Understanding ethnic conflict in Central Europe: An historical perspective

Nationalities Papers

Volumn 27, Issue 2, 1999, Pages 291-318

  Ingrao, Charles ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ETHNIC CONFLICT; HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE; WAR;

(CENTRAL); EUROPE;

ARTICLE; CONFLICT; CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY; EASTERN EUROPE; ECONOMICS; EDUCATION; ETHNIC GROUP; ETHNOLOGY; EUROPE; HISTORY; HOMICIDE; HUMAN; LANGUAGE; LEGAL ASPECT; MANAGEMENT; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; SOCIAL PROBLEM; UNITED STATES; VIOLENCE;

ANTHROPOLOGY, CULTURAL; CONFLICT (PSYCHOLOGY); ETHNIC GROUPS; EUROPE; EUROPE, EASTERN; HISTORY, 16TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 17TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 18TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 19TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HOMICIDE; HUMANS; LANGUAGE; POLICY MAKING; RACE RELATIONS; UNITED STATES; VIOLENCE;

EID: 0032845652     PISSN: 00905992     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/009059999109073     Document Type: Article

References (81)

1. Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: Economic Change and Military Conflict from 1500 to 2000 (New York: Random House, 1987), pp. 3-30.
2. Bernard Lewis, The Muslim Discovery of Europe (New York and London: Norton, 1982), pp 49-51, 56, 60-61, 91, 113, 226-229, 300, 302.
3. Catherine Bracewell, The Uskoks of Senj: Piracy, Banditry, and Holy War in the Sixteenth-Century Adriatic (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992), pp. 1-11, 21-23.
4. Gunther E. Rothenberg, The Austrian Military Border in Croatia 1522-1747 (Urbana: Illinois University Press, 1960), pp. 6, 13-39, 50, 59-60, 93-94; Wayne S. Vucinich, "The Serbs in the Habsburg Monarchy," The Austrian History Yearbook, Vol. 3, 1967, Part 2, p. 11.
5. Gunther E. Rothenberg, The Austrian Military Border in Croatia 1522-1747 (Urbana: Illinois University Press, 1960), pp. 6, 13-39, 50, 59-60, 93-94; Wayne S. Vucinich, "The Serbs in the Habsburg Monarchy," The Austrian History Yearbook, Vol. 3, 1967, Part 2, p. 11.
6. Maria Todorova, Imagining the Balkans (New York and London: Oxford, 1997), pp. 38-61.
7. Brian Hall, The Impossible Country: A Journey through the Last Days of Yugoslav (New York: Oxford 1994), p. 59; Gale Stokes, The Walls Came Tumbling Down: The Collapse of Communism in Eastern Europe (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), pp. 174, 210; Robert Kaplan, Balkan Ghosts: A Journey through History (New York: Vintage, 1993), pp. 6, 27, 137, 155, 182; Misha Glenny, The Rebirth of History: Eastern Europe in the Age of Democracy (London: Penguin, 1990), pp. 128, 130-131; The Fall of Yugoslavia: The Third Balkan War (New York: Penguin, 1992), pp. 82, 14-15, 47, 268, 283.
8. Brian Hall, The Impossible Country: A Journey through the Last Days of Yugoslav (New York: Oxford 1994), p. 59; Gale Stokes, The Walls Came Tumbling Down: The Collapse of Communism in Eastern Europe (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), pp. 174, 210; Robert Kaplan, Balkan Ghosts: A Journey through History (New York: Vintage, 1993), pp. 6, 27, 137, 155, 182; Misha Glenny, The Rebirth of History: Eastern Europe in the Age of Democracy (London: Penguin, 1990), pp. 128, 130-131; The Fall of Yugoslavia: The Third Balkan War (New York: Penguin, 1992), pp. 82, 14-15, 47, 268, 283.
9. Brian Hall, The Impossible Country: A Journey through the Last Days of Yugoslav (New York: Oxford 1994), p. 59; Gale Stokes, The Walls Came Tumbling Down: The Collapse of Communism in Eastern Europe (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), pp. 174, 210; Robert Kaplan, Balkan Ghosts: A Journey through History (New York: Vintage, 1993), pp. 6, 27, 137, 155, 182; Misha Glenny, The Rebirth of History: Eastern Europe in the Age of Democracy (London: Penguin, 1990), pp. 128, 130-131; The Fall of Yugoslavia: The Third Balkan War (New York: Penguin, 1992), pp. 82, 14-15, 47, 268, 283.
10. Brian Hall, The Impossible Country: A Journey through the Last Days of Yugoslav (New York: Oxford 1994), p. 59; Gale Stokes, The Walls Came Tumbling Down: The Collapse of Communism in Eastern Europe (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), pp. 174, 210; Robert Kaplan, Balkan Ghosts: A Journey through History (New York: Vintage, 1993), pp. 6, 27, 137, 155, 182; Misha Glenny, The Rebirth of History: Eastern Europe in the Age of Democracy (London: Penguin, 1990), pp. 128, 130-131; The Fall of Yugoslavia: The Third Balkan War (New York: Penguin, 1992), pp. 82, 14-15, 47, 268, 283.
11. Brian Hall, The Impossible Country: A Journey through the Last Days of Yugoslav (New York: Oxford 1994), p. 59; Gale Stokes, The Walls Came Tumbling Down: The Collapse of Communism in Eastern Europe (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), pp. 174, 210; Robert Kaplan, Balkan Ghosts: A Journey through History (New York: Vintage, 1993), pp. 6, 27, 137, 155, 182; Misha Glenny, The Rebirth of History: Eastern Europe in the Age of Democracy (London: Penguin, 1990), pp. 128, 130-131; The Fall of Yugoslavia: The Third Balkan War (New York: Penguin, 1992), pp. 82, 14-15, 47, 268, 283.
12. R. J. W. Evans, The Making of the Habsburg Monarchy 1550-1700 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979), pp. 39-140; Charles Ingrao, The Habsburg Monarchy, 1618-1815 (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994), pp. 34-39, 50-51, 84-87, 95-104.
13. R. J. W. Evans, The Making of the Habsburg Monarchy 1550-1700 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979), pp. 39-140; Charles Ingrao, The Habsburg Monarchy, 1618-1815 (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994), pp. 34-39, 50-51, 84-87, 95-104.
14. For an excellent profile of Jewish autonomy within the various Habsburg lands before emancipation, see Joseph Karniel, Die Toleranzpolitik Kaiser Josephs II (Gerlingen: Bleicher, 1986).
15. Jelavich, Balkans, pp. 39-62, 72-115.
16. Robert Donia and John Fine, Bosnia and Hercegovina: A Tradition Betrayed (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994), especially pp. 6-74; Noel Malcolm, Bosnia: A Short History (New York: New York University Press, 1994), pp. 1-12; Hall, Impossible Country, pp. 118-119, 143-144.
17. Robert Donia and John Fine, Bosnia and Hercegovina: A Tradition Betrayed (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994), especially pp. 6-74; Noel Malcolm, Bosnia: A Short History (New York: New York University Press, 1994), pp. 1-12; Hall, Impossible Country, pp. 118-119, 143-144.
18. Robert Donia and John Fine, Bosnia and Hercegovina: A Tradition Betrayed (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994), especially pp. 6-74; Noel Malcolm, Bosnia: A Short History (New York: New York University Press, 1994), pp. 1-12; Hall, Impossible Country, pp. 118-119, 143-144.
19. Arthur J. May, The Hapsburg Monarchy, 1867-1914 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1964), p. 487.
20. Fine and Donia, Bosnia and Hercegovina, pp. 53-70; Malcolm, Bosnia, pp. 119-136; Croat-Serb cooperation was especially evident in 1848 and in parliamentary politics after the Dual Compromise. István Deák, The Lawful Revolution: Louis Kossuth and the Hungarians 1848-1849 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978), pp. 126-129; Nicholas Miller, "Two Strategies in Serbian Politics in Croatia and Hungary before World War I," Nationalities Papers, Vol. 23, No. 2, 1995, pp. 327-345.
21. Fine and Donia, Bosnia and Hercegovina, pp. 53-70; Malcolm, Bosnia, pp. 119-136; Croat-Serb cooperation was especially evident in 1848 and in parliamentary politics after the Dual Compromise. István Deák, The Lawful Revolution: Louis Kossuth and the Hungarians 1848-1849 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978), pp. 126-129; Nicholas Miller, "Two Strategies in Serbian Politics in Croatia and Hungary before World War I," Nationalities Papers, Vol. 23, No. 2, 1995, pp. 327-345.
22. Fine and Donia, Bosnia and Hercegovina, pp. 53-70; Malcolm, Bosnia, pp. 119-136; Croat-Serb cooperation was especially evident in 1848 and in parliamentary politics after the Dual Compromise. István Deák, The Lawful Revolution: Louis Kossuth and the Hungarians 1848-1849 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978), pp. 126-129; Nicholas Miller, "Two Strategies in Serbian Politics in Croatia and Hungary before World War I," Nationalities Papers, Vol. 23, No. 2, 1995, pp. 327-345.
23. Fine and Donia, Bosnia and Hercegovina, pp. 53-70; Malcolm, Bosnia, pp. 119-136; Croat-Serb cooperation was especially evident in 1848 and in parliamentary politics after the Dual Compromise. István Deák, The Lawful Revolution: Louis Kossuth and the Hungarians 1848-1849 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978), pp. 126-129; Nicholas Miller, "Two Strategies in Serbian Politics in Croatia and Hungary before World War I," Nationalities Papers, Vol. 23, No. 2, 1995, pp. 327-345.
24. Namely: Serbia proper; the Peloponnesus and Thessaly (Greece); Wallachia and Moldavia (Romania); and Silistria (Bulgaria).
25. Hellmut Rößler, Graf Johann Philipp Stadion: Napoleons deutscher Gegenspieler (Vienna: Herold, 1966), pp. 297-298; Andreas Flitner, Politische Erziehung in Deutschland (Tübingen: M. Niemayer, 1957), pp. 57-64; Walter C. Langsam, The Napoleonic Wars and German Nationalism in Austria (New York: Columbia University Press, 1930), pp. 26, 58-59.
26. Hellmut Rößler, Graf Johann Philipp Stadion: Napoleons deutscher Gegenspieler (Vienna: Herold, 1966), pp. 297-298; Andreas Flitner, Politische Erziehung in Deutschland (Tübingen: M. Niemayer, 1957), pp. 57-64; Walter C. Langsam, The Napoleonic Wars and German Nationalism in Austria (New York: Columbia University Press, 1930), pp. 26, 58-59.
27. Hellmut Rößler, Graf Johann Philipp Stadion: Napoleons deutscher Gegenspieler (Vienna: Herold, 1966), pp. 297-298; Andreas Flitner, Politische Erziehung in Deutschland (Tübingen: M. Niemayer, 1957), pp. 57-64; Walter C. Langsam, The Napoleonic Wars and German Nationalism in Austria (New York: Columbia University Press, 1930), pp. 26, 58-59.
28. As has been suggested most recently by James Van Horn Melton, Absolutism and the 18th-Century Origins of Compulsory Schooling in Prussia and Austria (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), pp. 238-239.
29. Lewis Namier, 1848: The Revolution of the Intellectuals (New York: Oxford University Press, 1964), pp. 19-39, 113-51. The century-old myths of a Czech-German struggle at the beginning of the Thirty Years' War, and of the subsequent persecution of the Czechs and their culture, have since been debunked by Western scholars, most notably R. J. W. Evans, Habsburg Monarchy, pp. 198-203, 214, 229-231.
30. Lewis Namier, 1848: The Revolution of the Intellectuals (New York: Oxford University Press, 1964), pp. 19-39, 113-51. The century-old myths of a Czech-German struggle at the beginning of the Thirty Years' War, and of the subsequent persecution of the Czechs and their culture, have since been debunked by Western scholars, most notably R. J. W. Evans, Habsburg Monarchy, pp. 198-203, 214, 229-231.
31. Among the most notable national myths are: the Czech view of the Counter-Reformation as an instrument for imposing German language and culture; Serb historiography's refusal to acknowledge the role of Serbian state intelligence in the Sarajevo assassination or Četnik collaboration with the Nazis during World War II; the Greeks' collective amnesia about the presence and contributions of Salonika's huge Jewish, Turkish, and Bulgarian communities.
32. The best detailed accounts can be found in C. A. Macartney, Hungary and Her Successors: The Treaty of Trianon and Its Consequences, 1919-1937 (New York and London: Oxford University Press, 1937); et al., eds, Essays on World War I: Total War and Peacemaking, a Case Study on Trianon (New York: Brooklyn College, 1982); Béla Király and László Veszprémy, eds, Trianon and East Central Europe (Boulder, CO: Social Science Monographs, 1995); R. W. Seton-Watson, Treaty Revision and the Hungarian Frontiers (London: Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1934); Nina Almond, ed., The Treaty of St. Germain: Documentary History (New York: Stanford University Press, 1935); Ivo Lederer, Yugoslavia at the Paris Peace Conference: Study in Frontier Making (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1938).
33. The best detailed accounts can be found in C. A. Macartney, Hungary and Her Successors: The Treaty of Trianon and Its Consequences, 1919-1937 (New York and London: Oxford University Press, 1937); et al., eds, Essays on World War I: Total War and Peacemaking, a Case Study on Trianon (New York: Brooklyn College, 1982); Béla Király and László Veszprémy, eds, Trianon and East Central Europe (Boulder, CO: Social Science Monographs, 1995); R. W. Seton-Watson, Treaty Revision and the Hungarian Frontiers (London: Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1934); Nina Almond, ed., The Treaty of St. Germain: Documentary History (New York: Stanford University Press, 1935); Ivo Lederer, Yugoslavia at the Paris Peace Conference: Study in Frontier Making (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1938).
34. The best detailed accounts can be found in C. A. Macartney, Hungary and Her Successors: The Treaty of Trianon and Its Consequences, 1919-1937 (New York and London: Oxford University Press, 1937); et al., eds, Essays on World War I: Total War and Peacemaking, a Case Study on Trianon (New York: Brooklyn College, 1982); Béla Király and László Veszprémy, eds, Trianon and East Central Europe (Boulder, CO: Social Science Monographs, 1995); R. W. Seton-Watson, Treaty Revision and the Hungarian Frontiers (London: Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1934); Nina Almond, ed., The Treaty of St. Germain: Documentary History (New York: Stanford University Press, 1935); Ivo Lederer, Yugoslavia at the Paris Peace Conference: Study in Frontier Making (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1938).
35. The best detailed accounts can be found in C. A. Macartney, Hungary and Her Successors: The Treaty of Trianon and Its Consequences, 1919-1937 (New York and London: Oxford University Press, 1937); et al., eds, Essays on World War I: Total War and Peacemaking, a Case Study on Trianon (New York: Brooklyn College, 1982); Béla Király and László Veszprémy, eds, Trianon and East Central Europe (Boulder, CO: Social Science Monographs, 1995); R. W. Seton-Watson, Treaty Revision and the Hungarian Frontiers (London: Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1934); Nina Almond, ed., The Treaty of St. Germain: Documentary History (New York: Stanford University Press, 1935); Ivo Lederer, Yugoslavia at the Paris Peace Conference: Study in Frontier Making (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1938).
36. The best detailed accounts can be found in C. A. Macartney, Hungary and Her Successors: The Treaty of Trianon and Its Consequences, 1919-1937 (New York and London: Oxford University Press, 1937); et al., eds, Essays on World War I: Total War and Peacemaking, a Case Study on Trianon (New York: Brooklyn College, 1982); Béla Király and László Veszprémy, eds, Trianon and East Central Europe (Boulder, CO: Social Science Monographs, 1995); R. W. Seton-Watson, Treaty Revision and the Hungarian Frontiers (London: Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1934); Nina Almond, ed., The Treaty of St. Germain: Documentary History (New York: Stanford University Press, 1935); Ivo Lederer, Yugoslavia at the Paris Peace Conference: Study in Frontier Making (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1938).
37. The best detailed accounts can be found in C. A. Macartney, Hungary and Her Successors: The Treaty of Trianon and Its Consequences, 1919-1937 (New York and London: Oxford University Press, 1937); et al., eds, Essays on World War I: Total War and Peacemaking, a Case Study on Trianon (New York: Brooklyn College, 1982); Béla Király and László Veszprémy, eds, Trianon and East Central Europe (Boulder, CO: Social Science Monographs, 1995); R. W. Seton-Watson, Treaty Revision and the Hungarian Frontiers (London: Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1934); Nina Almond, ed., The Treaty of St. Germain: Documentary History (New York: Stanford University Press, 1935); Ivo Lederer, Yugoslavia at the Paris Peace Conference: Study in Frontier Making (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1938).
38. Piotr Wandycz, France and her Eastern Allies, 1919-1925: French-Czechoslovak-Polish Relations from the Paris Peace Conference to Locarno (Minneapolis: Minnesota University Press, 1962), pp. 11-14; David Kelly, "Woodrow Wilson and the Creation of Czechoslovakia," East European Quarterly, Vol. 26, No. 2, 1992, pp. 186-197; Roy Bridge, The Habsburg Monarchy among the Great Powers, 1815-1918 (New York: Berg, 1990), pp. 367-368.
39. Piotr Wandycz, France and her Eastern Allies, 1919-1925: French-Czechoslovak-Polish Relations from the Paris Peace Conference to Locarno (Minneapolis: Minnesota University Press, 1962), pp. 11-14; David Kelly, "Woodrow Wilson and the Creation of Czechoslovakia," East European Quarterly, Vol. 26, No. 2, 1992, pp. 186-197; Roy Bridge, The Habsburg Monarchy among the Great Powers, 1815-1918 (New York: Berg, 1990), pp. 367-368.
40. Piotr Wandycz, France and her Eastern Allies, 1919-1925: French-Czechoslovak-Polish Relations from the Paris Peace Conference to Locarno (Minneapolis: Minnesota University Press, 1962), pp. 11-14; David Kelly, "Woodrow Wilson and the Creation of Czechoslovakia," East European Quarterly, Vol. 26, No. 2, 1992, pp. 186-197; Roy Bridge, The Habsburg Monarchy among the Great Powers, 1815-1918 (New York: Berg, 1990), pp. 367-368.
41. Gunther E. Rothenberg, The Army of Francis Joseph (West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press, 1976), pp. 216-217, 221; C.A. Macartney, The Habsburg Empire, 1790-1918 (New York: Macmillan, 1969), pp. 812-813; Kelly, "Woodrow Wilson and the Creation of Czechoslovakia," p. 190.
42. Gunther E. Rothenberg, The Army of Francis Joseph (West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press, 1976), pp. 216-217, 221; C.A. Macartney, The Habsburg Empire, 1790-1918 (New York: Macmillan, 1969), pp. 812-813; Kelly, "Woodrow Wilson and the Creation of Czechoslovakia," p. 190.
43. Gunther E. Rothenberg, The Army of Francis Joseph (West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press, 1976), pp. 216-217, 221; C.A. Macartney, The Habsburg Empire, 1790-1918 (New York: Macmillan, 1969), pp. 812-813; Kelly, "Woodrow Wilson and the Creation of Czechoslovakia," p. 190.
44. Alan Sked, The Decline and Fall of the Habsburg Empire, 1815-1918 (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), pp. 259-260.
45. Wandycz, France and Her Eastern Allies, pp. 22, 74, 186, 370.
46. Stephen Fischer-Galati, "National Minority Problems in Romania: Continuity or Change?" Nationalities Papers, Vol. 22, No. 1, 1994, pp. 71-81; Gabriele Simoncini, "The Polyethnic State: National Minorities in Interbellum Poland," pp. 5-23; Bruce Pauley, The Habsburg Legacy, 1867-1939 (Huntington, NY: Krieger, 1977), pp. 68-127.
47. Stephen Fischer-Galati, "National Minority Problems in Romania: Continuity or Change?" Nationalities Papers, Vol. 22, No. 1, 1994, pp. 71-81; Gabriele Simoncini, "The Polyethnic State: National Minorities in Interbellum Poland," pp. 5-23; Bruce Pauley, The Habsburg Legacy, 1867-1939 (Huntington, NY: Krieger, 1977), pp. 68-127.
48. Stephen Fischer-Galati, "National Minority Problems in Romania: Continuity or Change?" Nationalities Papers, Vol. 22, No. 1, 1994, pp. 71-81; Gabriele Simoncini, "The Polyethnic State: National Minorities in Interbellum Poland," pp. 5-23; Bruce Pauley, The Habsburg Legacy, 1867-1939 (Huntington, NY: Krieger, 1977), pp. 68-127.
49. Frank Littlefield, Germany and Yugoslavia, 1933-1941 (Boulder: East European Monographs, 1988), p. 71. Another estimate reduces the number of Serb generals to 156.
50. Nor did the Irish parallel escape Hitler, who cited it in the fateful meeting with Chamberlain at Berchtesgarden on 15 September 1938. Documents on German Foreign Policy, 1918-1945 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1949-1964), Series D, II: Germany and Czechoslovakia, 1937-1938, p. 797.
51. Nor did the Irish parallel escape Hitler, who cited it in the fateful meeting with Chamberlain at Berchtesgarden on 15 September 1938. Documents on German Foreign Policy, 1918-1945 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1949-1964), Series D, II: Germany and Czechoslovakia, 1937-1938, p. 797.
52. T. C. W. Blanning, Joseph II (New York and London: Longman, 1994), p. 206. An assessment that was echoed by Emperor Francis Joseph, who once described his empire as "a refuge, an asylum for all those fragmented nations scattered over Central Europe who, if left to their own resources, would lead a pitiful existence, becoming the playthings of more powerful neighbors." Alan Palmer, Twilight of the Habsburgs: The Life and Times of Emperor Francis Joseph (London: Weidenfeld & Nicholson, 1994), p. 349.
53. T. C. W. Blanning, Joseph II (New York and London: Longman, 1994), p. 206. An assessment that was echoed by Emperor Francis Joseph, who once described his empire as "a refuge, an asylum for all those fragmented nations scattered over Central Europe who, if left to their own resources, would lead a pitiful existence, becoming the playthings of more powerful neighbors." Alan Palmer, Twilight of the Habsburgs: The Life and Times of Emperor Francis Joseph (London: Weidenfeld & Nicholson, 1994), p. 349.
54. David Good, Economic Transformations in East and Central Europe: Legacies from the Past and Policies for the Future (New York: Routledge, 1994), pp. 5-7.
55. Anthony Molho, "The Jewish Community of Salonika: The End of a Long History," Diaspora, 1991, pp. 100-122.
56. Jews also constituted a third of Hungary's engineers, nearly half of its doctors and lawyers, and a substantial majority of Vienna's physicians (59%), industrialists (63%), lawyers (65%), and financiers (73%). Bruce Pauley, From Prejudice to Persecution: A History of Austrian Anti-Semitism (Chapel Hill: North Carolina University Press, 1992), pp.45, 62-63; István Deák, Beyond Nationalism: A Social and Political History of the Habsburg Officer Corps 1848-1918 (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990), pp. 133, 172, 174-175, 196; Rothenberg, Army of Francis Joseph, pp. 128, 151.
57. Jews also constituted a third of Hungary's engineers, nearly half of its doctors and lawyers, and a substantial majority of Vienna's physicians (59%), industrialists (63%), lawyers (65%), and financiers (73%). Bruce Pauley, From Prejudice to Persecution: A History of Austrian Anti-Semitism (Chapel Hill: North Carolina University Press, 1992), pp.45, 62-63; István Deák, Beyond Nationalism: A Social and Political History of the Habsburg Officer Corps 1848-1918 (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990), pp. 133, 172, 174-175, 196; Rothenberg, Army of Francis Joseph, pp. 128, 151.
58. Jews also constituted a third of Hungary's engineers, nearly half of its doctors and lawyers, and a substantial majority of Vienna's physicians (59%), industrialists (63%), lawyers (65%), and financiers (73%). Bruce Pauley, From Prejudice to Persecution: A History of Austrian Anti-Semitism (Chapel Hill: North Carolina University Press, 1992), pp.45, 62-63; István Deák, Beyond Nationalism: A Social and Political History of the Habsburg Officer Corps 1848-1918 (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990), pp. 133, 172, 174-175, 196; Rothenberg, Army of Francis Joseph, pp. 128, 151.
59. R. J. W. Evans, "The Habsburg Monarchy and the Coming War," in R. J. W. Evans and Hartmut Pogge von Strandmann, eds, The Coming of the First World War (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988), p. 50. Of those Habsburg Jews, 30,000-40,000 were killed. Pauley, From Prejudice to Persecution, p. 63.
60. R. J. W. Evans, "The Habsburg Monarchy and the Coming War," in R. J. W. Evans and Hartmut Pogge von Strandmann, eds, The Coming of the First World War (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988), p. 50. Of those Habsburg Jews, 30,000-40,000 were killed. Pauley, From Prejudice to Persecution, p. 63.
61. "Anti-Semitism was a good means to get ahead in politics, but once one was on top, it was of no further use; it was the 'sport of the rabble'." Quoted in Richard Geehr, Karl Lueger: Mayor of Fin de Siècle Vienna (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1990), pp. 171-207.
62. Robert H. Keyserlingk, Austria in World War II: An Anglo-American Dilemma (Kingston and Montréal: Toronto University Press, 1988), pp. 87-121; "Austro-Hungary's Revival during World War II: Anglo-American Planning for the Danube Region," Études Danubiennes, Vol. 2, No. 1, 1987, pp. 54-64.
63. Robert H. Keyserlingk, Austria in World War II: An Anglo-American Dilemma (Kingston and Montréal: Toronto University Press, 1988), pp. 87-121; "Austro-Hungary's Revival during World War II: Anglo-American Planning for the Danube Region," Études Danubiennes, Vol. 2, No. 1, 1987, pp. 54-64.
64. Peter Jordan, Central Union of Europe (New York: McBride, 1944), pp. 17, 49, 93-94.
65. Which is not to say that the new borders were the most accurate possible or uniformly successful in uniting all ethnic groups. Discontinuous concentrations of Poles (in Ukraine), Romanians (in Transylvania), Serbs (in Bosnia and Croatia), and Turks (in Bulgaria) were only the most obvious examples of the impossibility of erecting ethnically precise nation states.
66. In the words of Secretary of State Stimson, "the Balkans and their troubles were beyond the sphere of United States action." Philip E. Mosely, "Hopes and Failures: American Policy toward East Central Europe, 1941-1947," in Stephen D. Kertesz, ed., The Fate of East Central Europe: Hopes and Failures of American Foreign Policy (Notre Dame, IN: Notre Dame University Press, 1956), pp. 64, 68-69.
67. Alfred-Maurice de Zayas, A Terrible Revenge: The Ethnic Cleansing of the East European Germans, 1944-1950 (New York: St Martin's Press, 1986).
68. Tito's achievement in institutionalizing a balance of power within Yugoslavia is emphasized in Pedro Ramet, Nationalism and Federalism in Yugoslavia, 1963-1983 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1984); for a detailed account of the Albanian coup, see Harold Lydall, Yugoslavia in Crisis (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), pp. 196-212.
69. Tito's achievement in institutionalizing a balance of power within Yugoslavia is emphasized in Pedro Ramet, Nationalism and Federalism in Yugoslavia, 1963-1983 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1984); for a detailed account of the Albanian coup, see Harold Lydall, Yugoslavia in Crisis (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), pp. 196-212.
70. Thus the lament of one senior U.S. State Department official that his European colleagues consider him "crazy" for his advocacy of multiethnic solutions.
71. Anthony Lewis, "Winking at Karadžić " The New York Times, 28 October 1996, p. A19.
72. Fragmentary contemporary accounts of the battle suggest that it was a draw or perhaps even a Pyrrhic victory for the Serbs. Timothy Judah, The Serbs (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996).
73. Pauley, From Prejudice to Persecution, pp. 302-315.
74. Miranda Vickers, Between Serb and Albanian: A History of Kosovo (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), pp. 145-46; Milčo Lalkov, "Die westlichen Randgebiete in den Bulgarischen-Jugoslawischen Beziehungen 1944-1948," in Valeria Heuberger et al., eds, Nationen, Nationalitäten, Minderheiten: Probleme des Nationalismus in Jugoslawien, Ungarn, Rumänien, der Tschechoslowakei, Bulgarien, Polen, der Ukraine, Italien und Österreich, 1945-1990 (Munich: Oldenbourg, 1994), pp. 207-208.
75. Miranda Vickers, Between Serb and Albanian: A History of Kosovo (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), pp. 145-46; Milčo Lalkov, "Die westlichen Randgebiete in den Bulgarischen-Jugoslawischen Beziehungen 1944-1948," in Valeria Heuberger et al., eds, Nationen, Nationalitäten, Minderheiten: Probleme des Nationalismus in Jugoslawien, Ungarn, Rumänien, der Tschechoslowakei, Bulgarien, Polen, der Ukraine, Italien und Österreich, 1945-1990 (Munich: Oldenbourg, 1994), pp. 207-208.
76. C. A. Macartney and A. W. Palmer, Independent Eastern Europe: A History (New York: St Martin's Press, 1966), pp. 451-452.
77. Glenny, Rebirth of History, pp. 141, 215-219.
78. In a conversation in March 1995, the current U.S. ambassador to one major western European capital went so far as to recount oft-repeated expressions of regret by NATO and EU officials about having Greece as a member state.
79. Nor has the utility of a "special relationship" among Albania, Macedonia, and Bulgaria escaped officials at the U.S. State Department, whether during the tenure of Ambassador Robert Frowick in Skopje or, more recently, as officials have grappled with the need to preserve Macedonia's integrity in the event that the ongoing Kosovo conflict spreads.
80. Indeed, eastern and Central Europe still hold residual minority populations of between thirty and forty million people, which is roughly equal to the number purged over the past century. Arnold Suppan, "Nationalitäten und nationale Minderheiten," in Veleria Heuberger et al. eds, Brennpunkt Osteuropa: Minderheiten im Kreuzfeuer des Nationalismus (Munich: Oldenbourg, 1996), p. 10; Géza Jeszensky, "Nations and Minorities in Europe," The Hungarian Observer, May 1994, p. 6.
81. Indeed, eastern and Central Europe still hold residual minority populations of between thirty and forty million people, which is roughly equal to the number purged over the past century. Arnold Suppan, "Nationalitäten und nationale Minderheiten," in Veleria Heuberger et al. eds, Brennpunkt Osteuropa: Minderheiten im Kreuzfeuer des Nationalismus (Munich: Oldenbourg, 1996), p. 10; Géza Jeszensky, "Nations and Minorities in Europe," The Hungarian Observer, May 1994, p. 6.