Vegetarian diet: Panacea for modern lifestyle diseases?

QJM: An International Journal of Medicine

Volumn 92, Issue 9, 1999, Pages 531-544

  Segasothy, M ^a   Phillips, P A ^b  

^a FLINDERS UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

^b FLINDERS UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CARBOHYDRATE; CHOLESTEROL; GLUCOSE; INSULIN; LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN CHOLESTEROL; TRIACYLGLYCEROL;

ANGINA PECTORIS; BODY WEIGHT; BREAST CANCER; CARBOHYDRATE INTAKE; CHOLESTEROL BLOOD LEVEL; COLON CANCER; COLON DIVERTICULOSIS; CORONARY ARTERY ATHEROSCLEROSIS; CORONARY ARTERY BLOOD FLOW; CORONARY RISK; CYANOCOBALAMIN DEFICIENCY; DIABETES MELLITUS; DIETARY FIBER; DISEASE DURATION; DISEASE SEVERITY; FAT INTAKE; GALLSTONE; GLUCOSE BLOOD LEVEL; HUMAN; INSULIN BLOOD LEVEL; LEGUME; LIFESTYLE; NOTE; PLANT; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RETINA MACULA AGE RELATED DEGENERATION; SOYBEAN; SPINACH; STROKE; TRIACYLGLYCEROL BLOOD LEVEL; VEGETARIAN DIET;

EID: 0032821586     PISSN: 00335622     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/qjmed/92.9.531     Document Type: Note

References (197)

1. Position of the American Dietetic Association: Vegetarian diets-technical support paper. J Am Diet Assoc 1988; 88:352-5.
2. Segasothy M, Bennett WM. Vegetarian diet: Relevance in renal disease. Review Article. Nephrology 1997; 3:397-405.
3. Simpson HCR, Simpson RW, Lousley S, Carter RD, Geekie M, Hockaday TD, et al. A high carbohydrate leguminous fiber diet improves all aspects of diabetic control. Lancet 1981; 1:1-5.
4. Jenkins DJA, Goff DV, Leeds AR, Alberti KGMM, Wolever TMS, Gassull MA, et al. Unabsorbable carbohydrate and diabetes: Decreased post-prandial hyperglycemia. Lancet 1976; 2:172-4.
5. Anderson JW. High fiber diets in diabetes and hypertriglyceridemia. Can Med Assoc J 1960; 123:975-9.
6. Hjollund E, Pedersen O, Richelsen B, Beck-Nielsen H, Sorensen N. Increased insulin binding to adipocytes and monocytes and increased insulin sensitivity of glucose transport and metabolism in adipocytes from noninsulin dependent diabetes after a low fat, high starch/high fiber diet. Metabolism 1983; 32:1067-75.
7. Anderson JW. High fiber diets for obese diabetic men on insulin therapy: short-term and long-term effects. In: Vahouny GV, ed. Dietary Fiber and Obesity. New York, Alan R Liss, 1985.
8. Anderson JW. Plant fiber and blood pressure. Ann Intern Med 1983; 98:842-6.
9. Kiehm TG, Anderson JW, Ward K. Beneficial effects of a high carbohydrate, high fiber diet on hyperglycemic diabetic men. Am J Clin Nutr 1976; 29:895-9.
10. Anderson JW, Ward K. High carbohydrate, high fiber diets for insulin-treated men with diabetes mellitus. Am J Clin Nutr 1979; 32:2312-21.
11. Anderson JW, Chen WJL, Sieling B. Hypolipidemic effects of high carbohydrate, high fiber diets. Metabolism 1980; 29:551-7.
12. Vecchia CL, Decarli A, Pagano R. Vegetable consumption and risk of chronic disease. Epidemiology 1998; 9:208-10.
13. Fraser GE, Sabate J, Beeson WL, Strahan TM. A possible protective effect of nut consumption on risk of coronary heart disease. Arch Intern Med 1992; 152:1416-24.
14. Prineas RJ, Kushi LH, Folsom AR, Bostick RM, Wu Y. Walnuts and serum lipids (Letter). N Engl J Med 1993; 329:359.
15. Singh RB, Rastogi SS, Verma R, Bolaki L, Singh R. An Indian experiment with nutritional modulation in acute myocardial infarction. Am J Cardiol 1992; 69:879-85.
16. Singh RB, Rastogi SS, Verma R, Laxmi B, Singh R, Ghosh S, et al. Randomised controlled trial of cardioprotective diet in patients with recent acute myocardial infarction: results of one year follow up. Br Med J 1992; 304:1015-19.
17. Ellis FR, Sanders TAB. Angina and vegan diet. Am Heart J 1977; 93:803-5.
18. Ornish DM, Scherwitz LW, Doody RS, Kesten D, McLanahan SM, Brown SE, et al. Effects of stress management training and dietary changes in treating ischemic heart disease. JAMA 1983; 249:54-9.
19. Ornish D, Brown SB, Scherwitz LW, Billings JH, Armstrong WT, Ports TA, et al. Can lifestyle changes reverse coronary heart disease? Lancet 1990; 336:129-33.
20. Gould KL, Ornish D, Kirkeeide R, Brown S, Stuart Y, Buchi M, et al. Improved stenosis geometry by quantitative coronary arteriography after vigorous risk factor modification. Am J Cardiol 1992; 69:845-53.
21. Verlangieri AJ, Kapeghian JC, El-Dean S, Bush M. Fruit and vegetable consumption and cardiovascular disease mortality. Med Hypotheses 1985; 16:7-15.
22. Acheson RM, Williams DRR. Does consumption of fruit and vegetables protect against stroke? Lancet 1983; i:1191-3.
23. Manson JE, Willett WC, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Speizer FE, Hennekens CH. Vegetable and fruit consumption and incidence of stroke in women. Circulation (Abstract) 1994; 89:932.
24. Gillman MV, Cupples LA, Gagnon D, Posner BM, Ellison RC, Castelli WP, et al. Protective effect of fruits and vegetables on development of stroke in men. JAMA 1995; 723:1113-17.
25. Tobian L, Lange JM, Johnson MA, MacNeill DA, Wilke TJ, Ulm KM, et al. High-K diets markedly reduce brain hemorrhage and infarcts, death rate and mesenteric arteriolar hypertrophy in stroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive rats. J Hypertens 1986; 4 (Suppl 5):205-7S.
26. Gey KF, Stahelin HB, Eichholzer M. Poor plasma status of carotene and vitamin C is associated with higher mortality from ischemic heart disease and stroke: Basel prospective study. Clin Investig 1993; 71:3-6.
27. Gale CR, Martyn CN, Winter PD, Cooper C. Vitamin C and risk of death from stroke and coronary heart disease in cohort of elderly people. Br Med J 1995; 310:1563-6.
28. Manson JE, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC, Colditz GA, Speizer FE, Hennekens CH. Antioxidant vitamin consumption and incidence of stroke in women. Circulation (Abstract) 1993; 87:678.
29. Simon JA, Fong J, Bernert JT, Browner WS. Serum fatty acids and risk of stroke. Stroke 1995; 26:778-82.
30. Sacks FM, Pfeffer MA, Moye LA, Rouleau JL, Rutherford JD, Cole TG, et al, for the Cholesterol and Recurrent Events Trial Investigators. The effect of pravastatin on coronary events after myocardial infarction in patients with average cholesterol levels. N Engl J Med 1996; 335:1001-9.
31. The Lipid Study Group. Design features and baseline characteristics of the LIPID (Long-Term Intervention with Pravastatin in Ischemic Disease) Study: a randomized trial in patients with previous acute myocardial infarction and/or unstable angina pectoris. Am J Cardiol 1995; 76:474-9.
32. Scandinavian Simvastatin Survival Study Group: Randomized trial of cholesterol lowering in 4444 patients with coronary heart disease: The Scandinavian Simvastatin Survival Study (4S). Lancet 1994; 344: 1383-9.
33. McGee D, Reed D, Stemmerman G, Rhoads G, Yano K, Feinleib M. The relationship of dietary fat and cholesterol to mortality in 10 years: the Honolulu Heart Program. Int J Epidemiol 1985; 14:97-105.
34. Gillman MV, Cupples LA, Millen BE, Ellison RC, Wolf PA. Inverse association of dietary fat with development of ischemic stroke in men. JAMA 1997; 278:2145-50.
35. Sirtori CR, Agradi E, Mantero O, Cotti F, Gatti E. Soybean protein diet in the treatment of type II hyperlipidemia. Lancet 1977; 1:275-7.
36. Sirtori CR, Gatti E, Mantero O, Conti F, Agradi E, Tremoli E, et al. Clinical experience with the soybean protein diet in the treatment of hypercholesterolemia. Am J Clin Nutr 1979; 32:1645-58.
37. Goldberg AP, Lim A, Kolar JB, Grundhauser JJ, Steinke FH, Schonfeld GS. Soybean protein independently lowers plasma cholesterol levels in primary hypercholesterolemia. Atherosclerosis 1982; 43:355-67.
38. Anderson JW, Johnstone BM, Cook-Newell ME. Meta-analysis of the effects of soy protein intake on serum lipids. N Engl J Med 1995; 333:276-82.
39. Carroll KK, Kurowska EM. Soy consumption and cholesterol reduction; review of animal and human studies. J Nutr 1995; 125 (Suppl):594-7S.
40. Potter SM. Overview of proposed mechanisms for the hypocholesterolemic effect of soy. J Nutr 1995; 125 (Suppl):606-11S.
41. Mathur KS, Khan MA, Sharma RD. Hypocholesterolemic effect of Bengal gram. Br Med J 1968; 1:30-1.
42. Bingwen L, Zhaofeny W, Wanshen L, Rongjue Z. Effects of bean meal on serum cholesterol and triglycerides. Chinese Med J 1981; 94:455-8.
43. Jenkins DJ, Wong GS, Patten R, Bird J, Hall M, Buckley GL, et al. Leguminous seeds in the dietary management of hyperlipidemia. Am J Clin Nutr 1983; 38:567-73.
44. Grande F, Anderson JT, Keys A. Effect of carbohydrates and leguminal seeds, wheat and potatoes on serum cholesterol concentration in man. J Nutr 1965; 86:313-7.
45. Dreher ML, Maher CV, Kearney P. The traditional and emerging role of nuts in healthful diets. Nutr Rev 1996; 54:241-5.
46. Sabate J, Fraser GE, Burke K, Knutsen S, Bennett H, Lindsted KD. Effects of walnuts on serum lipid levels and blood pressure in normal men. N Engl J Med 1993; 328:603-7.
47. Abbey M, Noakes M, Belling GB, Nestel PJ. Partial replacement of saturated fatty acids with almonds or walnuts lowers total plasma cholesterol and low-density-lipoprotein cholesterol. J Clin Nutr 1994; 59:995-9.
48. Curb JD, Wergowski G, Dobbs J, Abbott RD, Huang B. Comparison of lipid levels in humans on a macadamia nut based high monounsaturated fat diet to their levels on a moderate fat diet and a high fat 'typical American' diet. Presented at the American Heart Association's Scientific Conference on Efficacy of Hypocholesterolemic Dietary Interventions, 3-5 May 1995, San Antonio, Texas.
49. Spiller GA, Jenkins DJA, Cragen LN, Gates JE, Bosello O, Berra K, et al. Effect of a diet high in monounsaturated fat from almonds on plasma cholesterol and lipoproteins. J Am Coll Nutr 1992; 11:126-30.
50. Anderson JW, Story L, Sieling B, Chen WJ, Petro MS, Story J. Hypocholesterolemic effects of oat-bran or bean intake for hypercholesterolemic men. Am J Clin Nutr 1984; 40:1146-55.
51. Newman RK, Lewis SE, Newman CW, Boik RJ, Ramage RT. Hypocholesterolemic effect of barley foods on healthy men. Nutr Rep Int 1989; 39:749-60.
52. Federation of American Society for Experimental Biology. Physiological effects and health consequences of dietary fiber. Washington DC, Department of Health and Human Services, 1987.
53. Ripsin CM, Keenan JM, Jacobs DR, Elmer PJ, Welch RR, Van Horn L, et al. Oat products and lipid lowering: a meta-analysis. JAMA 1992; 267:3317-25.
54. Davidson MH, Dugan LD, Burns JH, Bova J. The hypocholesterolemic effects of beta-glucan in oatmeal and oat bran: a dose-controlled study. JAMA 1991; 265:833-9.
55. Jenkins DJA, Wolever TMS, Rao V, Hegele RA, Mitchell SJ, Ransom TPP, et al. Effect on blood lipids of very high intakes of fiber in diets low in saturated fat and cholesterol. N Engl J Med 1993; 329:21-6.
56. Abdulla M, Andersson I, Asp N-G, Berthelsen K, Birkhed D, Dencker I, et al. Nutrient intake and health status of vegans. Chemical analyses of diet using duplicate portion sampling technique. Am J Clin Nutr 1981; 34:2464-77.
57. Sanders TAB. The health and nutritional status of vegans. Plant Foods Man 1978; 2:181-93.
58. Miller DS, Mumford P. The nutritive value of Western vegan and vegetarian diets. Plant Foods Human Nutr 1972; 2:201-13.
59. Woods PD, Stafanick ML, Dreon DM, Hewitt BF, Garay SC, William PT, et al. Changes in plasma lipids and lipoproteins in overweight men during weight loss through dieting as compared with exercise. N Engl J Med 1988; 319:1173-8.
60. Schettler G. Cardiovascular diseases during and after World War II: a comparison of Federal Republic of Germany with other European countries. Prev Med 1979; 8:581-90.
61. Wong ND, Cupples A, Ostfeld AM, Levy D, Kannel WB. Risk factors for long term coronary prognosis after initial myocardial infarction: The Framingham Study. Am J Epidemiol 1989; 130:469-80.
62. Bagatell CA, Heymafield SB. Effect of meal size on myocardial oxygen requirements: implications for postmyocardial infarction diets. Am J Clin Nutr 1984; 39:421-6.
63. National Diet-Heart Study Research Group: The National Diet-Heart Study final report. Circulation 1968; 37 (Suppl 1):1-26.
64. Cagguila A, Christakis G, Farrand M, Hulley S, Johnson R, Lasser N, et al. The Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial (MRFIT): IV, Intervention on blood lipids. Prev Med 1981; 10:443-75.
65. Kannel WB. New perspectives of cardiovascular risk factors. Am Heart J 1987; 147:213-19.
66. Steinberg D, Parthasarathy S, Carew TE, Khoo JC, Witztum JL. Beyond cholesterol: modification of low density lipoprotein that increase its atherogenecity. N Engl J Med 1989; 320:915-24.
67. Jessup W, Rankin SM, De Whalley CV, Hoult JR, Scott J, Leake DS. Alphatocopherol consumption during low-density lipoprotein oxidation. Biochem J 1990; 265:399-405.
68. Sato K, Niki E, Shimasaki H. Free radical-mediated chain oxidation of low density lipoproteins and its synergistic inhibition of vitamin E and vitamin C. Arch Biochem Biophys 1990; 279:402-5.
69. Jialal I, Norkus EP, Cristol L, Grundy SM. beta-Carotene inhibits theoxidative modification of low-density lipoprotein. Biochem Biophys Acta 1991; 1086:134-8.
70. De Whalley CV, Rankin SM, Hoult JRS, Jessup W, Leake DS. Flavanoids inhibit the oxidative modification of low density lipoproteins by macrophages. Biochem Pharmacol 1990;39:1743-50.
71. Stampfer MJ, Hennekens CH, Manson JE, Colditz GA, Rosner B, Willett WC. Vitamin E consumption and the risk of coronary disease in women. N Engl J Med 1993; 328:1444-9.
72. Rimm EB, Stampfer MJ, Ascherio A, Giovannucci E, Colditz GA, Willett WC. Vitamin E consumption and the risk of coronary heart disease in men. N Engl J Med 1993; 328:1450-6.
73. Knekt P, Reunanen A, Jarvinen R, Seppanen R, Heliovaara M, Aromaa A. Antioxidant vitamin intake and coronary mortality in a longitudinal population study. Am J Epidemiol 1994; 139:1180-90.
74. Kushi LH, Folsom AR, Prineas RJ, Mink PJ, Wu Y, Bostick RM. Dietary antioxidant vitamins and death from coronary heart disease in postmenopausal women. N Engl J Med 1996; 334:1156-62.
75. Gey KF, Moser UK, Jordan P, Stahelin HB, Eichholzer M, Ludin E. Increased risk of cardiovascular disease at suboptimal plasma concentrations of essential antioxidants: an epidemiological update with special attention to carotene and vitamin C. Am J Clin Nutr 1993; 57 (Suppl 5):787-97S.
76. Morris DL, Kritchevsky SB, Davis LE. Serum carotenoids and coronary heart disease. The Lipid Research Clinics Coronary Primary Prevention Trial and Follow-up Study. JAMA 1994; 272:1439-41.
77. Enstrom JE, Kanim LE, Klein MA. Vitamin C intake and mortality among a sample of the United States population. Epidemiology 1992; 3:194-202.
78. Hertog MG, Feskens EJ, Hollman PC, Katan MB, Kromhout D. Dietary antioxidant flavanoids and the risk of coronary heart disease: the Zutphen elderly study. Lancet 1993; 342:1007-11.
79. Hertog MG, Kromhout D, Aravanis C, Blackburn H, Buzina R, Fidanza F, et al. Flavanoid intake and long-term risk of coronary heart disease and cancer in the seven countries study. Arch Intern Med 1995; 155:381-6.
80. Knekt P, Jarvinen R, Reunanen A, Maatela J. Flavanoid intake and coronary mortality in Finland: a cohort study. Br Med J 1996; 312:478-81.
81. Hertog MGL, Feskens EJM, Kromhout D. Antioxidant flavanoids and coronary heart disease risk (Letter). Lancet 1997; 349:699.
82. The effect of vitamin E and beta carotene on the incidence of lung cancer and other cancers in male smokers. Alpha-Tocopherol Beta Carotene Cancer Prevention Study Group. N Engl J Med 1994; 330:1029-35.
83. Blot WJ, Li JY, Taylor PR, Guo W, Dawsey S, Wang GQ, et al. Nutriion intervention trials in Linxian, China: Supplementation with specific vitamin/mineral combinations, cancer incidence and disease-specific mortality in the general population. J Natl Cancer Int 1993; 85:1483-92.
84. Greenberg ER, Baron JA, Stukel TA, Stevens MM, Mandel JS, Spencer SK, et al. A clinical trial of beta carotene to prevent basal-cell and squamous-cell cancers of the skin. The Skin Cancer Prevention Study Group. N Engl J Med 1990; 323:789-95.
85. Wilson TS, Datta SB, Murrell JS, Andrews CT. Relation of vitamin C levels to mortality in a geriatric hospital: a study of the effect of vitamin C administration. Age Aging 1973; 2:163-71.
86. Rapola JM, Virtamo J, Haukka JK, Heinonen OP, Albanes D, Taylor PR, et al. Effect of vitamin E and beta carotene on the incidence of angina pectoris. JAMA 1996; 275:693-8.
87. Rapola JM, Virtamo J, Ripatti S, Huttenen JK, Albanes D, Taylor PR, et al. Randomised trial of α-tocopherol and β-carotene supplements on incidence of major coronary events in men with previous myocardial infarction. Lancet 1997; 349:1715-20.
88. Hennekens CH, Buring JE, Manson JE, Stampfer M, Rosner B, Cook NR, et al. Lack of effect of long-term supplementation with beta carotene on the incidence of malignant neoplasms and cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med 1996; 334:1145-9.
89. Omenn GS, Goodman GE, Thornquist MD, Balmes J, Cullen MR, Glass A, et al. Effects of a combination of beta carotene and vitamin A on lung cancer and cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med 1996; 334:1150-5.
90. Stephens NG, Parsons A, Schofield PM, Kelly F, Cheeseman K, Mitchinson MJ, et al. Randomised controlled trial of vitamin E in patients with coronary disease: Cambridge Heart Antioxidant Study (CHAOS). Lancet 1996; 347:781-6.
91. Jha P, Flather M, Lonn E, Farouh M, Yusuf S. The antioxidant vitamins and cardiovascular disease. A critical review of epidemiologic and clinical trial data. Ann Intern Med 1995; 123:860-72.
92. Stampfer MJ, Malinow MR. Can lowering homocysteine levels reduce cardiovascular risks? N Engl J Med 1995; 332:328-9.
93. den Heijer M, Blom HJ, Gerrits WBJ, Rosendaal FR, Haak HL, Wijermans PW, et al. Is hyperhomocysteinemia a risk factor for recurrent venous thrombosis. Lancet 1995; 345:882-5.
94. Clarke R, Daly L, Robinson K, Naughten E, Cahalane S, Fowler B, et al. Hyperhomocysteinemia: an independent risk factor for vascular disease. N Engl J Med 1991; 324:1149-55.
95. Stamper MJ, Malinow R, Willett WC, Newcomer LM, Upson B, Ullman D, et al. A prospective study of plasma homocyst(e)ine and risk of myocardial infarction in US physicians. JAMA 1992; 268:877-8.
96. Boushey CJ, Beresford SAA, Omenn GS, Motulsky AG. A quantitative assessment of plasma homocysteine as a risk factor for vascular disease. JAMA 1995; 274:1049-57.
97. Nygard O, Nordrehaug JE, Refsum H, Ueland PM, Farstad M, Vellset SM. Plasma homocysteine levels and mortality in patients with coronary artery disease. N Engl J Med 1997; 337:230-6.
98. Selhub J, Jacques PF, Boston AG, D'Agastino RB, Wilson PWF, Belanger AJ, et al. Association between plasma homocysteine concentrations and extracranial carotidartery stenosis. N Engl J Med 1995; 332:286-91.
99. Perry IJ, Refusm H, Morris RW, Ebrahim SB, Ueland PM, Shaper AG. Prospective study of serum total homocysteine concentration and risk of stroke in middle-aged British men. Lancet 1995; 436:1395-8.
100. Petri M, Roubenoff R, Dallal GE, Nadeau MR, Selhub J, Rosenberg IH. Plasma homocysteine as a risk for atherothrombotic events in systemic lupus erythematosus. Lancet 1996; 348:1120-4.
101. Selhub J, Jacques PF, Wilson PW, Rush D, Rosenberg IH. Vitamin status and intake as primary determinants of homocysteinemia in an elderly population. JAMA 1993; 270:2693-8.
102. 6 from diet and supplements in relation to risk of coronary heart disease among women. JAMA 1998; 279:359-64.
103. 12 intake and risk of CHD among a large population of men (Abstract). Circulation 1996; 93:625.
104. Morrison HI, Schaubel D, Desmeules M, Wigle DT. Serum folate and risk of fatal coronary heart disease. JAMA 1996; 275:1893-6.
105. Peterson JC, Spence JD. Vitamins and progression of atherosclerosis in hyper-homocyst(e)inaemia (Letter). Lancet 1988; 351:263.
106. Dolecek TA. Epidemiological evidence of relationship between dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids and mortality in the multiple risk factor intervention trial. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1992; 200:177-82.
107. Ascherio A, Rimm EB, Giovannucci EL, Spiegelman D, Stampfer M, Willett C. Dietary fat and risk of coronary heart disease in men: cohort follow up study in the United States. Br Med J 1996; 313:84-90.
108. De Lorgeril M, Renaud S, Mamelle N, Salen P, Martin J-L, Monjaud I, et al. Mediterranean alpha-linolenic acid-rich diet in secondary prevention of coronary heart disease. Lancet 1994; 343:1454-9.
109. Kardinal AFM, Kok FJ, Ringstad J, Gomez-Aracena J, Mazaev VP, Kohlmeier L, et al. Antioxidants in adipose tissue and risk of myocardial infarction: the Euramic study. Lancet 1993; 342:1379-84.
110. Renaud S, Nordoy A. Small is beneficial: α-linolenic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid in man. Lancet 1983; i:1169.
111. Burr ML, Fehily AM, Gilbert JF, Rogers S, Holliday RM, Sweetman PM, et al. Effects of changes in fat, fish, and fibre intakes on death and myocardial reinfarction: diet and reinfarction trial (DART). Lancet 1989; 334:757-61.
112. Rimm EB, Ascherio A, Giovannucci E, Spiegelman D, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC. Vegetable, fruit, and cereal fiber intake and risk of coronary heart disease among men. JAMA 1996; 275:447-51.
113. Morris JN, Marr JW, Clayton DG. Diet and heart: a postscript. Br Med J 1977; 2:1307-14.
114. Khaw KT, Barrett-Connor E. Dietary fiber and reduced ischemic heart disease mortality rates in men and women: a 12-year prospective study. Am J Epidemiol 1987; 126:1093-102.
115. Humble CG, Malarcher AM, Tyroler HA. Dietary fiber and coronary heart disease in middle-aged hypercholesterolemic men. Am J Prev Med 1993; 9:197-202.
116. Pietinen P, Rimm EB, Korhonen P, Hartman AM, Willett WC, Albanes D, et al. Intake of dietary fiber and risk of coronary heart disease in a cohort of Finnish men. The Alpha-Tocopherol, Beta-Carotene Cancer Prevention Study. Circulation 1996; 94:2720-7.
117. Goodwin JS, Goodwin JM, Garry PJ. Association between nutritional status and cognitive functioning in a healthy elderly population. JAMA 1983; 249:2917-21.
118. Woo J, Ho SC, Mak YT, Swaminathan R. Association between mental and nutritional status in a healthy elderly Chinese population. Res Comm Psychol, Psychiat Behav 1989; 14:85-97.
119. Gale CR, Martyn CN, Cooper C. Cognitive impairment and mortality in a cohort of elderly people. Br Med J 1996; 312:608-11.
120. Jackson CVE, Holland AJ, Williams CA, Dickerson JWT. Vitamin E and Alzheimer's disease in subjects with Down's syndrome. J Mental Def Res 1988; 32:479-84.
121. Sano M, Ernesto C, Thomas RG, Klauber MR, Schafer K, Grundman M, et al. A controlled trial of selegiline, alpha-tocopherol or both as treatment for Alzheimer's disease. N Engl J Med 1997; 336:1216-22.
122. Klein R, Klein B, Linton KLP. Prevalence of age-related maculopathy: the Beaver Dam Study. Opthalmology 1992; 99:933-43.
123. The Eye Disease Case-Control Study Group. Antioxidant status and neovascular age-related macular degeneration. Arch Ophthalmol 1993; 111:104-9.
124. Goldberg J, Flowerdew G, Smith E, Brody JA, Tso MOM. Factors associated with age-related macular degeneration: an analysis of data from the First National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Am J Epidemiol 1998; 128:700-10.
125. Seddon JM, Ajani UA, Sperduto RD, Hiller R, Blair N, Burton TC, et al. for the Eye Disease Case-Control Study Group. Dietary carotenoids, vitamin A, C and E and advanced age-related macular degeneration. JAMA 1994; 272:1413-20.
126. Schalch W. Carotenoids in the retina: a review of their possible role in preventing or limiting damage caused by light and oxygen. In: Emerit I, Chance B, eds. Free Radicals and Aging. Basel, Birkhauser Verlag, 1992:280-98.
127. Sommerburg O, Keunen JEE, Bird AC, van Kuijk FJGM. Fruits and vegetables that are sources for lutein and zeaxanthin: the macular pigment in human eyes. Br J Ophthalmol 1998; 82:907-10.
128. Greenwald P, Lanza E, Eddy GA. Dietary fiber in the reduction of colon cancer risk. J Am Diet Assoc 1987; 87:1178-88.
129. Greenwald P. The future of nutrition research in cancer prevention. In: Laidlaw W, ed. Vitamins and Cancer: Prevention, chap 9. New York, Wiley-Liss, 1991:111-27.
130. Greenwald P, Clifford C. Dietary prevention. In: Greenwald P, Kramer BS, Weed DL, eds. Cancer prevention and control, chap 18. New York, Marcel Dekker, 1995:303-27.
131. Fisher N, Berry CS, Fearn T, Gregory JA, Hardy J. Cereal dietary fiber consumption and diverticular disease: a lifespan study in rats. Am J Clin Nutr 1985; 42:788-804.
132. Gear JSS, Ware A, Furdson P, Mann JI, Nolan DJ, Brodribb AJM, et al. Symptomless diverticular disease and intake of dietary fibre. Lancet 1979; 1:511-14.
133. Cummings JH, Southgate DAT, Branch W, Houston H, Jenkins DJA, James WPT. Colonic response to dietary fibre from carrot, cabbage, apple, bran and guargum. Lancet 1978; 1:5-9.
134. Ornstein MH, Littlewood ER, Baird IM, Fowler J, North WRS, Cox AG. Are fiber supplements really necessary in diverticular disease of the colon? A controlled clinical trial. Br Med J 1981; 282:1353-6.
135. Smith DA, Gee MI. A dietary survey to determine the relationship between diet and cholelithiasis. Am J Clin Nutr 1979; 32:1519-26.
136. Scragg RKR, McMichael AJ, Baghurst PA. Diet, alcohol and relative weight in gall stone disease: A case-control study. Br Med J 1984; 288:1113-19.
137. Jenkins DJA, Hill MS, Cummings JH. Effect of wheat fibre on blood lipids, fecal steroid excretion and serum iron. Am J Clin Nutr 1975; 28:1408-11.
138. Pomare EW, Heaton KW, Low-Beer TS, Espiner HJ. The effect of wheat bran upon bile salt metabolism and upon lipid composition of bile in gallstone patients. Am J Dig Dis 1976; 21:521-6.
139. National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council, Commission on Life Sciences, Food and Nutrition Board. Diet and Health: Implications for Reducing Chronic Disease Risk. Washington DC, National Academy Press, 1989.
140. Shanker S, Lanza E. Dietary fiber and cancer prevention. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am 1991; 5:25-41.
141. Von't Veer P, Kolb CM, Verhoef P, Kok FJ, Schouten EG, Hermus RJJ, et al Dietary fiber, beta-carotene and breast cancer: results from a case-control study, Int J Cancer 1990; 45:825-8.
142. Herman C, Adlercreutz T, Goldin BR, Gorbach SL, Hockerstedt KAV, Watanabe S, et al. Soybean phytoestrogen intake and cancer risk. J Nutr 1995; 125:757-705.
143. Lee HP, Gourley L, Duffy SW, Esteve J, Day WE. Dietary effects on breast-cancer risk in Singapore. Lancet 1991; 337:1197-200.
144. Hirose K, Tajima K, Hamajima N, Inoue M, Takezaki T, Kuroisha T, et al. A large-scale hospital-based case-control study of risk factors of breast cancers according to menopausal status. Jpn J Cancer Res 1995; 86:146-54.
145. Yuan J-M, Wang Q-S, Ross RK, Henderson BE, Yu MC. Diet and breast cancer in Shanghai and Tianjin, China. Br J Cancer 1995; 71:1353-8.
146. Wu AH, Ziegler RG, Horn-Ross PL, Nomura AMY, West DW, Kolonel LN, et al. Tofu and risk of breast cancer in Asian-Americans. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 1996; 5:901-6.
147. Ingram D, Sanders K, Kolybaba M, Lopez D. Case-control study of phyto-oestrogens and breast cancer. Lancet 1997; 350:990-4.
148. Adlercreutz H. Western diet and Western diseases: Some hormonal and biochemical mechanisms and associations. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 1990; 50:3-23.
149. Messina M, Barnes S. The role of soy products in reducing risk of cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 1991; 83:541-6.
150. Dwyer JT, Goldin BR, Saul N, Gaultieri L, Barakat S, Adlercreutz H. Tofu and soy drinks contain phytoestrogens. J Am Diet Assoc 1994; 94:739-43.
151. Thompson LU, Robb P, Serraino M, Cheung P. Mammalian lignan production from various foods. Nutr Cancer 1991; 16:43-52.
152. Cassidy A, Bingham S, Setchell KDR. Biological effects of soy protein rich in isoflavones on the menstrual cycle of premenopausal women. Am J Clin Nutr 1994; 60:333-40.
153. Rose DP. Dietary phytoestrogens and breast cancer. Nutrition 1992; 8:47-51.
154. Murrill WB, Brown NM, Zhang J-Y, Manzolillo PA, Barnes S, Lamartiniere CA. Prepubertal genistein exposure suppresses mammary cancer and enhances gland differentiation in rats. Carcinogenesis 1996; 7:1451-7.
155. Colditz GA, Frazier AL. Models of breast cancer show that risk is set by events of early life: prevention efforts must switch focus. Cancer Epidem Biomarker Prevent 1995; 4:567-71.
156. Peto R, Doll R, Buckley JD, Sporn MB. Can dietary beta-carotene materially reduce human cancer rates? Nature 1981; 290:201-8.
157. National Research Council. Diet, nutrition, and cancer. Washington DC, National Academy Press, 1982.
158. Block G, Patterson B, Subar A. Fruits, vegetables, and cancer prevention: a review of the epidemiology evidence. Nutr Cancer 1992; 18:1-29.
159. Hunter DJ, Manson JE, Colditz GA, Stampfer MJ, Rosner B, Hennekens CH, et al. A prospective study of the intake of vitamins C, E and A and the risk of breast cancer. N Engl J Med 1993; 329:234-40.
160. Steinmetz KA, Poiter JD. Vegetable, fruit, and cancer I: epidemiology. Cancer Causes Control 1991; 2:325-58.
161. Lyon JL, Klauber MR, Gardner JW, Smart CR. Cancer incidence in Mormons and non-Mormons in Utah, 1966-70. N Engl J Med 1976; 294:129-33.
162. Newberne PM, Suphakarn V. Nutrition and Cancer: A review with emphasis on the role of vitamins C and E and selenium. Nutr Cancer 1983; 5:107-19.
163. Chen LH, Boissonneault GA, Glauert HP. Vitamin C and vitamin E and Cancer (Review). Anticancer Res 1988; 8:739-48.
164. Carpenter MP. Vitamins E and C in Neoplastic Development. In: Laidlaw W, ed. Vitamins and Cancers Prevention, chap 6. New York, Wiley-Liss, 1991:61-90.
165. Lippman SM, Hong WK, Benner SE. The chemoprevention of cancer. In: Greenwald P, Kramer BS, Weed DL, eds. Cancer prevention and control, chap 19. New York, Marcel Dekker, 1995:329-52.
166. Mayne ST, Janerich DT, Greenwald P, Chorost S, Tuccic C, Zaman MB, et al. Dietary beta carotene and lung cancer risk in US nonsmokers. J Natl Cancer Inst 1994; 86:33-8.
167. The Alpha-Tocopherol, Beta Carotene Cancer Prevention Study Group. The effect of vitamin E and beta carotene on the incidence of lung cancer and other cancers in male smokers. N Engl J Med 1994; 330:1029-35.
168. Heinonen OP, Albanes D, Virtamo J, Taylor PR, Huttenen JK, Hartman AM, et al. Prostate cancer and supplementation with α-tocopherol and β-carotene: Incidence and mortality in a controlled trial. J Natl Cancer Inst 1998; 90:440-6.
169. Blot W, Li JY, Taylor PR, Guo W, Dawsey S, Wang GQ, et al. Nutrition intervention trials in Linxian, China: supplementation with specific vitamin/mineral combinations, cancer incidence and disease-specific mortality in the general population. J Natl Cancer Inst 1993; 85:1483-92.
170. Taylor PR, Li B, Dawsey SM, Li J-Y, Yang CS, Guo W, et al. Prevention of eosophageal cancer: the nutrition intervention trials in Linxian, China. Linxian Nutrition Intervention Trials Study Group. Cancer Res 1994; 54 (Suppl 7):2029-31S.
171. Shekelle RB, Lepper M, Liu S, Maliza C, Raynor WJ, Rossof AH, et al. Dietary vitamin A and risk of cancer in the Western Electric Study. Lancet 1981; 2:1185-90.
172. Ziegler RG, Subar AF, Craff NE, Ursin C, Patterson BH, Graubard BI. Does β-carotene explain why reduced cancer risk is associated with vegetable and fruit intake? Cancer Res 1992; 52 (Suppl):2060-6S.
173. Howe GR, Hirohata T, Hislop TG, Iscovich JM, Yuan J-M, Katsouyanni K, et al. Dietary factors and risk of breast cancer: combined analysis of 12 case-control studies. J Natl Cancer Inst 1990; 82:561-9.
174. Peganini-Hill A, Chao A, Ross RK, Henderson BE. Vitamin A, β-carotene and the risk of cancer: a prospective study. J Natl Cancer Inst 1987; 79:443-8.
175. Hennekens CH, Buring JE, Manson JE, Stampfer M, Rosner B, Cook NR, et al. Lack of effect of long-term supplementation with beta carotene on the incidence of malignant neoplasms and cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med 1996; 334:1145-9.
176. Omens GS, Goodman GE, Thornquist MD, Balmes J, Cullen MR, Glass A, et al. Effects of a combination of beta carotene and vitamin A on lung cancer and cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med 1996; 354:1150-5.
177. Greenberg ER, Baron JA, Stukel TA, Stevens MM, Mandel JS, Spencer SK, et al. A clinical trial of beta carotene to prevent basal-cell and squamous-cell cancers of the skin. N Engl J Med 1990; 323:789-95.
178. Greenberg ER, Baron JA, Tosteson TD, Freeman DH, Beck GJ, Bond JH, et al. A clinical trial of antioxidant vitamins to prevent colorectal adenoma. N Engl J Med 1994; 331:141-7.
179. Palozza P, Krinksy NI. Antioxidant activity of carotenoids in vivo and in vitro: an overview. Meth Enzymol 1992; 213:403-19.
180. Abdulla M, Aly K-O, Andersson I, Asp N-G, Birkhed D, Denker I, et al. Nutrient intake and health status of lactovegetarians. Chemical analyses of diet using duplicate portion sampling technique. Am J Clin Nutr 1984; 40:325-38.
181. Sanders TA, Ellis FR, Dickerson JWT. Hematological studies on vegans. Br J Nutr 1978; 40:9-15.
182. 12 deficiency in strict vegetarians (Letter). N Engl J Med 1978; 299:1319.
183. 12 deficiency in the breastfed infant of a strict vegetarian. Nutr Rev 1979; 37:142-4.
184. 12-deficient breast-fed infant of a strict vegetarian. N Engl J Med 1978; 299:317-23.
185. Council report. Saturated fatty acids in vegetable oils. JAMA 1990; 263:693-5.
186. Byers T. Hardened fats, hardened arteries? N Engl J Med 1997; 337:1544-5.
187. Ascherio A, Rimm EB, Giovannucci EL, Spiegelman D, Stampfer M, Willett WC. Dietary fat and risk of coronary heart disease in men: cohort follow up study in the United States. Br Med J 1996; 313:84-90.
188. Pietinen P, Ascherio A, Korhonen P, Hartman AM, Willett WC, Albanes D, et al. Intake of fatty acids and risk of coronary heart disease in a cohort of Finnish men: the Alpha Tocopherol, Beta-Carotene Cancer Prevention Study. Am J Epidemiol 1997; 145:876-87.
189. Gillman MV, Cupples LA, Gagnon D, Millen BE, Ellison RC, Castelli WP.
190. Lichtenstein AH. Trans fatty acids, plasma lipid levels and risk of developing cardiovascular disease: a statement for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association. Circulation 1997; 95:2588-90.
191. Kimura N. Changing patterns of coronary heart disease, stroke and nutrient intake in Japan. Prev Med 1983; 12:222-7.
192. Omura T, Hisamatsu S, Takizawa Y, Minowa M, Yanagawa H, Schigematsu I. Geographical distribution of cerebrovascular disease mortality and food intakes in Japan. Soc Sci Med 1987; 24:401-7.
193. Committee on Diet and Health, Food and Nutrition Board, National Research Council. Diet and Health: Implications for Reducing Chronic Disease Risk. Washington DC, National Academy Press, 1989.
194. Neaton JD, Wentworth DN, Cutler J, Stamler J, Kuller L. Risk factors for death from different types of stroke. Ann Epidemiol 1993; 3:493-9.
195. Hebert PR, Gaziano M, Chan KS, Hennekens CH. Cholesterol lowering with statin drugs, risk of stroke, and total mortality. An overview of randomized trials. JAMA 1997; 287:313-21.
196. Anderson JW, Gustafson NJ, Bryant CA, Tietyen-Clark J. Dietary fiber and diabetes: A comprehensive review and practical application. J Am Diet Assoc 1987; 87:1189-97.
197. Public Health Service. Healthy People 2000. National Health Promotion and Disease Prevention Objectives-Full report, with commentary DHHS Publ (PHS) 91-50212. Washington DC, US Dept Health Hum Serv, PHS, 1991.