The truth and reconciliation commission on business and apartheid: A critical evaluation

African Affairs

Volumn 98, Issue 392, 1999, Pages 373-391

  Nattrass, Nicoli ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

APARTHEID; DEMOCRATIC TRANSITION; HUMAN RIGHTS;

SOUTH AFRICA;

EID: 0032835873     PISSN: 00019909     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a008045     Document Type: Article

References (97)

1. M. Mamdani, 'A diminished truth', Siyaya, 3 (Spring 1998).
2. Mamdani, 'A diminished truth', p. 40.
3. Mamdani, 'A diminished truth', p. 40.
4. I was brought into the process at a late stage to help make sense of the vast pile of submissions to the TRC on business. Simon Segal (who played a major role in facilitating the work of the TRC with regard to the business hearings) and Russell Ally also made inputs into the drafting process. The eventual chapter was an amalgamation of these documents and further analysis by TRC commissioners.
5. The argument was hardened and radicalized over various drafts, and more quotations from submissions were added, often at the cost of argumentative coherence. Sloppy final editing occurred in many places, with the result that text often appeared in the form of quotations (such as the last paragraph of the quote in paragraph 18, p. 22; the last two paragraphs of the quote in paragraph 19, p. 23; and the entire quoted section of paragraph 89, p. 40 of the TRC Report, vol. 4). Factual inaccuracies were also inserted-for example, the phrase 'the mining industry's opposition to the colour bar' which appeared in the final draft I saw, had been changed to 'the mining industry's support of the colour bar' (TRC, Report, vol. 4, p. 34, paragraph 68). Economic terminology was also altered, for example 'long-run productivity growth' became 'long run productivity and growth' (p. 19, paragraph 7) and 'monopsonistic' became 'monopolistic' (p. 33, paragraph 62). This suggests that the final chapter was produced at the eleventh hour, by an editor without any economics training who was trying to marry conflicting viewpoints in the Commission.
6. Truth and Reconciliation Commission of South Africa (TRC), Truth and Reconciliation Commission of South Africa Report, Vol. 4 (Distributed by Juta, Cape Town, 1998), paragraph 161, p. 58.
7. TRC, Truth and Reconciliation Commission of South Africa Report, Vol. 5, Ch. 8: Recommendations, pp. 318-19, paragraph 39.
8. The TRC likewise took a very critical view of those who had loaned money to the apartheid government and recommended that 'responsibility for the repayment of the previous government's "odious debt" be critically reconsidered' (TRC, Report, vol. 5, p. 319, paragraph 39). In so doing, the TRC accepted the argument made by the Apartheid Debt Co-ordinating Committee that no loan could avoid the 'institutional contamination' of having helped to 'sustain and reproduce the structures, practices and life-styles normalized by apartheid'. The TRC regarded all loans, irrespective of the purpose to which they were put, as equally implicated, and hence equally deserving of cancellation.
9. See N. Kritz (ed.), Transitional Justice: How emerging democracies reckon with former regimes, volumes 1-3 (United States Institute of Peace, Washington, DC, 1995) for a wide-ranging analysis of the many truth commissions which have occurred internationally over the past 20 years.
10. For an overview of the race-class debate see D. Posel, 'Rethinking the race-class debate in South African historiography', Social Dynamics, 9, 1 (1983); C. Saunders, The Making of the South African Past: major historians on race and class (David Philip, Cape Town, 1998); and N. Nattrass, 'Controversies about capitalism and apartheid in South Africa: an economic perspective', Journal of Southern African Studies, 17, 4 (1991), pp. 654-77.
11. For an overview of the race-class debate see D. Posel, 'Rethinking the race-class debate in South African historiography', Social Dynamics, 9, 1 (1983); C. Saunders, The Making of the South African Past: major historians on race and class (David Philip, Cape Town, 1998); and N. Nattrass, 'Controversies about capitalism and apartheid in South Africa: an economic perspective', Journal of Southern African Studies, 17, 4 (1991), pp. 654-77.
12. For an overview of the race-class debate see D. Posel, 'Rethinking the race-class debate in South African historiography', Social Dynamics, 9, 1 (1983); C. Saunders, The Making of the South African Past: major historians on race and class (David Philip, Cape Town, 1998); and N. Nattrass, 'Controversies about capitalism and apartheid in South Africa: an economic perspective', Journal of Southern African Studies, 17, 4 (1991), pp. 654-77.
13. For an analysis of the comparative performance of the South African economy, see T. Moll, 'Did the apartheid economy fail?', Journal of Southern African Studies, 17, 2 (June 1991), pp. 271-91.
14. See the review of this debate in N. Gregor, Daimler Bern in the Third Reich (Yale University Press, New Haven, CT, 1998). He argues that both sides of the debate misunderstand the role of Daimler-Benz.
15. See e.g. B. Bunting, The Rise of the South African Reich (Penguin, Harmondsworth, UK, 1964), and more recently, K. Asmal, L. Asmal and R. Roberts, Reconciliation through Truth: a reckoning of apartheid's criminal governance (David Philip, Cape Town, 1996 and 1997).
16. See e.g. B. Bunting, The Rise of the South African Reich (Penguin, Harmondsworth, UK, 1964), and more recently, K. Asmal, L. Asmal and R. Roberts, Reconciliation through Truth: a reckoning of apartheid's criminal governance (David Philip, Cape Town, 1996 and 1997).
17. Asmal et al., Reconciliation through Truth, p. 155. They argue that: 'In South Africa, an accurate account of the number of deaths through apartheid's private and public industrial labour regimes and its prison labour arrangements is unavailable even today. Yet in the late middle 1980s Anglo American directors privately discussed the fear that their company would be "remembered as the I. G. Farben of Apartheid", a reference to the company that through slave labour became the industrial backbone of the Third Reich. This is not to suggest that the South African mining corporations under apartheid used prison labour. But they exploited the cruel migrant labour system and made unabashed use of apartheid labour, and actively peddled its availability, as an advantage to international investors' (pp. 155-6).
18. See J. Borkin, The Crime and Punishment of I. G. Farben (The Free Press, New York, 1978), Chapter 8.
19. See, for example, Afrikaner Handelsinstituut (AHI), Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (1997); Council of South African Banks (COSAB), The Banking Industry: Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission for the Period March 1960 to May 1994 (1997); Johannesburg Chamber of Commerce and Industry, Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (October 1997); South African Chamber of Business (SACOB), Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission on the Role of ASSOCOM, the FCI and SACOB under the Apartheid System (October 1997) ; Steel and Engineering Industries Federation of South Africa (SEIFSA), SEIFSA Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (October 1997); and Textile Federation, Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission on the Role of Organised Business Under the Apartheid System (October 1997).
20. See, for example, Afrikaner Handelsinstituut (AHI), Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (1997); Council of South African Banks (COSAB), The Banking Industry: Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission for the Period March 1960 to May 1994 (1997); Johannesburg Chamber of Commerce and Industry, Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (October 1997); South African Chamber of Business (SACOB), Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission on the Role of ASSOCOM, the FCI and SACOB under the Apartheid System (October 1997); Steel and Engineering Industries Federation of South Africa (SEIFSA), SEIFSA Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (October 1997); and Textile Federation, Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission on the Role of Organised Business Under the Apartheid System (October 1997).
21. See, for example, Afrikaner Handelsinstituut (AHI), Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (1997); Council of South African Banks (COSAB), The Banking Industry: Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission for the Period March 1960 to May 1994 (1997); Johannesburg Chamber of Commerce and Industry, Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (October 1997); South African Chamber of Business (SACOB), Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission on the Role of ASSOCOM, the FCI and SACOB under the Apartheid System (October 1997); Steel and Engineering Industries Federation of South Africa (SEIFSA), SEIFSA Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (October 1997); and Textile Federation, Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission on the Role of Organised Business Under the Apartheid System (October 1997).
22. See, for example, Afrikaner Handelsinstituut (AHI), Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (1997); Council of South African Banks (COSAB), The Banking Industry: Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission for the Period March 1960 to May 1994 (1997); Johannesburg Chamber of Commerce and Industry, Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (October 1997); South African Chamber of Business (SACOB), Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission on the Role of ASSOCOM, the FCI and SACOB under the Apartheid System (October 1997); Steel and Engineering Industries Federation of South Africa (SEIFSA), SEIFSA Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (October 1997); and Textile Federation, Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission on the Role of Organised Business Under the Apartheid System (October 1997).
23. See, for example, Afrikaner Handelsinstituut (AHI), Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (1997); Council of South African Banks (COSAB), The Banking Industry: Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission for the Period March 1960 to May 1994 (1997); Johannesburg Chamber of Commerce and Industry, Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (October 1997); South African Chamber of Business (SACOB), Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission on the Role of ASSOCOM, the FCI and SACOB under the Apartheid System (October 1997) ; Steel and Engineering Industries Federation of South Africa (SEIFSA), SEIFSA Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (October 1997); and Textile Federation, Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission on the Role of Organised Business Under the Apartheid System (October 1997).
24. See, for example, Afrikaner Handelsinstituut (AHI), Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (1997); Council of South African Banks (COSAB), The Banking Industry: Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission for the Period March 1960 to May 1994 (1997); Johannesburg Chamber of Commerce and Industry, Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (October 1997); South African Chamber of Business (SACOB), Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission on the Role of ASSOCOM, the FCI and SACOB under the Apartheid System (October 1997) ; Steel and Engineering Industries Federation of South Africa (SEIFSA), SEIFSA Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (October 1997); and Textile Federation, Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission on the Role of Organised Business Under the Apartheid System (October 1997).
25. See, for example, Anglo American Corporation, Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (1997); Old Mutual, Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (October 1997); South African Breweries (SAB), Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (October 1997); and Tongaat-Hulett, Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (October 1997) .
26. See, for example, Anglo American Corporation, Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (1997); Old Mutual, Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (October 1997); South African Breweries (SAB), Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (October 1997); and Tongaat-Hulett, Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (October 1997) .
27. See, for example, Anglo American Corporation, Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (1997); Old Mutual, Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (October 1997); South African Breweries (SAB), Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (October 1997); and Tongaat-Hulett, Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (October 1997) .
28. See, for example, Anglo American Corporation, Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (1997); Old Mutual, Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (October 1997); South African Breweries (SAB), Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (October 1997); and Tongaat-Hulett, Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (October 1997) .
29. See, for example, A. Rosholt, Submission to the TRC (October 1997) and A. Rupert, Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (October 1997).
30. See, for example, A. Rosholt, Submission to the TRC (October 1997) and A. Rupert, Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (October 1997).
31. See, for example, African National Congress (ANC), Submission to the Special Truth and Reconciliation Commission Hearing on the Role of Business (November 1997) (available on http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/misc/trcbus.html); Anti-Apartheid Movement Archives Committee, Submission from the Anti-Apartheid Movement Archives Committee to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission's Hearing on the Business Sector (11 -13 November 1997); Apartheid Debt Co-ordinating Committee, No title; Black Management Forum (BMF), Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission by the Black Management Forum: The role of established (white) business in the violations of human rights (October 1997); The Congress of South African Trade Unions (COSATU), COSATU Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission Hearings on Business and Apartheid (November 1997) (available on http:/www.cosatu.org.za/ doss/trc-sub.htm); South African Communist Parry (SACP), Harvesting Apartheid: the complicity of business in racial oppression (October 1997); and S. Terreblanche, Testimony before the TRC during the Special Hearing on the Role of the Business Sector (11 November, 1997).
32. See, for example, African National Congress (ANC), Submission to the Special Truth and Reconciliation Commission Hearing on the Role of Business (November 1997) (available on http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/misc/trcbus.html); Anti-Apartheid Movement Archives Committee, Submission from the Anti-Apartheid Movement Archives Committee to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission's Hearing on the Business Sector (11-13 November 1997); Apartheid Debt Co-ordinating Committee, No title; Black Management Forum (BMF), Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission by the Black Management Forum: The role of established (white) business in the violations of human rights (October 1997); The Congress of South African Trade Unions (COSATU), COSATU Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission Hearings on Business and Apartheid (November 1997) (available on http:/www.cosatu.org.za/ doss/trc-sub.htm); South African Communist Parry (SACP), Harvesting Apartheid: the complicity of business in racial oppression (October 1997); and S. Terreblanche, Testimony before the TRC during the Special Hearing on the Role of the Business Sector (11 November, 1997).
33. See, for example, African National Congress (ANC), Submission to the Special Truth and Reconciliation Commission Hearing on the Role of Business (November 1997) (available on http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/misc/trcbus.html); Anti-Apartheid Movement Archives Committee, Submission from the Anti-Apartheid Movement Archives Committee to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission's Hearing on the Business Sector (11-13 November 1997); Apartheid Debt Co-ordinating Committee, No title; Black Management Forum (BMF), Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission by the Black Management Forum: The role of established (white) business in the violations of human rights (October 1997); The Congress of South African Trade Unions (COSATU), COSATU Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission Hearings on Business and Apartheid (November 1997) (available on http:/www.cosatu.org.za/ doss/trc-sub.htm); South African Communist Parry (SACP), Harvesting Apartheid: the complicity of business in racial oppression (October 1997); and S. Terreblanche, Testimony before the TRC during the Special Hearing on the Role of the Business Sector (11 November, 1997).
34. See, for example, African National Congress (ANC), Submission to the Special Truth and Reconciliation Commission Hearing on the Role of Business (November 1997) (available on http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/misc/trcbus.html); Anti-Apartheid Movement Archives Committee, Submission from the Anti-Apartheid Movement Archives Committee to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission's Hearing on the Business Sector (11 -13 November 1997); Apartheid Debt Co-ordinating Committee, No title; Black Management Forum (BMF), Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission by the Black Management Forum: The role of established (white) business in the violations of human rights (October 1997); The Congress of South African Trade Unions (COSATU), COSATU Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission Hearings on Business and Apartheid (November 1997) (available on http:/www.cosatu.org.za/ doss/trc-sub.htm); South African Communist Parry (SACP), Harvesting Apartheid: the complicity of business in racial oppression (October 1997); and S. Terreblanche, Testimony before the TRC during the Special Hearing on the Role of the Business Sector (11 November, 1997).
35. See, for example, African National Congress (ANC), Submission to the Special Truth and Reconciliation Commission Hearing on the Role of Business (November 1997) (available on http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/misc/trcbus.html); Anti-Apartheid Movement Archives Committee, Submission from the Anti-Apartheid Movement Archives Committee to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission's Hearing on the Business Sector (11 -13 November 1997); Apartheid Debt Co-ordinating Committee, No title; Black Management Forum (BMF), Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission by the Black Management Forum: The role of established (white) business in the violations of human rights (October 1997); The Congress of South African Trade Unions (COSATU), COSATU Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission Hearings on Business and Apartheid (November 1997) (available on http:/www.cosatu.org.za/doss/trc-sub.htm); South African Communist Parry (SACP), Harvesting Apartheid: the complicity of business in racial oppression (October 1997); and S. Terreblanche, Testimony before the TRC during the Special Hearing on the Role of the Business Sector (11 November, 1997).
36. See, for example, African National Congress (ANC), Submission to the Special Truth and Reconciliation Commission Hearing on the Role of Business (November 1997) (available on http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/misc/trcbus.html); Anti-Apartheid Movement Archives Committee, Submission from the Anti-Apartheid Movement Archives Committee to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission's Hearing on the Business Sector (11 -13 November 1997); Apartheid Debt Co-ordinating Committee, No title; Black Management Forum (BMF), Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission by the Black Management Forum: The role of established (white) business in the violations of human rights (October 1997); The Congress of South African Trade Unions (COSATU), COSATU Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission Hearings on Business and Apartheid (November 1997) (available on http:/www.cosatu.org.za/doss/trc-sub.htm); South African Communist Parry (SACP), Harvesting Apartheid: the complicity of business in racial oppression (October 1997); and S. Terreblanche, Testimony before the TRC during the Special Hearing on the Role of the Business Sector (11 November, 1997).
37. See, for example, African National Congress (ANC), Submission to the Special Truth and Reconciliation Commission Hearing on the Role of Business (November 1997) (available on http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/misc/trcbus.html); Anti-Apartheid Movement Archives Committee, Submission from the Anti-Apartheid Movement Archives Committee to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission's Hearing on the Business Sector (11 -13 November 1997); Apartheid Debt Co-ordinating Committee, No title; Black Management Forum (BMF), Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission by the Black Management Forum: The role of established (white) business in the violations of human rights (October 1997); The Congress of South African Trade Unions (COSATU), COSATU Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission Hearings on Business and Apartheid (November 1997) (available on http:/www.cosatu.org.za/ doss/trc-sub.htm); South African Communist Parry (SACP), Harvesting Apartheid: the complicity of business in racial oppression (October 1997); and S. Terreblanche, Testimony before the TRC during the Special Hearing on the Role of the Business Sector (11 November, 1997).
38. See Terreblanche, Testimony before the TRC, pp. 21-4 for a discussion of the key elements which he argues promoted structural exploitation under apartheid.
39. ANC, Submission, pp. 1-2.
40. Terreblanche, Testimony, pp. 3-4.
41. Terreblanche, Testimony, p. 26.
42. S. Terreblanche, Fax to Dr Fazel Randera, 8 July 1998, p. 1.
43. See, for example, ANC, Submission; COSATU, COSATU Submission, and SACP, Harvesting Apartheid.
44. See, for example, ANC, Submission; COSATU, COSATU Submission, and SACP, Harvesting Apartheid.
45. See, for example, ANC, Submission; COSATU, COSATU Submission, and SACP, Harvesting Apartheid.
46. On Afrikaner business, see TRC, Report, vol. 4, pp. 30-2; on the mining industry see pp. 33-6; on the armaments industry see pp. 36-7; and on the role of business in the 1980s see pp. 46-51.
47. BMF, Submission, p. 3.
48. COSATU, COSATU Submission, p. 9, paragraph 21.
49. TRC, Report, vol. 4, p. 58, paragraph 164.
50. See Articles 7 and 20 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
51. A similar argument was made by the TRC with respect to the inferior education provided for children in farm schools: 'This failure to educate children in a modern economy is itself a human rights abuse, for which the commercial farming sector must take at least some of the responsibility' (TRC, Report, vol. 4, p. 29, paragraph 47). Given that farm schools were part of an education system for which the state was ultimately responsible, this argument effectively places some of the blame for state failure on business.
52. The TRC thus concluded that: 'Business failed in the hearings to take responsibility for its involvement in state security initiatives specifically designed to sustain apartheid rule. This included involvement in the National Security Management System.' (TRC, Report, vol. 4, p. 58, paragraph 166.)
53. Old Mutual, Submission, p. 1.
54. Anglo American, for example, complained that hostility from the National Party at times affected its ability to do business and South African Breweries (SAB) complained of a similar bias which forced them out of the retail liquor, wines and spirits industries (see Anglo American, Submission, p. 13, and SAB, Submission, p. 15).
55. Anglo American, for example, complained that hostility from the National Party at times affected its ability to do business and South African Breweries (SAB) complained of a similar bias which forced them out of the retail liquor, wines and spirits industries (see Anglo American, Submission, p. 13, and SAB, Submission, p. 15).
56. Tongaat-Hulett, Submission, p, 2.
57. See SEIFSA, SEIFSA Submission; SACOB, Submission; and the Johannesburg Chamber of Commerce and Industry, Submission.
58. See SEIFSA, SEIFSA Submission; SACOB, Submission; and the Johannesburg Chamber of Commerce and Industry, Submission.
59. See SEIFSA, SEIFSA Submission; SACOB, Submission; and the Johannesburg Chamber of Commerce and Industry, Submission.
60. Rupert, Submission.
61. Anglo-American, Submission, p, 4.
62. SACOB, Submission, p. 26.
63. Simkins, Business and Human Rights, 1960-1994: Prepared for the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (1997), paragraphs 16-18.
64. SANLAM, Submission, paragraph 5.
65. TRC, Report, vol. 4, p. 53, paragraph 143.
66. A. Bernstein, Submission to the Truth Commission (1997).
67. Bernstein, Submission, p. 18.
68. The main application of the modernization argument with respect to South Africa was made by O'Dowd, who predicted in the mid-1960s that economic growth would bring about apartheid's demise (M. O'Dowd, 'The Stages of Economic Growth and the Future of South Africa' (1966) reprinted in A. Leftwich (ed.), Economic Growth and Political Change in South Africa (Allison & Busby, London, 1974)).
69. Bernstein, Submission, p. 9.
70. TRC, Report, vol. 4, p. 54, paragraph 148.
71. Anglo-American, Submission, p. 4.
72. Anglo-American, Submission, p. 12.
73. AHI, Submission, p. 4.
74. I was responsible for introducing the notion of orders of involvement into the chapter. The basic concept survived in the final chapter, although in a shortened and far less equivocal way.
75. TRC, Report, vol. 4, p. 24, paragraph 23.
76. TRC, Report, vol. 4, p. 33, paragraph 63.
77. TRC, Report, vol. 4, pp. 33-5.
78. TRC, Report, vol. 4, pp. 28-9.
79. TRC, Report, vol, 4, p. 25, paragraph 26.
80. TRC, Report, vol. 4, p. 25, paragraph 28.
81. Armaments Corporation of South Africa (Armscor), Armscor's Draft Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (October 1997), paragraph 1.6.
82. TRC, Report, vol. 4, p. 37, paragraph 78.
83. Quoted in Borkin, The Crime and Punishment of I. G. Farben, p. 150.
84. TRC, Report, vol. 4, pp. 24-6.
85. TRC, Report, vol. 4, p. 26, paragraph 31.
86. TRC, Report, vol. 4, p. 26, paragraph 32.
87. TRC, Report, vol. 4, pp. 26-7, paragraph 33.
88. The same holds true with regard to the TRC's call for consideration to be given to the cancellation of the apartheid debt. All loans, whether to the electricity supply commission in order to electrify townships or to the army to oppress civilians, are, by implication, regarded as equally tainted-and irrespective of who gave the loan.
89. The fact that the head of the TRC, Archbishop Desmond Tutu, was a strong supporter of disinvestment and sanctions during the apartheid era, may have been a contributing factor to the TRC's position on the matter.
90. See Nattrass, 'Controversies about Capitalism and Apartheid', for an overview of the debate.
91. Starting in 1959, with the publication of Lipset's seminal article on the relationship between economic development and democracy, a body of literature has emerged endorsing Lipset's conclusion that the more well-to-do a nation, the greater the chances that it will sustain democracy (S. M. Lipset, 'Economic Development and Democracy' (1959), reprinted in S. M. Lipset, Political Man: the social bases of politics (Heinemann, London, 1960). Recent work by Przeworski et al. (A. Przeworski, M. Alvarez, J. Cheibub & F. Limongi) 'What makes democracy endure?', Journal of Democracy, 7, 1 (January 1996) found that democracies last on average 8-5 years in countries with per-capita incomes under $1,000, and become 'impreg-nable' at incomes over $6,000. They also found that economic growth was necessary for the success of democracy, with democracies being more likely to die if they stagnate (p. 42).
92. Starting in 1959, with the publication of Lipset's seminal article on the relationship between economic development and democracy, a body of literature has emerged endorsing Lipset's conclusion that the more well-to-do a nation, the greater the chances that it will sustain democracy (S. M. Lipset, 'Economic Development and Democracy' (1959), reprinted in S. M. Lipset, Political Man: the social bases of politics (Heinemann, London, 1960). Recent work by Przeworski et al. (A. Przeworski, M. Alvarez, J. Cheibub & F. Limongi) 'What makes democracy endure?', Journal of Democracy, 7, 1 (January 1996) found that democracies last on average 8-5 years in countries with per-capita incomes under $1,000, and become 'impreg-nable' at incomes over $6,000. They also found that economic growth was necessary for the success of democracy, with democracies being more likely to die if they stagnate (p. 42).
93. TRC, Report, vol. 4, p. 53, paragraph 143.
94. This informal grouping of powerful businessmen is centred around the mining houses of Anglo-American and Anglo-Vaal. Brenthurst is the name of the Oppenheimer family home.
95. Armscor pointed out in its submission to the TRC that it 'has come to be described as a national asset by the Minister of Defense, Minister Joe Modise and by the Chair of the Joint Standing Committee of Defense, Mr Tony Yengeni' (Armscor, Armscor's Draft Submission, paragraph, 1.7).
96. As Borkin puts it: 'The construction of I. G. Auschwitz has assured I. G. a unique place in business history. . . . I. G. reduced slave labour to a consumable raw material, a human ore from which the mineral of life was systematically extracted. When no usable energy remained, the living dross was shipped to the gassing chambers and cremation furnaces of the extermination centre at Birkenau, where the S.S. recycled it into the German war economy-gold teeth for the Reichsbank, hair for mattresses, and fat for soap. Even the moans of the doomed became a work incentive, exhorting the remaining inmates to greater effort.' (The Trial and Punishment of I. G. Farben, p. 126).
97. For example, in a TRC press release it was stated: 'these hearings are not a witch-hunt. Individual human rights abuses have been tabled at other hearings. The business hearing is not the forum for this' (information from Simon Segal, undated).