosia: Government Printers, 1931).
34. U.A. Surridge, A Survey of Rural Life in Cyprus (Nicosia: Government Printer, 1930); Y. Lefki, I Rizes. Istoriki Meleti (Limassol: Papatsiakou Printers, 1984), 12-13; Government of Cyprus, Census of Population (Nicosia: Government Printers, 1931).
35. P. Stylianou, To Kinima tou Oktovri tou 1931 stin Kypro (Nicosia: Stavrinides Press, 1984).
36. Panteli, A New History, 143-4.
37. A. Fanti, O antikommounismos stin Kypro. Mia Istoriki anadromi (Nicosia: Central Committee AKEL, 1985), 22-7.
38. Cyprus is currently served by a president who saw active service in the British Royal Air Force.
39. Panteli, A New History, 214.
40. T.W. Adams, AKEL: The Communist Party of Cyprus (Stanford, CA: Hoover Institute Press, 1971), 110-137; P. Loizos, 'The Progress of Greek Nationalism in Cyprus 1878-1970', in J. Davis (ed.), Choice and Change: Essays in honour of Lucy Mair (London: Athlone Press, 1974), 110-39.
41. T.W. Adams, AKEL: The Communist Party of Cyprus (Stanford, CA: Hoover Institute Press, 1971), 110-137; P. Loizos, 'The Progress of Greek Nationalism in Cyprus 1878-1970', in J. Davis (ed.), Choice and Change: Essays in honour of Lucy Mair (London: Athlone Press, 1974), 110-39.
42. A.J. Meyer and S. Vasiliou, The Economy of Cyprus (New York: Harvard University Press, 1962).
43. Government of Cyprus, Department of Agriculture, Annual Report (Nicosia: Government Printers, 1954, 1958).
44. Christodoulou, The Evolution of the Rural Land Use Pattern, 56-8, 86.
45. Ibid., 91; Government of Cyprus, Department of Labour, Annual Report (Nicosia: Government Printers, 1955), 4.
46. Ibid., 91; Government of Cyprus, Department of Labour, Annual Report (Nicosia: Government Printers, 1955), 4.
47. Christodoulou, The Evolution of the Rural Land Use Pattern, 100-105; Government of Cyprus, Census of Population (Nicosia: Government Printers, 1946, 1956).
48. Christodoulou, The Evolution of the Rural Land Use Pattern, 100-105; Government of Cyprus, Census of Population (Nicosia: Government Printers, 1946, 1956).
49. Meyer and Vasiliou, The Economy of Cyprus, 72-8; Barclays Bank, Economic Survey of Cyprus (London: Barclays Bank, 1954-62). Government of Cyprus, Colonial Report (Nicosia: Government Printers, 1956-59); Government of Cyprus, Department of Agriculture, Annual Report (Nicosia: Government Printers, 1957-59); Government of Cyprus, Department of Labour, Annual Report (Nicosia: Government Printers, 1956-59); Republic of Cyprus, Ministry of Labour and Social Insurance, Annual Report (Nicosia: Government Printers, 1960-62).
50. Meyer and Vasiliou, The Economy of Cyprus, 72-8; Barclays Bank, Economic Survey of Cyprus (London: Barclays Bank, 1954-62). Government of Cyprus, Colonial Report (Nicosia: Government Printers, 1956-59); Government of Cyprus, Department of Agriculture, Annual Report (Nicosia: Government Printers, 1957-59); Government of Cyprus, Department of Labour, Annual Report (Nicosia: Government Printers, 1956-59); Republic of Cyprus, Ministry of Labour and Social Insurance, Annual Report (Nicosia: Government Printers, 1960-62).
51. Meyer and Vasiliou, The Economy of Cyprus, 72-8; Barclays Bank, Economic Survey of Cyprus (London: Barclays Bank, 1954-62). Government of Cyprus, Colonial Report (Nicosia: Government Printers, 1956-59); Government of Cyprus, Department of Agriculture, Annual Report (Nicosia: Government Printers, 1957-59); Government of Cyprus, Department of Labour, Annual Report (Nicosia: Government Printers, 1956-59); Republic of Cyprus, Ministry of Labour and Social Insurance, Annual Report (Nicosia: Government Printers, 1960-62).
52. Meyer and Vasiliou, The Economy of Cyprus, 72-8; Barclays Bank, Economic Survey of Cyprus (London: Barclays Bank, 1954-62). Government of Cyprus, Colonial Report (Nicosia: Government Printers, 1956-59); Government of Cyprus, Department of Agriculture, Annual Report (Nicosia: Government Printers, 1957-59); Government of Cyprus, Department of Labour, Annual Report (Nicosia: Government Printers, 1956-59); Republic of Cyprus, Ministry of Labour and Social Insurance, Annual Report (Nicosia: Government Printers, 1960-62).
53. Meyer and Vasiliou, The Economy of Cyprus, 72-8; Barclays Bank, Economic Survey of Cyprus (London: Barclays Bank, 1954-62). Government of Cyprus, Colonial Report (Nicosia: Government Printers, 1956-59); Government of Cyprus, Department of Agriculture, Annual Report (Nicosia: Government Printers, 1957-59); Government of Cyprus, Department of Labour, Annual Report (Nicosia: Government Printers, 1956-59); Republic of Cyprus, Ministry of Labour and Social Insurance, Annual Report (Nicosia: Government Printers, 1960-62).
54. Meyer and Vasiliou, The Economy of Cyprus, 72-8; Barclays Bank, Economic Survey of Cyprus (London: Barclays Bank, 1954-62). Government of Cyprus, Colonial Report (Nicosia: Government Printers, 1956-59); Government of Cyprus, Department of Agriculture, Annual Report (Nicosia: Government Printers, 1957-59); Government of Cyprus, Department of Labour, Annual Report (Nicosia: Government Printers, 1956-59); Republic of Cyprus, Ministry of Labour and Social Insurance, Annual Report (Nicosia: Government Printers, 1960-62).
55. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Cyprus - Suggestions for a Development Programme of Technical Assistance (Geneva: United Nations Development Programme, 1961), 5.
56. Government of Cyprus, Vital and Migration Statistics, Annual Report (Nicosia: Government Printers, 1956-62); S. Constantinou, 'Cypriot Migration in England', in the Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Cypriot Migration: A Historical and Sociological Perspective, held in Nicosia, 29-31 Aug. 1986 (Nicosia: Social Science Research Centre, 1990), 137-72; W.L. Jones St. John, The Population of Cyprus: Demographic Trends and Socio-Economic Influences (London: Institute of Commonwealth Studies, 1983).
57. Government of Cyprus, Vital and Migration Statistics, Annual Report (Nicosia: Government Printers, 1956-62); S. Constantinou, 'Cypriot Migration in England', in the Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Cypriot Migration: A Historical and Sociological Perspective, held in Nicosia, 29-31 Aug. 1986 (Nicosia: Social Science Research Centre, 1990), 137-72; W.L. Jones St. John, The Population of Cyprus: Demographic Trends and Socio-Economic Influences (London: Institute of Commonwealth Studies, 1983).
58. Government of Cyprus, Vital and Migration Statistics, Annual Report (Nicosia: Government Printers, 1956-62); S. Constantinou, 'Cypriot Migration in England', in the Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Cypriot Migration: A Historical and Sociological Perspective, held in Nicosia, 29-31 Aug. 1986 (Nicosia: Social Science Research Centre, 1990), 137-72; W.L. Jones St. John, The Population of Cyprus: Demographic Trends and Socio-Economic Influences (London: Institute of Commonwealth Studies, 1983).
59. P. Panayiotopoulos, 'Cypriot Entrepreneurs in the North London Clothing Industry: A Colonial Legacy', in the Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Cypriot Migration: A Historical and Sociological Perspective, held in Nicosia, 29-31 Aug. 1986 (Nicosia: Social Science Research Centre, 1990), 290-91.
60. Ghartrey, Crisis, Accountability, 21.
61. Neither were any Turkish Cypriots recorded as being amongst the 4,594 persons wanted, imprisoned or detained in internment camps by the British during 1955 to 1959. This was also the case amongst the 145 communist detainees. See, C. Papachrysostomou, Arhion Agoniston (Nicosia: Anayienisis, 1977), 9, 183-6.
62. Panteli, A New History, 302-3.
63. E. Engin and Y. Girneli, The Cyprus Question (London: Iscinin Scsi Publications, 1980), 12-13.
64. J.G. Peristiany, 'Introduction to a Cyprus Highland Village', in J. Peristiany (ed.), Contributions to Mediterranean Sociology. Mediterranean Rural Communities and Social Change (Paris: Mouton and Co., 1968), 77-91. The study of Alona was generalised in the literature on Mediterranean sociology/anthropology as representative of conservative, peasant society. If Peristiany had carried out research a few miles further on in the larger mining village of Pelendri (also known as 'little Moscow'), fundamentally different conclusions may have been reached about village life.
65. Ibid., 81-2.
66. Loizos, The Progress of Greek Nationalism in Cyprus', 117-18.
67. Papachrysostomou, Arhion Agoniston, 117-21.
68. Attalides, 'Forms of Peasant Incorporation in Cyprus', 372.
69. Lefki, I Rizes, 76-7, 217; Adams, AKEL: The Communist Party of Cyprus, 18, 31-9.
70. Lefki, I Rizes, 76-7, 217; Adams, AKEL: The Communist Party of Cyprus, 18, 31-9.
71. Hararghi (Nicosia), 27 Nov. 1966; see also E. Papaioannou, Enthimisis tis zois mou (Nicosia: Pyrsos Publications, 1988); Ergatiki Demokratia, To Kypriako kai ta diethnistica kathikonta ton ellinokyprion epanastaton (Nicosia: Ergatiki Demokratia, 1988).
72. Hararghi (Nicosia), 27 Nov. 1966; see also E. Papaioannou, Enthimisis tis zois mou (Nicosia: Pyrsos Publications, 1988); Ergatiki Demokratia, To Kypriako kai ta diethnistica kathikonta ton ellinokyprion epanastaton (Nicosia: Ergatiki Demokratia, 1988).
73. Hararghi (Nicosia), 27 Nov. 1966; see also E. Papaioannou, Enthimisis tis zois mou (Nicosia: Pyrsos Publications, 1988); Ergatiki Demokratia, To Kypriako kai ta diethnistica kathikonta ton ellinokyprion epanastaton (Nicosia: Ergatiki Demokratia, 1988).
74. Democritus, The Leadership of AKEL and the Armed Struggle - A Marxist Critique (Nicosia: George Cacoyiannis, 1959). The document selectively quotes Lenin (and Stalin) on the national question in order to criticise AKEL's abstention from the armed struggle. It is by no means clear, however, that the work of Lenin supports the view that Marxists should have joined EOKA. Lenin argued that it was the 'duty [of Marxists] to teach workers to be indifferent to national distinctions', but that at the same time this 'must not be the indifference of the annexationists' and supported in his writings the principle of self-determination for oppressed nationalities [to the 'point of secession']. V.I. Lenin, Critical Remarks on the National Question and the Right to Self Determination (Moscow: Progress Press, 1971), 77, 137. At the same time Lenin opposed the subordination of working class organisations and interests to that of the nationalist (or peasant) movements by joining them and accepting their organisational discipline. One view of the Marxist position on the armed struggle in Cyprus consists of 'unconditional but critical' support for the EOKA campaign against colonialism, irrespective of whether this was waged for independence or enosis. Whilst this does not attach pre-conditions on the principle of self-determination towards oppressed nationalities, as Greek Cypriots certainly were, the 'critical' part also implies, however, that the principle of self-determination could equally be applied to Turkish Cypriots.
75. Democritus, The Leadership of AKEL and the Armed Struggle - A Marxist Critique (Nicosia: George Cacoyiannis, 1959). The document selectively quotes Lenin (and Stalin) on the national question in order to criticise AKEL's abstention from the armed struggle. It is by no means clear, however, that the work of Lenin supports the view that Marxists should have joined EOKA. Lenin argued that it was the 'duty [of Marxists] to teach workers to be indifferent to national distinctions', but that at the same time this 'must not be the indifference of the annexationists' and supported in his writings the principle of self-determination for oppressed nationalities [to the 'point of secession']. V.I. Lenin, Critical Remarks on the National Question and the Right to Self Determination (Moscow: Progress Press, 1971), 77, 137. At the same time Lenin opposed the subordination of working class organisations and interests to that of the nationalist (or peasant) movements by joining them and accepting their organisational discipline. One view of the Marxist position on the armed struggle in Cyprus consists of 'unconditional but critical' support for the EOKA campaign against colonialism, irrespective of whether this was waged for independence or enosis. Whilst this does not attach pre-conditions on the principle of self-determination towards oppressed nationalities, as Greek Cypriots certainly were, the 'critical' part also implies, however, that the principle of self-determination could equally be applied to Turkish Cypriots.
76. C. Harman, 'The Return of the National Question', International Socialism Journal, 56, (1992), 15.
77. P. Loizos, The Greek Gift: Politics in a Cypriot Village (London, Basil Blackwell, 1975), 122.
78. Attalides, 'Forms of peasant incorporation in Cyprus', 372. The fracture of EOKA in Yialousa mirrored the general break-up of EOKA. This consisted of one group who allied themselves to the Minister of the Interior (himself an ex-combatant) and another group allied with the Archbishopric. These two groups supported independence and conflicted with a third group which continued with the struggle for enosis, acted as clients for the Greek military regime, and led a coup against President Makarios in 1974, which precipitated the mainland Turkish intervention leading to formal partition.
79. M. Attalides, Cyprus, Nationalism and International Politics (Edinburgh: Q Press, 1979), 40, 88.
80. A. Melamid, 'The Geographical Distribution of Communities in Cyprus', Geographical Review (1956), 260; Attalides, Cyprus, Nationalism, 51.
81. A. Melamid, 'The Geographical Distribution of Communities in Cyprus', Geographical Review (1956), 260; Attalides, Cyprus, Nationalism, 51.
82. One common practice was that the Orthodox Church, a major owner of land and other property, 'does not rent land or shops to Turks', Haravghi (Nicosia), 25 July 1959.
83. Attalides, Cyprus, Nationalism, 89-90; Cyswell Project, A Report on Three Community Studies in Cyprus (Swansea: Dept. of Social Administration University College Swansea, 1970), 90.
84. Attalides, Cyprus, Nationalism, 89-90; Cyswell Project, A Report on Three Community Studies in Cyprus (Swansea: Dept. of Social Administration University College Swansea, 1970), 90.
85. Ergatiki Demokratia, To Kypriako, 47-71; Dr Lyssarides was Makarios' personal physician, a member of the 'Democritus' group of ex-AKEL members, and subsequently leader of the Socialist Party (EDEK).
86. Engin and Girneli, The Cyprus Question, 12-13.
87. This is reflected in the tendency for the Archbishopric to impose bishops who are good property managers and captains of industry, rather than almoners of the poor. This has been a source of conflict between the church hierarchy and its parishioners and found recent expression in a dispute between the Archbishopric and the parishioners of the Diocese of Morphou. The dispute (over choice of bishop) led to major rioting outside the Archbishopric office and the largest deployment of police units since independence. Cyprus Weekly (Nicosia), 'Battle of the Archbishopric', 21 March 1996.
88. Panayiotopoulos, 'Cyprus: The Developmental State', 26-7.
89. Republic of Cyprus, Industrial Production Survey (Nicosia: Government Printers, 1970), 121; Republic of Cyprus, Statistical Abstract (Nicosia: Government Printers, 1986), 31.
90. Republic of Cyprus, Industrial Production Survey (Nicosia: Government Printers, 1970), 121; Republic of Cyprus, Statistical Abstract (Nicosia: Government Printers, 1986), 31.
91. Republic of Cyprus Ministry of Labour, Annual Report, 2-4.
92. Sinomospondia Ergaton Kyprou (SEK), SEK 1944-1984: 40 Hronia Agonon kai prosforas sto Lao mas (Nicosia: SEK, 1984), 220; Pankypriaki Ergatiki Omonspondia (PEO) Conference Report (Nicosia: Pyrsos Publicalions, 1983), 114-54. Trade union density refers to the proportion of workers who are in unions as a percentage of the labour force. In Cyprus this stands at 60 per cent of the labour force (compared with 30 per cent in the UK) and was influenced by the rapid economic growth of the southern Cyprus economy from the mid-1970s onwards which resulted in periodic sectoral labour scarcity. Unions are an important source of labour recruitment. Another is immigrant labour (see P. Panayiotopoulos, 'The Cypriot Clothing Industry', The Cyprus Review, 4, 1 (1992) 110-15).
93. Sinomospondia Ergaton Kyprou (SEK), SEK 1944-1984: 40 Hronia Agonon kai prosforas sto Lao mas (Nicosia: SEK, 1984), 220; Pankypriaki Ergatiki Omonspondia (PEO) Conference Report (Nicosia: Pyrsos Publicalions, 1983), 114-54. Trade union density refers to the proportion of workers who are in unions as a percentage of the labour force. In Cyprus this stands at 60 per cent of the labour force (compared with 30 per cent in the UK) and was influenced by the rapid economic growth of the southern Cyprus economy from the mid-1970s onwards which resulted in periodic sectoral labour scarcity. Unions are an important source of labour recruitment. Another is immigrant labour (see P. Panayiotopoulos, 'The Cypriot Clothing Industry', The Cyprus Review, 4, 1 (1992) 110-15).
94. Sinomospondia Ergaton Kyprou (SEK), SEK 1944-1984: 40 Hronia Agonon kai prosforas sto Lao mas (Nicosia: SEK, 1984), 220; Pankypriaki Ergatiki Omonspondia (PEO) Conference Report (Nicosia: Pyrsos Publicalions, 1983), 114-54. Trade union density refers to the proportion of workers who are in unions as a percentage of the labour force. In Cyprus this stands at 60 per cent of the labour force (compared with 30 per cent in the UK) and was influenced by the rapid economic growth of the southern Cyprus economy from the mid-1970s onwards which resulted in periodic sectoral labour scarcity. Unions are an important source of labour recruitment. Another is immigrant labour (see P. Panayiotopoulos, 'The Cypriot Clothing Industry', The Cyprus Review, 4, 1 (1992) 110-15).
95. For a comparably disastrous attempt by 'stages theory' to address the 'national question', see 'The National Question and the Left in Sri Lanka', The South Asia Bulletin, 7, 2 (1987), 23-47.
96. Sinomospondia Ergaton Kyprou, SEK 1944-1984, 26-7.
97. P. Loizos, 'A Struggle for Meaning: Reactions to Disaster Amongst Cypriot Refugees', Disasters, 1, 1 (1977), 234.
98. C. Zarecky, 'The Cypriot Government's Efforts for the 1974 Refugees and their Consequences' (Swansea: B.Sc Econ Thesis, Centre for Development Studies, 1991); R. Zetter, 'Rehousing the Greek-Cypriot Refugees from 1974: A Study of Institutional Access and Labelling' (Brighton: Ph.D. Thesis, Institute of Development Studies, University of Sussex, 1987).
99. C. Zarecky, 'The Cypriot Government's Efforts for the 1974 Refugees and their Consequences' (Swansea: B.Sc Econ Thesis, Centre for Development Studies, 1991); R. Zetter, 'Rehousing the Greek-Cypriot Refugees from 1974: A Study of Institutional Access and Labelling' (Brighton: Ph.D. Thesis, Institute of Development Studies, University of Sussex, 1987).
100. Panayiotopoulos, 'The Cypriot Clothing Industry', 77-125; R. Zetter, 'Refugees and Forced Migrants as Development Resources: The Greek-Cypriot Refugees from 1974', Cyprus Review, 4, 1 (1992), 7-39; E. Mavros, 'A Critical Review of Economic Development in Cyprus', The Cyprus Review, 1, 1 (1989), 11-66; Republic of Cyprus, Public Information Office, Cyprus Economic Development 1960-1980 (Nicosia: Government Printers, 1981).
101. Panayiotopoulos, 'The Cypriot Clothing Industry', 77-125; R. Zetter, 'Refugees and Forced Migrants as Development Resources: The Greek-Cypriot Refugees from 1974', Cyprus Review, 4, 1 (1992), 7-39; E. Mavros, 'A Critical Review of Economic Development in Cyprus', The Cyprus Review, 1, 1 (1989), 11-66; Republic of Cyprus, Public Information Office, Cyprus Economic Development 1960-1980 (Nicosia: Government Printers, 1981).
102. Panayiotopoulos, 'The Cypriot Clothing Industry', 77-125; R. Zetter, 'Refugees and Forced Migrants as Development Resources: The Greek-Cypriot Refugees from 1974', Cyprus Review, 4, 1 (1992), 7-39; E. Mavros, 'A Critical Review of Economic Development in Cyprus', The Cyprus Review, 1, 1 (1989), 11-66; Republic of Cyprus, Public Information Office, Cyprus Economic Development 1960-1980 (Nicosia: Government Printers, 1981).
103. Panayiotopoulos, 'The Cypriot Clothing Industry', 77-125; R. Zetter, 'Refugees and Forced Migrants as Development Resources: The Greek-Cypriot Refugees from 1974', Cyprus Review, 4, 1 (1992), 7-39; E. Mavros, 'A Critical Review of Economic Development in Cyprus', The Cyprus Review, 1, 1 (1989), 11-66; Republic of Cyprus, Public Information Office, Cyprus Economic Development 1960-1980 (Nicosia: Government Printers, 1981).
104. Panayiotopoulos, 'Cyprus: The Developmental State', 13-55; C. Papageorgiou, Oikonimiki anaptixi kai prosfiyes sti metapolemiki Kyprou', Politis, 66 (1984), 19-24; F. Theodorou, 'Kypriakos Kapitalismos', Deltio Sizitiseos, 2 (1977), 8-13.
105. Panayiotopoulos, 'Cyprus: The Developmental State', 13-55; C. Papageorgiou, Oikonimiki anaptixi kai prosfiyes sti metapolemiki Kyprou', Politis, 66 (1984), 19-24; F. Theodorou, 'Kypriakos Kapitalismos', Deltio Sizitiseos, 2 (1977), 8-13.
106. Panayiotopoulos, 'Cyprus: The Developmental State', 13-55; C. Papageorgiou, Oikonimiki anaptixi kai prosfiyes sti metapolemiki Kyprou', Politis, 66 (1984), 19-24; F. Theodorou, 'Kypriakos Kapitalismos', Deltio Sizitiseos, 2 (1977), 8-13.
107. P. Loizos, 'Notes on Future Anthropological Research in Cyprus', in M. Dimen and E. Friedl (eds.), Regional Variation in Modern Greece and Cyprus: Towards a Perspective on the Ethnography of Greece (New York: Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 268, 1976), 361; Attalides, Cyprus, Nationalism, 189; The 'New Cyprus Association' in a compilation, draws the conclusion that the 'Cyprus problem' cannot be understood as an internal problem (emphasis in original) but rather as substantially the result of external actions. Pollis, 'Colonialism and Neo-Colonialism', 47-77; N. Kadritzke and W. Wagner, 'Limitations of Independence in the case of Cyprus', in P. Worsley and P. Kitromilides (eds.), Small States in the Modern World: The Conditions of Survival (Nicosia: Stavrinides Press, 1979), 93-113; T. Nairn, 'Cyprus and the Theory of Nationalism', in Worsley and Kitromilides (eds.), Small States, 27-46; P. Worsley, 'Communalism and Nationalism in Cyprus', in Worsley and Kitromilides (eds.), Small States, 9-27. Mavratsas suggests that 'Cypriotness' as an ideology was a reaction against Greek nationalism and its discredited role in the division of Cyprus which was particularly strong during the decade following partition in 1974. It is argued that Greek nationalism, temporary in its decline, resurfaced as the dominant ideology in the mid-1980s and 1990s. The clash between the two discourses constitute the major battle over Greek Cypriot identity. C. Mavratsas, 'The Ideological Contest between Greek-Cypriot Nationalism and Cypriotism 1974-1995: Politics, Social Memory and Identity', Journal of Ethnic and Racial Studies, 20, 4 (1997), 717-37.
108. P. Loizos, 'Notes on Future Anthropological Research in Cyprus', in M. Dimen and E. Friedl (eds.), Regional Variation in Modern Greece and Cyprus: Towards a Perspective on the Ethnography of Greece (New York: Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 268, 1976), 361; Attalides, Cyprus, Nationalism, 189; The 'New Cyprus Association' in a compilation, draws the conclusion that the 'Cyprus problem' cannot be understood as an internal problem (emphasis in original) but rather as substantially the result of external actions. Pollis, 'Colonialism and Neo-Colonialism', 47-77; N. Kadritzke and W. Wagner, 'Limitations of Independence in the case of Cyprus', in P. Worsley and P. Kitromilides (eds.), Small States in the Modern World: The Conditions of Survival (Nicosia: Stavrinides Press, 1979), 93-113; T. Nairn, 'Cyprus and the Theory of Nationalism', in Worsley and Kitromilides (eds.), Small States, 27-46; P. Worsley, 'Communalism and Nationalism in Cyprus', in Worsley and Kitromilides (eds.), Small States, 9-27. Mavratsas suggests that 'Cypriotness' as an ideology was a reaction against Greek nationalism and its discredited role in the division of Cyprus which was particularly strong during the decade following partition in 1974. It is argued that Greek nationalism, temporary in its decline, resurfaced as the dominant ideology in the mid-1980s and 1990s. The clash between the two discourses constitute the major battle over Greek Cypriot identity. C. Mavratsas, 'The Ideological Contest between Greek-Cypriot Nationalism and Cypriotism 1974-1995: Politics, Social Memory and Identity', Journal of Ethnic and Racial Studies, 20, 4 (1997), 717-37.
109. P. Loizos, 'Notes on Future Anthropological Research in Cyprus', in M. Dimen and E. Friedl (eds.), Regional Variation in Modern Greece and Cyprus: Towards a Perspective on the Ethnography of Greece (New York: Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 268, 1976), 361; Attalides, Cyprus, Nationalism, 189; The 'New Cyprus Association' in a compilation, draws the conclusion that the 'Cyprus problem' cannot be understood as an internal problem (emphasis in original) but rather as substantially the result of external actions. Pollis, 'Colonialism and Neo-Colonialism', 47-77; N. Kadritzke and W. Wagner, 'Limitations of Independence in the case of Cyprus', in P. Worsley and P. Kitromilides (eds.), Small States in the Modern World: The Conditions of Survival (Nicosia: Stavrinides Press, 1979), 93-113; T. Nairn, 'Cyprus and the Theory of Nationalism', in Worsley and Kitromilides (eds.), Small States, 27-46; P. Worsley, 'Communalism and Nationalism in Cyprus', in Worsley and Kitromilides (eds.), Small States, 9-27. Mavratsas suggests that 'Cypriotness' as an ideology was a reaction against Greek nationalism and its discredited role in the division of Cyprus which was particularly strong during the decade following partition in 1974. It is argued that Greek nationalism, temporary in its decline, resurfaced as the dominant ideology in the mid-1980s and 1990s. The clash between the two discourses constitute the major battle over Greek Cypriot identity. C. Mavratsas, 'The Ideological Contest between Greek-Cypriot Nationalism and Cypriotism 1974-1995: Politics, Social Memory and Identity', Journal of Ethnic and Racial Studies, 20, 4 (1997), 717-37.
110. P. Loizos, 'Notes on Future Anthropological Research in Cyprus', in M. Dimen and E. Friedl (eds.), Regional Variation in Modern Greece and Cyprus: Towards a Perspective on the Ethnography of Greece (New York: Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 268, 1976), 361; Attalides, Cyprus, Nationalism, 189; The 'New Cyprus Association' in a compilation, draws the conclusion that the 'Cyprus problem' cannot be understood as an internal problem (emphasis in original) but rather as substantially the result of external actions. Pollis, 'Colonialism and Neo-Colonialism', 47-77; N. Kadritzke and W. Wagner, 'Limitations of Independence in the case of Cyprus', in P. Worsley and P. Kitromilides (eds.), Small States in the Modern World: The Conditions of Survival (Nicosia: Stavrinides Press, 1979), 93-113; T. Nairn, 'Cyprus and the Theory of Nationalism', in Worsley and Kitromilides (eds.), Small States, 27-46; P. Worsley, 'Communalism and Nationalism in Cyprus', in Worsley and Kitromilides (eds.), Small States, 9-27. Mavratsas suggests that 'Cypriotness' as an ideology was a reaction against Greek nationalism and its discredited role in the division of Cyprus which was particularly strong during the decade following partition in 1974. It is argued that Greek nationalism, temporary in its decline, resurfaced as the dominant ideology in the mid-1980s and 1990s. The clash between the two discourses constitute the major battle over Greek Cypriot identity. C. Mavratsas, 'The Ideological Contest between Greek-Cypriot Nationalism and Cypriotism 1974-1995: Politics, Social Memory and Identity', Journal of Ethnic and Racial Studies, 20, 4 (1997), 717-37.
111. P. Loizos, 'Notes on Future Anthropological Research in Cyprus', in M. Dimen and E. Friedl (eds.), Regional Variation in Modern Greece and Cyprus: Towards a Perspective on the Ethnography of Greece (New York: Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 268, 1976), 361; Attalides, Cyprus, Nationalism, 189; The 'New Cyprus Association' in a compilation, draws the conclusion that the 'Cyprus problem' cannot be understood as an internal problem (emphasis in original) but rather as substantially the result of external actions. Pollis, 'Colonialism and Neo-Colonialism', 47-77; N. Kadritzke and W. Wagner, 'Limitations of Independence in the case of Cyprus', in P. Worsley and P. Kitromilides (eds.), Small States in the Modern World: The Conditions of Survival (Nicosia: Stavrinides Press, 1979), 93-113; T. Nairn, 'Cyprus and the Theory of Nationalism', in Worsley and Kitromilides (eds.), Small States, 27-46; P. Worsley, 'Communalism and Nationalism in Cyprus', in Worsley and Kitromilides (eds.), Small States, 9-27. Mavratsas suggests that 'Cypriotness' as an ideology was a reaction against Greek nationalism and its discredited role in the division of Cyprus which was particularly strong during the decade following partition in 1974. It is argued that Greek nationalism, temporary in its decline, resurfaced as the dominant ideology in the mid-1980s and 1990s. The clash between the two discourses constitute the major battle over Greek Cypriot identity. C. Mavratsas, 'The Ideological Contest between Greek-Cypriot Nationalism and Cypriotism 1974-1995: Politics, Social Memory and Identity', Journal of Ethnic and Racial Studies, 20, 4 (1997), 717-37.
112. P. Loizos, 'Notes on Future Anthropological Research in Cyprus', in M. Dimen and E. Friedl (eds.), Regional Variation in Modern Greece and Cyprus: Towards a Perspective on the Ethnography of Greece (New York: Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 268, 1976), 361; Attalides, Cyprus, Nationalism, 189; The 'New Cyprus Association' in a compilation, draws the conclusion that the 'Cyprus problem' cannot be understood as an internal problem (emphasis in original) but rather as substantially the result of external actions. Pollis, 'Colonialism and Neo-Colonialism', 47-77; N. Kadritzke and W. Wagner, 'Limitations of Independence in the case of Cyprus', in P. Worsley and P. Kitromilides (eds.), Small States in the Modern World: The Conditions of Survival (Nicosia: Stavrinides Press, 1979), 93-113; T. Nairn, 'Cyprus and the Theory of Nationalism', in Worsley and Kitromilides (eds.), Small States, 27-46; P. Worsley, 'Communalism and Nationalism in Cyprus', in Worsley and Kitromilides (eds.), Small States, 9-27. Mavratsas suggests that 'Cypriotness' as an ideology was a reaction against Greek nationalism and its discredited role in the division of Cyprus which was particularly strong during the decade following partition in 1974. It is argued that Greek nationalism, temporary in its decline, resurfaced as the dominant ideology in the mid-1980s and 1990s. The clash between the two discourses constitute the major battle over Greek Cypriot identity. C. Mavratsas, 'The Ideological Contest between Greek-Cypriot Nationalism and Cypriotism 1974-1995: Politics, Social Memory and Identity', Journal of Ethnic and Racial Studies, 20, 4 (1997), 717-37.
113. P. Loizos, 'Notes on Future Anthropological Research in Cyprus', in M. Dimen and E. Friedl (eds.), Regional Variation in Modern Greece and Cyprus: Towards a Perspective on the Ethnography of Greece (New York: Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 268, 1976), 361; Attalides, Cyprus, Nationalism, 189; The 'New Cyprus Association' in a compilation, draws the conclusion that the 'Cyprus problem' cannot be understood as an internal problem (emphasis in original) but rather as substantially the result of external actions. Pollis, 'Colonialism and Neo-Colonialism', 47-77; N. Kadritzke and W. Wagner, 'Limitations of Independence in the case of Cyprus', in P. Worsley and P. Kitromilides (eds.), Small States in the Modern World: The Conditions of Survival (Nicosia: Stavrinides Press, 1979), 93-113; T. Nairn, 'Cyprus and the Theory of Nationalism', in Worsley and Kitromilides (eds.), Small States, 27-46; P. Worsley, 'Communalism and Nationalism in Cyprus', in Worsley and Kitromilides (eds.), Small States, 9-27. Mavratsas suggests that 'Cypriotness' as an ideology was a reaction against Greek nationalism and its discredited role in the division of Cyprus which was particularly strong during the decade following partition in 1974. It is argued that Greek nationalism, temporary in its decline, resurfaced as the dominant ideology in the mid-1980s and 1990s. The clash between the two discourses constitute the major battle over Greek Cypriot identity. C. Mavratsas, 'The Ideological Contest between Greek-Cypriot Nationalism and Cypriotism 1974-1995: Politics, Social Memory and Identity', Journal of Ethnic and Racial Studies, 20, 4 (1997), 717-37.
114. The 'invention of tradition' is presented by Trevor-Roper in the deconstruction of the Scottish kilt, seen by many as the cultural heart of Scottish identity. Far from being a traditional Highland dress, it was unknown before the eighteenth century. Trevor-Roper points to the differentiated 'clan tartans' as an invention 'designed as part of a pageant devised by Sir Walter Scott in honour of a Hanoverian King'. H. Trevor-Roper, 'The Invention of Tradition: The Highland Tradition of Scotland', in E. Hobsbawm and T. Ranger (eds.), The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 19. Hobsbawm and Ranger point to the role of the National Flag, the National Anthem and the National Emblem, all symbols which ostensibly proclaim the nation's identity and command respect and loyalty. Far from these symbols representing long historical claims to identity, they were very recent inventions, indeed, in the newly independent Commonwealth countries. Ibid., 12.
115. The 'invention of tradition' is presented by Trevor-Roper in the deconstruction of the Scottish kilt, seen by many as the cultural heart of Scottish identity. Far from being a traditional Highland dress, it was unknown before the eighteenth century. Trevor-Roper points to the differentiated 'clan tartans' as an invention 'designed as part of a pageant devised by Sir Walter Scott in honour of a Hanoverian King'. H. Trevor-Roper, 'The Invention of Tradition: The Highland Tradition of Scotland', in E. Hobsbawm and T. Ranger (eds.), The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 19. Hobsbawm and Ranger point to the role of the National Flag, the National Anthem and the National Emblem, all symbols which ostensibly proclaim the nation's identity and command respect and loyalty. Far from these symbols representing long historical claims to identity, they were very recent inventions, indeed, in the newly independent Commonwealth countries. Ibid., 12.
116. London Cypriots and other ethnic groups are living testament to the days of empire. One legacy of the expansive nature of British colonialism is that London is the most ethnically interspersed capital city in Europe and North America. London Research Study, London's Ethnic Minorities - One City Many Communities (London: London Research Study, 1994). London Cypriots live, work and study in a multi-racial multi-cultural environment composed of diverse peoples with common colonial histories.