Water treatment with silicofluorides and lead toxicity

International Journal of Environmental Studies

Volumn 56, Issue 4, 1999, Pages 435-449

  Masters, Roger D ^a   Coplan, Myron J ^b  

^a Dartmouth College   (United States)

^b Intellequity   (United States)

Author keywords

Children's health; Lead; Pollution; Public water supplies; Toxicity

Indexed keywords

EID: 0032817991     PISSN: 00207233     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/00207239908711215     Document Type: Article

References (59)

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29. H. W. Mielke, "Lead Dust-Contaminated Communities and Minority Health: A New Paradigm," In: The National Minority Health Conference (B. L. Johnson, R. C. Williams and C. M. Harris, Eds.) (Princeton Scientific Publishing Co. Princeton, N. J., 1992), pp.101 -112; H. W. Mielke, J. C. Anderson, K. J. Berry, P. W. Mielke, R. L. Chaney and M. Leech,"Lead Concentrations in Inner-City Soils As a Factor in the Child Lead Problem", Am. J. Public Health 73, 1366-1369 (1983); H. W. Mielke, B. Blake, S. Burroughs and S. Hassinger, "Urban Lead Levels in Minneapolis: The Case of the Hmong Children", Env. Res. 34, 64-76 (1984). H. W. Mielke, S. Burroughs, R. Wade, T. Yarrow and P. W. Mielke, "Urban Lead in Minnesota: Soil Transect Results of Four Cities", J. Minn Acad. Sc. 50, 19-24 (1984); H. W. Mielke and J. L. Adams, Environemtnal Lead Risk in the Twin Cities (University of Minnesota, Center for Urban and Regional Affairs: Minneapolis, Minn., 1989); H. W. Mielke, J. L. Adams, P. L. Reagan and P. W. Mielke, "Soil-dust Lead and Childhood Lead Exposure as a Function of City Size and Community Traffic Flow: the Case for Lead Abatement in Minnesota", In: Lead in Soil: Issues and Guidelines, Supplement to Environmental Geochemistry and Health (B. E. Davies and B. G. Wixson, Eds.), 9, 253-271 (1989); H. W. Mielke,"Lead in New Orleans Soils: New Images of an Urban Environment", Env. Geochemistry and Health 16, 123-128 (1994); H. W. Mielke, "Lead Dust Contaminated U. S. A. Communities: Comparison of Louisiana and Minnesota", Applied Geochemistry Sup. 2, 257-261 (1993); H. W. Mielke, J. E. Adams, B. Huff, J. Pepersack, P. L. Reagan, D. Stoppel and P. W. Mielke, Jr., "Dust Control as a Means of Reducing Inner-City Childhood Pb Exposure", Trace Subs. in Env. Health 15, 121-128 (1992); L. Viverette, H. W. Mielke, M. Brisco, A. Dixon, J. Schaefer and K. Pierre, "Environmental Health in Minority and Other Underserved Populations: Benign Methods for Identifying Lead Hazards at Day Care Centres of New Orleans", Env. Geochemistry and Health 18, 41-45 (1996).
30. H. W. Mielke, "Lead Dust-Contaminated Communities and Minority Health: A New Paradigm," In: The National Minority Health Conference (B. L. Johnson, R. C. Williams and C. M. Harris, Eds.) (Princeton Scientific Publishing Co. Princeton, N. J., 1992), pp.101 -112; H. W. Mielke, J. C. Anderson, K. J. Berry, P. W. Mielke, R. L. Chaney and M. Leech,"Lead Concentrations in Inner-City Soils As a Factor in the Child Lead Problem", Am. J. Public Health 73, 1366-1369 (1983); H. W. Mielke, B. Blake, S. Burroughs and S. Hassinger, "Urban Lead Levels in Minneapolis: The Case of the Hmong Children", Env. Res. 34, 64-76 (1984). H. W. Mielke, S. Burroughs, R. Wade, T. Yarrow and P. W. Mielke, "Urban Lead in Minnesota: Soil Transect Results of Four Cities", J. Minn Acad. Sc. 50, 19-24 (1984); H. W. Mielke and J. L. Adams, Environemtnal Lead Risk in the Twin Cities (University of Minnesota, Center for Urban and Regional Affairs: Minneapolis, Minn., 1989); H. W. Mielke, J. L. Adams, P. L. Reagan and P. W. Mielke, "Soil-dust Lead and Childhood Lead Exposure as a Function of City Size and Community Traffic Flow: the Case for Lead Abatement in Minnesota", In: Lead in Soil: Issues and Guidelines, Supplement to Environmental Geochemistry and Health (B. E. Davies and B. G. Wixson, Eds.), 9, 253-271 (1989); H. W. Mielke,"Lead in New Orleans Soils: New Images of an Urban Environment", Env. Geochemistry and Health 16, 123-128 (1994); H. W. Mielke, "Lead Dust Contaminated U. S. A. Communities: Comparison of Louisiana and Minnesota", Applied Geochemistry Sup. 2, 257-261 (1993); H. W. Mielke, J. E. Adams, B. Huff, J. Pepersack, P. L. Reagan, D. Stoppel and P. W. Mielke, Jr., "Dust Control as a Means of Reducing Inner-City Childhood Pb Exposure", Trace Subs. in Env. Health 15, 121-128 (1992); L. Viverette, H. W. Mielke, M. Brisco, A. Dixon, J. Schaefer and K. Pierre, "Environmental Health in Minority and Other Underserved Populations: Benign Methods for Identifying Lead Hazards at Day Care Centres of New Orleans", Env. Geochemistry and Health 18, 41-45 (1996).
31. H. W. Mielke, "Lead Dust-Contaminated Communities and Minority Health: A New Paradigm," In: The National Minority Health Conference (B. L. Johnson, R. C. Williams and C. M. Harris, Eds.) (Princeton Scientific Publishing Co. Princeton, N. J., 1992), pp.101 -112; H. W. Mielke, J. C. Anderson, K. J. Berry, P. W. Mielke, R. L. Chaney and M. Leech,"Lead Concentrations in Inner-City Soils As a Factor in the Child Lead Problem", Am. J. Public Health 73, 1366-1369 (1983); H. W. Mielke, B. Blake, S. Burroughs and S. Hassinger, "Urban Lead Levels in Minneapolis: The Case of the Hmong Children", Env. Res. 34, 64-76 (1984). H. W. Mielke, S. Burroughs, R. Wade, T. Yarrow and P. W. Mielke, "Urban Lead in Minnesota: Soil Transect Results of Four Cities", J. Minn Acad. Sc. 50, 19-24 (1984); H. W. Mielke and J. L. Adams, Environemtnal Lead Risk in the Twin Cities (University of Minnesota, Center for Urban and Regional Affairs: Minneapolis, Minn., 1989); H. W. Mielke, J. L. Adams, P. L. Reagan and P. W. Mielke, "Soil-dust Lead and Childhood Lead Exposure as a Function of City Size and Community Traffic Flow: the Case for Lead Abatement in Minnesota", In: Lead in Soil: Issues and Guidelines, Supplement to Environmental Geochemistry and Health (B. E. Davies and B. G. Wixson, Eds.), 9, 253-271 (1989); H. W. Mielke,"Lead in New Orleans Soils: New Images of an Urban Environment", Env. Geochemistry and Health 16, 123-128 (1994); H. W. Mielke, "Lead Dust Contaminated U. S. A. Communities: Comparison of Louisiana and Minnesota", Applied Geochemistry Sup. 2, 257-261 (1993); H. W. Mielke, J. E. Adams, B. Huff, J. Pepersack, P. L. Reagan, D. Stoppel and P. W. Mielke, Jr., "Dust Control as a Means of Reducing Inner-City Childhood Pb Exposure", Trace Subs. in Env. Health 15, 121-128 (1992); L. Viverette, H. W. Mielke, M. Brisco, A. Dixon, J. Schaefer and K. Pierre, "Environmental Health in Minority and Other Underserved Populations: Benign Methods for Identifying Lead Hazards at Day Care Centres of New Orleans", Env. Geochemistry and Health 18, 41-45 (1996).
32. H. W. Mielke, "Lead Dust-Contaminated Communities and Minority Health: A New Paradigm," In: The National Minority Health Conference (B. L. Johnson, R. C. Williams and C. M. Harris, Eds.) (Princeton Scientific Publishing Co. Princeton, N. J., 1992), pp.101 -112; H. W. Mielke, J. C. Anderson, K. J. Berry, P. W. Mielke, R. L. Chaney and M. Leech,"Lead Concentrations in Inner-City Soils As a Factor in the Child Lead Problem", Am. J. Public Health 73, 1366-1369 (1983); H. W. Mielke, B. Blake, S. Burroughs and S. Hassinger, "Urban Lead Levels in Minneapolis: The Case of the Hmong Children", Env. Res. 34, 64-76 (1984). H. W. Mielke, S. Burroughs, R. Wade, T. Yarrow and P. W. Mielke, "Urban Lead in Minnesota: Soil Transect Results of Four Cities", J. Minn Acad. Sc. 50, 19-24 (1984); H. W. Mielke and J. L. Adams, Environemtnal Lead Risk in the Twin Cities (University of Minnesota, Center for Urban and Regional Affairs: Minneapolis, Minn., 1989); H. W. Mielke, J. L. Adams, P. L. Reagan and P. W. Mielke, "Soil-dust Lead and Childhood Lead Exposure as a Function of City Size and Community Traffic Flow: the Case for Lead Abatement in Minnesota", In: Lead in Soil: Issues and Guidelines, Supplement to Environmental Geochemistry and Health (B. E. Davies and B. G. Wixson, Eds.), 9, 253-271 (1989); H. W. Mielke,"Lead in New Orleans Soils: New Images of an Urban Environment", Env. Geochemistry and Health 16, 123-128 (1994); H. W. Mielke, "Lead Dust Contaminated U. S. A. Communities: Comparison of Louisiana and Minnesota", Applied Geochemistry Sup. 2, 257-261 (1993); H. W. Mielke, J. E. Adams, B. Huff, J. Pepersack, P. L. Reagan, D. Stoppel and P. W. Mielke, Jr., "Dust Control as a Means of Reducing Inner-City Childhood Pb Exposure", Trace Subs. in Env. Health 15, 121-128 (1992); L. Viverette, H. W. Mielke, M. Brisco, A. Dixon, J. Schaefer and K. Pierre, "Environmental Health in Minority and Other Underserved Populations: Benign Methods for Identifying Lead Hazards at Day Care Centres of New Orleans", Env. Geochemistry and Health 18, 41-45 (1996).
33. H. W. Mielke, "Lead Dust-Contaminated Communities and Minority Health: A New Paradigm," In: The National Minority Health Conference (B. L. Johnson, R. C. Williams and C. M. Harris, Eds.) (Princeton Scientific Publishing Co. Princeton, N. J., 1992), pp.101 -112; H. W. Mielke, J. C. Anderson, K. J. Berry, P. W. Mielke, R. L. Chaney and M. Leech,"Lead Concentrations in Inner-City Soils As a Factor in the Child Lead Problem", Am. J. Public Health 73, 1366-1369 (1983); H. W. Mielke, B. Blake, S. Burroughs and S. Hassinger, "Urban Lead Levels in Minneapolis: The Case of the Hmong Children", Env. Res. 34, 64-76 (1984). H. W. Mielke, S. Burroughs, R. Wade, T. Yarrow and P. W. Mielke, "Urban Lead in Minnesota: Soil Transect Results of Four Cities", J. Minn Acad. Sc. 50, 19-24 (1984); H. W. Mielke and J. L. Adams, Environemtnal Lead Risk in the Twin Cities (University of Minnesota, Center for Urban and Regional Affairs: Minneapolis, Minn., 1989); H. W. Mielke, J. L. Adams, P. L. Reagan and P. W. Mielke, "Soil-dust Lead and Childhood Lead Exposure as a Function of City Size and Community Traffic Flow: the Case for Lead Abatement in Minnesota", In: Lead in Soil: Issues and Guidelines, Supplement to Environmental Geochemistry and Health (B. E. Davies and B. G. Wixson, Eds.), 9, 253-271 (1989); H. W. Mielke,"Lead in New Orleans Soils: New Images of an Urban Environment", Env. Geochemistry and Health 16, 123-128 (1994); H. W. Mielke, "Lead Dust Contaminated U. S. A. Communities: Comparison of Louisiana and Minnesota", Applied Geochemistry Sup. 2, 257-261 (1993); H. W. Mielke, J. E. Adams, B. Huff, J. Pepersack, P. L. Reagan, D. Stoppel and P. W. Mielke, Jr., "Dust Control as a Means of Reducing Inner-City Childhood Pb Exposure", Trace Subs. in Env. Health 15, 121-128 (1992); L. Viverette, H. W. Mielke, M. Brisco, A. Dixon, J. Schaefer and K. Pierre, "Environmental Health in Minority and Other Underserved Populations: Benign Methods for Identifying Lead Hazards at Day Care Centres of New Orleans", Env. Geochemistry and Health 18, 41-45 (1996).
34. H. W. Mielke, "Lead Dust-Contaminated Communities and Minority Health: A New Paradigm," In: The National Minority Health Conference (B. L. Johnson, R. C. Williams and C. M. Harris, Eds.) (Princeton Scientific Publishing Co. Princeton, N. J., 1992), pp.101 -112; H. W. Mielke, J. C. Anderson, K. J. Berry, P. W. Mielke, R. L. Chaney and M. Leech,"Lead Concentrations in Inner-City Soils As a Factor in the Child Lead Problem", Am. J. Public Health 73, 1366-1369 (1983); H. W. Mielke, B. Blake, S. Burroughs and S. Hassinger, "Urban Lead Levels in Minneapolis: The Case of the Hmong Children", Env. Res. 34, 64-76 (1984). H. W. Mielke, S. Burroughs, R. Wade, T. Yarrow and P. W. Mielke, "Urban Lead in Minnesota: Soil Transect Results of Four Cities", J. Minn Acad. Sc. 50, 19-24 (1984); H. W. Mielke and J. L. Adams, Environemtnal Lead Risk in the Twin Cities (University of Minnesota, Center for Urban and Regional Affairs: Minneapolis, Minn., 1989); H. W. Mielke, J. L. Adams, P. L. Reagan and P. W. Mielke, "Soil-dust Lead and Childhood Lead Exposure as a Function of City Size and Community Traffic Flow: the Case for Lead Abatement in Minnesota", In: Lead in Soil: Issues and Guidelines, Supplement to Environmental Geochemistry and Health (B. E. Davies and B. G. Wixson, Eds.), 9, 253-271 (1989); H. W. Mielke,"Lead in New Orleans Soils: New Images of an Urban Environment", Env. Geochemistry and Health 16, 123-128 (1994); H. W. Mielke, "Lead Dust Contaminated U. S. A. Communities: Comparison of Louisiana and Minnesota", Applied Geochemistry Sup. 2, 257-261 (1993); H. W. Mielke, J. E. Adams, B. Huff, J. Pepersack, P. L. Reagan, D. Stoppel and P. W. Mielke, Jr., "Dust Control as a Means of Reducing Inner-City Childhood Pb Exposure", Trace Subs. in Env. Health 15, 121-128 (1992); L. Viverette, H. W. Mielke, M. Brisco, A. Dixon, J. Schaefer and K. Pierre, "Environmental Health in Minority and Other Underserved Populations: Benign Methods for Identifying Lead Hazards at Day Care Centres of New Orleans", Env. Geochemistry and Health 18, 41-45 (1996).
35. H. W. Mielke, "Lead Dust-Contaminated Communities and Minority Health: A New Paradigm," In: The National Minority Health Conference (B. L. Johnson, R. C. Williams and C. M. Harris, Eds.) (Princeton Scientific Publishing Co. Princeton, N. J., 1992), pp.101 -112; H. W. Mielke, J. C. Anderson, K. J. Berry, P. W. Mielke, R. L. Chaney and M. Leech,"Lead Concentrations in Inner-City Soils As a Factor in the Child Lead Problem", Am. J. Public Health 73, 1366-1369 (1983); H. W. Mielke, B. Blake, S. Burroughs and S. Hassinger, "Urban Lead Levels in Minneapolis: The Case of the Hmong Children", Env. Res. 34, 64-76 (1984). H. W. Mielke, S. Burroughs, R. Wade, T. Yarrow and P. W. Mielke, "Urban Lead in Minnesota: Soil Transect Results of Four Cities", J. Minn Acad. Sc. 50, 19-24 (1984); H. W. Mielke and J. L. Adams, Environemtnal Lead Risk in the Twin Cities (University of Minnesota, Center for Urban and Regional Affairs: Minneapolis, Minn., 1989); H. W. Mielke, J. L. Adams, P. L. Reagan and P. W. Mielke, "Soil-dust Lead and Childhood Lead Exposure as a Function of City Size and Community Traffic Flow: the Case for Lead Abatement in Minnesota", In: Lead in Soil: Issues and Guidelines, Supplement to Environmental Geochemistry and Health (B. E. Davies and B. G. Wixson, Eds.), 9, 253-271 (1989); H. W. Mielke,"Lead in New Orleans Soils: New Images of an Urban Environment", Env. Geochemistry and Health 16, 123-128 (1994); H. W. Mielke, "Lead Dust Contaminated U. S. A. Communities: Comparison of Louisiana and Minnesota", Applied Geochemistry Sup. 2, 257-261 (1993); H. W. Mielke, J. E. Adams, B. Huff, J. Pepersack, P. L. Reagan, D. Stoppel and P. W. Mielke, Jr., "Dust Control as a Means of Reducing Inner-City Childhood Pb Exposure", Trace Subs. in Env. Health 15, 121-128 (1992); L. Viverette, H. W. Mielke, M. Brisco, A. Dixon, J. Schaefer and K. Pierre, "Environmental Health in Minority and Other Underserved Populations: Benign Methods for Identifying Lead Hazards at Day Care Centres of New Orleans", Env. Geochemistry and Health 18, 41-45 (1996).
36. H. W. Mielke, "Lead Dust-Contaminated Communities and Minority Health: A New Paradigm," In: The National Minority Health Conference (B. L. Johnson, R. C. Williams and C. M. Harris, Eds.) (Princeton Scientific Publishing Co. Princeton, N. J., 1992), pp.101 -112; H. W. Mielke, J. C. Anderson, K. J. Berry, P. W. Mielke, R. L. Chaney and M. Leech,"Lead Concentrations in Inner-City Soils As a Factor in the Child Lead Problem", Am. J. Public Health 73, 1366-1369 (1983); H. W. Mielke, B. Blake, S. Burroughs and S. Hassinger, "Urban Lead Levels in Minneapolis: The Case of the Hmong Children", Env. Res. 34, 64-76 (1984). H. W. Mielke, S. Burroughs, R. Wade, T. Yarrow and P. W. Mielke, "Urban Lead in Minnesota: Soil Transect Results of Four Cities", J. Minn Acad. Sc. 50, 19-24 (1984); H. W. Mielke and J. L. Adams, Environemtnal Lead Risk in the Twin Cities (University of Minnesota, Center for Urban and Regional Affairs: Minneapolis, Minn., 1989); H. W. Mielke, J. L. Adams, P. L. Reagan and P. W. Mielke, "Soil-dust Lead and Childhood Lead Exposure as a Function of City Size and Community Traffic Flow: the Case for Lead Abatement in Minnesota", In: Lead in Soil: Issues and Guidelines, Supplement to Environmental Geochemistry and Health (B. E. Davies and B. G. Wixson, Eds.), 9, 253-271 (1989); H. W. Mielke,"Lead in New Orleans Soils: New Images of an Urban Environment", Env. Geochemistry and Health 16, 123-128 (1994); H. W. Mielke, "Lead Dust Contaminated U. S. A. Communities: Comparison of Louisiana and Minnesota", Applied Geochemistry Sup. 2, 257-261 (1993); H. W. Mielke, J. E. Adams, B. Huff, J. Pepersack, P. L. Reagan, D. Stoppel and P. W. Mielke, Jr., "Dust Control as a Means of Reducing Inner-City Childhood Pb Exposure", Trace Subs. in Env. Health 15, 121-128 (1992); L. Viverette, H. W. Mielke, M. Brisco, A. Dixon, J. Schaefer and K. Pierre, "Environmental Health in Minority and Other Underserved Populations: Benign Methods for Identifying Lead Hazards at Day Care Centres of New Orleans", Env. Geochemistry and Health 18, 41-45 (1996).
37. H. W. Mielke, "Lead Dust-Contaminated Communities and Minority Health: A New Paradigm," In: The National Minority Health Conference (B. L. Johnson, R. C. Williams and C. M. Harris, Eds.) (Princeton Scientific Publishing Co. Princeton, N. J., 1992), pp.101 -112; H. W. Mielke, J. C. Anderson, K. J. Berry, P. W. Mielke, R. L. Chaney and M. Leech,"Lead Concentrations in Inner-City Soils As a Factor in the Child Lead Problem", Am. J. Public Health 73, 1366-1369 (1983); H. W. Mielke, B. Blake, S. Burroughs and S. Hassinger, "Urban Lead Levels in Minneapolis: The Case of the Hmong Children", Env. Res. 34, 64-76 (1984). H. W. Mielke, S. Burroughs, R. Wade, T. Yarrow and P. W. Mielke, "Urban Lead in Minnesota: Soil Transect Results of Four Cities", J. Minn Acad. Sc. 50, 19-24 (1984); H. W. Mielke and J. L. Adams, Environemtnal Lead Risk in the Twin Cities (University of Minnesota, Center for Urban and Regional Affairs: Minneapolis, Minn., 1989); H. W. Mielke, J. L. Adams, P. L. Reagan and P. W. Mielke, "Soil-dust Lead and Childhood Lead Exposure as a Function of City Size and Community Traffic Flow: the Case for Lead Abatement in Minnesota", In: Lead in Soil: Issues and Guidelines, Supplement to Environmental Geochemistry and Health (B. E. Davies and B. G. Wixson, Eds.), 9, 253-271 (1989); H. W. Mielke,"Lead in New Orleans Soils: New Images of an Urban Environment", Env. Geochemistry and Health 16, 123-128 (1994); H. W. Mielke, "Lead Dust Contaminated U. S. A. Communities: Comparison of Louisiana and Minnesota", Applied Geochemistry Sup. 2, 257-261 (1993); H. W. Mielke, J. E. Adams, B. Huff, J. Pepersack, P. L. Reagan, D. Stoppel and P. W. Mielke, Jr., "Dust Control as a Means of Reducing Inner-City Childhood Pb Exposure", Trace Subs. in Env. Health 15, 121-128 (1992); L. Viverette, H. W. Mielke, M. Brisco, A. Dixon, J. Schaefer and K. Pierre, "Environmental Health in Minority and Other Underserved Populations: Benign Methods for Identifying Lead Hazards at Day Care Centres of New Orleans", Env. Geochemistry and Health 18, 41-45 (1996).
38. A. J. Bailey, J. D. Sargent, D. C. Goodman, J. Freeman and M. J. Brown "Poisoned Landscapes: The Epidemiology of Environmental Lead Exposure in Massachusetts Children 1990-1991", Social Science Med. 39, 757-776 (1994).
39. J. D. Sargent, M. J. Brown, J. L. Freeman, A. Bailey, D. C. Goodman and D. H. Freeman, "Childhood Lead Poisoning in Massachusetts: Its Association with Sociodemographic and Housing Characteristics", Am. J. Public Health 85, 528-534 (1995).
40. According to the Merck Index, 10th edition (Eds., M. Windholz, S. Budavari, R. P. Blumettl and E. S. Otterbein) (Rathway, NJ: Merck, 1983), p. 599, the uses of fluosilicic acid are: "a 1-2% soin is used widely for sterilizing equipment in brewing and bottling establishments. Other concns are used in the electrolytic refining of lead, in electroplating, for hardening cement, crumbling lime or brick work, for the removal of lime from hides during the tanning process, to remove molds, as preservative for timber. Caution. Severe corrosive effect on skin, mucous membranes" (#4089); uses of sodium silicofluoride (listed as sodium hexafiuorosilicate) are: "in enamels for china and porcelain, manuf opal glass; as insect exterminator and poison for rodents, mothproofing of woolens" (#8459).
41. L. J. Hudleston and H. Bassett, "Equilibria of Hydrofluosilicic Acid", J. Chem. Soc. (London) 119, 403-416 (1921); A. G. Rees and L. L. Hudleston "The Decomposition of Fluosilicate Ion in Aqueous Solution", J. Chem. Soc. (London) 288, 1334-1338 (1936); I. G. Ryss and M. M. Slutskaya, "Kinetics of Decomposition of Fluorosilicate Ions under the Action of Alkali", J. Phys. Chem. (USSR, in Russian) 14, 701-701 (1940). Recent laboratory test confirm these predictions: Albert Burgstahler, personal communication. Cf. American Water Works Association, Water Fluoridation Principles and Practices, Third Ediction (American Water Works Association, Denver, 1988), esp. pp. 13-14; Center for Disease Control, Water Fluoridation: A Manual for Engineers and Technicians (U.S. Public Health Service, Atlanta, 1986), pp. 8, 21-22.
42. L. J. Hudleston and H. Bassett, "Equilibria of Hydrofluosilicic Acid", J. Chem. Soc. (London) 119, 403-416 (1921); A. G. Rees and L. L. Hudleston "The Decomposition of Fluosilicate Ion in Aqueous Solution", J. Chem. Soc. (London) 288, 1334-1338 (1936); I. G. Ryss and M. M. Slutskaya, "Kinetics of Decomposition of Fluorosilicate Ions under the Action of Alkali", J. Phys. Chem. (USSR, in Russian) 14, 701-701 (1940). Recent laboratory test confirm these predictions: Albert Burgstahler, personal communication. Cf. American Water Works Association, Water Fluoridation Principles and Practices, Third Ediction (American Water Works Association, Denver, 1988), esp. pp. 13-14; Center for Disease Control, Water Fluoridation: A Manual for Engineers and Technicians (U.S. Public Health Service, Atlanta, 1986), pp. 8, 21-22.
43. L. J. Hudleston and H. Bassett, "Equilibria of Hydrofluosilicic Acid", J. Chem. Soc. (London) 119, 403-416 (1921); A. G. Rees and L. L. Hudleston "The Decomposition of Fluosilicate Ion in Aqueous Solution", J. Chem. Soc. (London) 288, 1334-1338 (1936); I. G. Ryss and M. M. Slutskaya, "Kinetics of Decomposition of Fluorosilicate Ions under the Action of Alkali", J. Phys. Chem. (USSR, in Russian) 14, 701-701 (1940). Recent laboratory test confirm these predictions: Albert Burgstahler, personal communication. Cf. American Water Works Association, Water Fluoridation Principles and Practices, Third Ediction (American Water Works Association, Denver, 1988), esp. pp. 13-14; Center for Disease Control, Water Fluoridation: A Manual for Engineers and Technicians (U.S. Public Health Service, Atlanta, 1986), pp. 8, 21-22.
44. L. J. Hudleston and H. Bassett, "Equilibria of Hydrofluosilicic Acid", J. Chem. Soc. (London) 119, 403-416 (1921); A. G. Rees and L. L. Hudleston "The Decomposition of Fluosilicate Ion in Aqueous Solution", J. Chem. Soc. (London) 288, 1334-1338 (1936); I. G. Ryss and M. M. Slutskaya, "Kinetics of Decomposition of Fluorosilicate Ions under the Action of Alkali", J. Phys. Chem. (USSR, in Russian) 14, 701-701 (1940). Recent laboratory test confirm these predictions: Albert Burgstahler, personal communication. Cf. American Water Works Association, Water Fluoridation Principles and Practices, Third Ediction (American Water Works Association, Denver, 1988), esp. pp. 13-14; Center for Disease Control, Water Fluoridation: A Manual for Engineers and Technicians (U.S. Public Health Service, Atlanta, 1986), pp. 8, 21-22.
45. L. J. Hudleston and H. Bassett, "Equilibria of Hydrofluosilicic Acid", J. Chem. Soc. (London) 119, 403-416 (1921); A. G. Rees and L. L. Hudleston "The Decomposition of Fluosilicate Ion in Aqueous Solution", J. Chem. Soc. (London) 288, 1334-1338 (1936); I. G. Ryss and M. M. Slutskaya, "Kinetics of Decomposition of Fluorosilicate Ions under the Action of Alkali", J. Phys. Chem. (USSR, in Russian) 14, 701-701 (1940). Recent laboratory test confirm these predictions: Albert Burgstahler, personal communication. Cf. American Water Works Association, Water Fluoridation Principles and Practices, Third Ediction (American Water Works Association, Denver, 1988), esp. pp. 13-14; Center for Disease Control, Water Fluoridation: A Manual for Engineers and Technicians (U.S. Public Health Service, Atlanta, 1986), pp. 8, 21-22.
46. L. J. Hudleston and H. Bassett, "Equilibria of Hydrofluosilicic Acid", J. Chem. Soc. (London) 119, 403-416 (1921); A. G. Rees and L. L. Hudleston "The Decomposition of Fluosilicate Ion in Aqueous Solution", J. Chem. Soc. (London) 288, 1334-1338 (1936); I. G. Ryss and M. M. Slutskaya, "Kinetics of Decomposition of Fluorosilicate Ions under the Action of Alkali", J. Phys. Chem. (USSR, in Russian) 14, 701-701 (1940). Recent laboratory test confirm these predictions: Albert Burgstahler, personal communication. Cf. American Water Works Association, Water Fluoridation Principles and Practices, Third Ediction (American Water Works Association, Denver, 1988), esp. pp. 13-14; Center for Disease Control, Water Fluoridation: A Manual for Engineers and Technicians (U.S. Public Health Service, Atlanta, 1986), pp. 8, 21-22.
47. "Is there Lead in Your Water?" Consumer Reports, pp. 72-78 (Feb., 1993).
48. These concerns are distinct from the continued controversy over water fluoridation from all methods: see G. L. Waldcott, A. W. Burgstahler and H. L. McKinney, Fluoridation: the Great Dilemma (Coronado Press, Lawerence, Kansas, 1997).
49. "EPA/625/R-93/001" Control of Lead and Copper in Drinking Water, (Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, May 1993).
50. Fluoridation Census 1992 (USPHS Centers for Disease Control, Atlanta, Georgia, 1993).
51. D. Dryce-Smith, "Lead Induced Disorder of Mentation in Children", Nutr. and Health. 1, 179-194 (1983).
52. K. C. Land, P. L. McCall and L. E. Cohen, "Structural Covariates of Homicide Rates: Are There Any Invariances across Time and Social Space?", Am. J. Soc. 95, 922-963 (1990).
53. -8).
54. This result is all the more impressive because multiple regression reveals that percentage of housing built before 1940 is a significant predictor of which towns use silicofluorides (controlling for population density, % vacant housing, per capita income, racial composition, and other demographic variables).
55. D. R. Juberg, Lead and Human Health (American Council on Science and Health, New York, 1997), p. 9; H. Abadin and F. Llados Draft Toxicological Profile on Lead (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, Department of Health and Humand Services, Atlanta, Georgia, August 1997), pp. 202-3.
56. D. R. Juberg, Lead and Human Health (American Council on Science and Health, New York, 1997), p. 9; H. Abadin and F. Llados Draft Toxicological Profile on Lead (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, Department of Health and Humand Services, Atlanta, Georgia, August 1997), pp. 202-3.
57. This hypothesis may help unravel another paradox recently noted by an official of the EPA, who concluded a discussion of the impact of high levels of local soil lead on infant blood lead by remarking: "There is a mystery in all this. It's clear that soil-borne lead contributes to lead poisoning... What's not clear is why some soil-lead contamination contributes more to blood-lead levels than others ... Theories abound, based on such variables as the size of the lead particles or chemical form of the lead...", M. S. Stapleton, Lead is a Silent Hazard (Walker and Co., New York, 1994), p. 81. Our findings suggest that water treated with fluosilicic acid or sodium silicofluoride should be added to the list of suspects.
58. R. D. Masters and M. Coplan "Lead, Water Fluoridation, and Neurotoxicity", Global Legal Policy (S. Nagel, Ed.) (St Martin's Press, New York, in press); R. D. Masters and M. J. Coplan (in preparation).
59. R. D. Masters and M. Coplan "Lead, Water Fluoridation, and Neurotoxicity", Global Legal Policy (S. Nagel, Ed.) (St Martin's Press, New York, in press); R. D. Masters and M. J. Coplan (in preparation).