Perspective: Spontaneous deleterious mutation

Evolution

Volumn 53, Issue 3, 1999, Pages 645-663

  Lynch, Michael ^a   Blanchard, Jeff ^a   Houle, David ^b   Kibota, Travis ^c   Schultz, Stewart ^d   Vassilieva, Larissa ^a   Willis, John ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OREGON   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO   (Canada)

^c Clark College   (United States)

^d Department of Biology   (United States)

Author keywords

Deleterious mutation; Fitness; Mutation; Mutation rate; Mutational effect

Indexed keywords

EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGY; EXTINCTION RISK; MUTATION;

ANIMALIA; DROSOPHILA; DROSOPHILA MELANOGASTER; MELANOGASTER;

EID: 0032815107     PISSN: 00143820     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1558-5646.1999.tb05361.x     Document Type: Article

References (162)

1. AKASHI, H. 1995. Inferring weak selection from patterns of polymorphism and divergence at "silent" sites in Drosophila DNA. Genetics 139:1067-1076.
2. AYALA, F. J. 1968. Evolution of fitness. II. Correlated effects of natural selection on the productivity and size of experimental populations of Drosophila serrata. Evolution 22:55-65.
3. BAILEY, D. W. 1959. Rates of subline divergence in highly inbred strains of mice. J. Heredity 50:26-30.
4. BARTON, N. H. 1990. Pleiotropic models of quantitative variation. Genetics 124:773-782.
5. BATEMAN, A. J. 1959. The viability of near-normal irradiated chromosomes. Int. J. Rad. Biol. 1:170-180.
6. BAUER, V. L., AND C. F. AQUADRO. 1997. Rates of DNA sequence evolution are not sex-biased in Drosophila melanogaster and D. simulans. Mol. Biol. Evol. 14:1252-1257.
7. BULMER, M. G. 1972. The genetic variability of polygenic characters under optimizing selection, mutation, and drift. Genet. Res. 19:17-25.
8. _. 1991. The selection-mutation-drift theory of synonymous codon usage. Genetics 129:897-907.
9. BUTCHER, D. 1995. Muller's ratchet, epistasis and mutation effects. Genetics 141:431-437.
10. CHAO, L. 1988. Evolution of sex in RNA viruses. J. Theor. Biol. 133:99-112.
11. CHARLESWORTH, B. 1990. Mutation-selection balance and the evolutionary advantage of sex and recombination. Genet. Res. 55: 199-221.
12. _. 1991. The evolution of sex chromosomes. Science 251: 1030-1033.
13. CHARLESWORTH, B., AND K. A. HUGHES. 1996. Age-specific inbreeding depression and components of genetic variance in relation to the evolution of senescence. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 93:6140-6145.
14. CHARLESWORTH, B., AND K. A. HUGHES. In press. The maintenance of genetic variation in life history traits. In R. S. Singh and C. B. Krimbas, eds. Evolutionary genetics from molecules to morphology. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, U.K.
15. CHARLESWORTH, B., D. CHARLESWORTH, AND M. T. MORGAN. 1990. Genetic loads and estimates of mutation rates in highly inbred plant populations. Nature 347:380-382.
16. CHARLESWORTH, B., A. LAPID, AND D. CANADA. 1992. The distribution of transposable elements within and between chromosomes in a population of Drosophila melanogaster. I. Element frequencies and distribution. Genet. Res. 60:103-114.
17. CHARLESWORTH, B., M. T. MORGAN, AND D. CHARLESWORTH. 1993. The effect of deleterious mutations on neutral molecular evolution. Genetics 134:1289-1303.
18. CHARLESWORTH, D., AND B. CHARLESWORTH. 1987. Inbreeding depression and its evolutionary consequences. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 18:237-268.
19. CHARLESWORTH, D., M. T. MORGAN, AND B. CHARLESWORTH. 1992. The effect of linkage and population size on inbreeding depression due to mutational load. Genet. Res. 59:49-61.
20. CHARLESWORTH, D., E. E. LYONS, AND L. B. LITCHFIELD. 1994. Inbreeding depression in two highly inbreeding populations of Leavenworthia. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 258:209-214.
21. CLARK, A. G., L. WANG, AND T. HULLEBERG. 1995. Spontaneous mutation rate of modifiers of metabolism in Drosophila. Genetics 139:767-779.
22. CROW, J. F. 1970. Genetic loads and the cost of natural selection, Pp. 128-177 in K. Kojima, ed. Mathematical topics in population genetics. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
23. _. 1993a. Mutation, mean fitness, and genetic load. Oxford Surv. Evol. Biol. 9:3-42.
24. _. 1993b. How much do we know about spontaneous human mutation rates? Environ. Mol. Mutagen. 21:122-129.
25. _. 1997. The high spontaneous mutation rate: is it a health risk? Proc. Natl. Acad. USA 94:8380-8386.
26. CROW, J. F., AND M. J. SIMMONS. 1983. The mutation load in Drosophila. Pp. 1-35 in M. Ashburner, H. L. Carson, and J. N. Thompson, Jr., eds. The genetics and biology of Drosophila. Vol. 3c. Academic Press, New York.
27. DENG, H.-W. 1998. Estimation of deleterious-mutation rate and effects in outcrossing populations. Genetics 150:945-956.
28. DENG, H.-W., AND M. LYNCH. 1996. Estimation of deleteriousmutation parameters in natural populations. Genetics 144:349-360.
29. _. 1997. Inbreeding depression and inferred deleterious mutation parameters in Daphnia. Genetics 147:147-155.
30. DE VISSER, J. A. G. M., R. F. HOEKSTRA, AND H. VAN DEN ENDE. 1996. The effect of sex and deleterious mutations in Chlamydomonas. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 263:193-200.
31. _. 1997a. An experimental test for synergistic epistasis and its application in Chlamydomonas. Genetics 145:815-819.
32. _. 1997b. Test of interaction between genetic markers that affect fitness in Aspergillus niger. Evolution 51:1499-1505.
33. DOBZHANSKY, T., H. LEVENE, B. SPASSKY, AND N. SPASSKY. 1959. Release of genetic variability through recombination. III. Drosophila prosaltans. Genetics 44:75-92.
34. DRAKE, J. W. 1991. A constant rate of spontaneous mutation in DNA-based microbes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 88:7160-7164.
35. DRAKE, J., B. CHARLESWORTH, D. CHARLESWORTH, AND J. F. CROW. 1998. Rates of spontaneous mutation. Genetics 148:1667-1686.
36. DROST, J. B., AND W. R. LEE. 1995. Biological basis of germline mutation: comparisons of spontaneous germline mutation rates among Drosophila, mouse, and human. Environ. Mol. Mut. 25, Suppl. 26:48-64.
37. ELENA, S. F., AND R. E. LENSKI. 1997. Test of synergistic interactions among deleterious mutations in bacteria. Nature 390: 395-398.
38. ELENA, S. F., L. EKUNWE, N. HAJELA, S. A. ODEN, AND R. E. LENSKI. 1998. Distributions of fitness effects caused by random insertion mutations in Escherichia coli. Genetica 102/103:349-358.
39. FERNÁNDEZ, J., AND C. LÓPEZ-FANJUL. 1996. Spontaneous mutational variances and covariances for fitness-related traits in Drosophila melanogaster. Genetics 143:829-837.
40. _. 1997. Spontaneous mutational genotype-environment interaction for fitness-related traits in Drosophila melanogaster. Evolution 51:856-864.
41. FESTING, M. F. W. 1973. A multivariate analysis of subline divergence in the shape of mandible in C57BL/Gr mice. Genet. Res. 21:121-132.
42. FORCE, A., M. LYNCH, B. PICKETT, A. AMORES, Y.-L. YAN, AND J. POSTLETHWAIT. 1999. Preservation of duplicate genes by complementary, degenerative mutations. Genetics 151:1531-1545.
43. FRANKHAM, R., AND D. A. LOEBEL. 1992. Modeling conservation genetics problems using captive Drosophila populations: rapid genetic adaptation to captivity. Zoo Biol. 11:333-342.
44. FRY, J. D., K. A. DERONDE, AND T. F. C. MACKAY. 1995. Polygenic mutation in Drosophila melanogaster: genetic analysis of selection lines. Genetics 139:1293-1307.
45. FRY, J. D., S. L. HEINSOHN, AND T. F. C. MACKAY. 1996. The contribution of new mutations to genotype-environment interaction for fitness in Drosophila melanogaster. Evolution 50: 2316-2327.
46. _. 1998. Heterosis for viability, fecundity, and male fertility in Drosophila melanogaster: comparison of mutational and standing variation. Genetics 148:1171-1188.
47. FRY, J. D., P. D. KEIGHTLEY, S. L. HEINSOHN, AND S. V. NUZHDIN. 1999. New estimates of the rates and effects of mildly deleterious mutation in Drosophila melanogaster. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 96:574-579.
48. GARCÍA-DORADO, A. 1997. The rate and effects distribution of viability mutation in Drosophila: minimum distance estimation. Evolution 51:1130-1139.
49. GARCÍA-DORADO, A., AND J. M. MARÍN. 1998. Minimum distance estimation of mutational parameters for quantitative traits. Biometrics 54:214-230.
50. GARCÍA-DORADO, A., J. L. MONEDERO, AND C. LÓPEZ-FANJUL. 1998. The mutation rate and the distribution of mutational effects of viability and fitness in Drosophila melanogaster. Genetica 102/103:255-265.
51. GILLIGAN, D. M., L. M. WOODWORTH, M. E. MONTGOMERY, D. A. BRISCOE, AND R. FRANKHAM. 1997. Is mutation accumulation a threat to the survival of endangered populations? Cons. Biol. 11:12351-1241.
52. GREWAL, M. S. 1962. The rate of genetic divergence of sublines in the C57BL strain of mice. Genet. Res. 3:226-237.
53. HALDANE, J. B. S. 1937. The effect of variation on fitness. Am. Nat. 71:337-349.
54. HAMILTON, W. D. 1966. The moulding of senescence by natural selection. J. Theor. Biol. 12:12-45.
55. HOI-SEN, Y. 1972. Is subline differentiation a continuing process in inbred strains of mice? Genet. Res. 19:53-59.
56. HOLLAND, P. W. H., J. GARCÍA-FERNÁNDEZ, N. A. WILLIAMS, AND A. SIDOW. 1994. Gene duplications and the origins of vertebrate development. Devel., Suppl. 125-133.
57. HOULE, D. 1992. Comparing evolvability and variability of quantitative traits. Genetics 130:195-204.
58. _. 1998. How should we explain variation in the genetic variance of traits? Genetica 102/103:241-253.
59. HOULE, D., D. K. HOFFMASTER, S. ASSIMACOPOULUS, AND B. CHARLESWORTH. 1992. The genomic mutation rate for fitness in Drosophila. Nature 359:58-60.
60. HOULE, D., K. A. HUGHES, D. K. HOFFMASTER, J. IHARA, S. ASSIMACOPOULOS, D. CANADA, AND B. CHARLESWORTH. 1994a. The effects of spontaneous mutation on quantitative traits. I. Variance and covariance of life history traits. Genetics 138:773-785.
61. HOULE, D., D. K. HOFFMASTER, S. ASSIMACOPOULUS, AND B. CHARLESWORIH. 1994b. Correction: the genomic mutation rate for fitness in Drosophila. Nature 371:358.
62. HOULE, D., B. MORIKAWA, AND M. LYNCH. 1996. Comparing mutational heritabilities. Genetics 143:1467-1483.
63. HOULE, D., K. A. HUGHES, S. ASSIMACOPOULOS, AND B. CHARLESWORTH. 1997a. The effects of spontaneous mutation on quantitative traits. II. Dominance of mutations with effects on life-history traits. Genet. Res. 70:27-34.
64. HOULE, D., A. S. KONDRASHOV, L. Y. YAMPOLSKY, S. CALDWELL, AND P. L. STEPONKUS. 1997b. The effect of cryopreservation on the lethal mutation rate in Drosophila melanogaster. Genet. Res. 3:209-213.
65. HUDSON, R. R., AND N. L. KAPLAN. 1995. Deleterious background selection with recombination. Genetics 141:1605-1617.
66. JOHNSTON, M. O., AND D. J. SCHOEN. 1995. Mutation rates and dominance levels of genes affecting total fitness in two angiosperm species. Science 267:226-229.
67. KAWECKI, T. J., N. H. BARTON, AND J. D. FRY. 1997. Mutational collapse of fitness in marginal habitats and the evolution of ecological specialization. J. Evol. Biol. 10:407-429.
68. KEIGHTLEY, P. D. 1994. The distribution of mutation effects on viability in Drosophila melanogaster. Genetics 138:1315-1322.
69. _. 1996. Nature of deleterious mutation load in Drosophila. Genetics 144:1993-1999.
70. _. 1998. Inference of genome wide mutation rates and distributions of mutation effects for fitness traits: a simulation study. Genetics 150:1283-1293.
71. KEIGHTLEY, P. D., AND A. CABALLERO. 1997. Genomic mutation rates for lifetime reproductive output and lifespan in Caenorhabditis elegans. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94:3823-3827.
72. KEIGHTLEY, P. D., AND O. OHNISHI. 1998. EMS-induced polygenic mutation rates for nine quantitative characters in Drosophila melanogaster. Genetics 148:753-766.
73. KEIGHTLEY, P. D., T. F. C. MACKAY, AND A. CABALLERO. 1993. Accounting for bias in estimates of the rate of polygenic mutation. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 253:291-296.
74. KEIGHTLEY, P. D., A. CABALLERO, AND A. GARCÍA-DORADO. 1998. Surviving under mutation pressure. Curr. Biol. 8:R235-R237.
75. KIBOTA, T., AND M. LYNCH. 1996. Estimate of the genomic mutation rate deleterious to overall fitness in Escherichia coli. Nature 381:694-696.
76. KIMURA, M. 1965. A stochastic model concerning the maintenance of genetic variability in quantitative characters. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 54:731-736.
77. _. 1983. The neutral theory of molecular evolution. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, U.K.
78. KIMURA, M., AND J. F. CROW. 1963. On the maximum avoidance of inbreeding. Genet. Res. 4:399-415.
79. KIMURA, M., AND T. MARUYAMA. 1966. The mutational load with epistatic gene interactions in fitness. Genetics 54:1337-1351.
80. KIMURA, M., AND T. OHTA. 1971. On the rate of molecular evolution. J. Mol. Evol. 1:1-17.
81. KONDRAHSOV, A. S. 1982. Selection against harmful mutations in large sexual and asexual populations. Genet. Res. 40:325-332.
82. _. 1988. Deleterious mutations and the evolution of sexual reproduction. Nature 336:435-440.
83. _. 1994. Muller's ratchet under epistatic selection. Genetics 136:1469-1473.
84. _. 1995. Contamination of the genome by very slightly deleterious mutations: why have we not died 100 times over? J. Theor. Biol. 175:583-594.
85. KONDRASHOV, A. S., AND J. F. CROW. 1991. Haploidy or diploidy: which is better? Nature 351:314-315.
86. KONDRASHOV, A. S., AND D. HOULE. 1994. Genotype-environment interactions and the estimation of the genomic mutation rate in Drosophila melanogaster. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 258: 221-227.
87. KONDRASHOV, A. S., AND M. TURELLI. 1992. Deleterious mutations, apparent stabilizing selection and the maintenance of quantitative variation. Genetics 132:603-618.
88. KRIMBAS, C. B. 1961. Release of genetic variability through recombination. VI. Drosophila willistoni. Genetics 46:1323-1334.
89. LANDE, R. 1975. The maintenance of genetic variation by mutation in a polygenic character with linked loci. Genet. Res. 26:221-235.
90. _. 1994. Risk of population extinction from new deleterious mutations. Evolution 48:1460-1469.
91. LANDE, R., AND D. W. SCHEMSKE. 1985. The evolution of self-fertilization and inbreeding depression in plants. I. Genetic models. Evolution 39:24-40.
92. LANGLEY, C. H., R. A. VOELKER, A. J. L. BROWN, S. OHNISHI, B. DICKSON, AND E. MONTGOMERY. 1981. Null allele frequencies at allozyme loci in natural populations of Drosophila melanogaster. Genetics 99:151-156.
93. LATTER, B. D. H. 1998. Mutant alleles of small effect are primarily responsible for the loss of fitness with slow inbreeding in Drosophila melanogaster. Genetics 148:1143-1158.
94. LATTER, B. D. H., AND J. C. MULLEY. 1995. Genetic adaptation to captivity and inbreeding depression in small laboratory populations of Drosophila melanogaster. Genetics 139:255-266.
95. LENSKI, R. E., AND M. TRAVISANO. 1994. Dynamics of adaptation and diversification: a 10,000-generation experiment with bacterial populations. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91:6808-6814.
96. LENSKI, R. E., M. R. ROSE, S. C. SIMPSON, AND S. C. TADLER. 1991. Long-term experimental evolution in Escherichia coli. I. Adaptation and divergence during 2000 generations. Am. Nat. 138: 1315-1341.
97. LI, W.-H. 1980. Rate of gene silencing at duplicate loci: a theoretical study and interpretation of data from tetraploid fishes. Genetics 95:237-258.
98. LUNDIN, L. 1993. Evolution of the vertebrate genome as reflected in paralogous chromosomal regions in man and the house mouse. Genomics 16:1-9.
99. LYMAN, R. F., F. LAWRENCE, S. V. NUZHDIN, AND T. F. C. MACKAY. 1996. Effects of single P element insertions on bristle number and viability in Drosophila melanogaster. Genetics 143:277-292.
100. LYNCH, M. 1988. The rate of polygenic mutation. Genet. Res. 51: 137-148.
101. _. 1994. The neutral theory of phenotypic evolution. Pp. 86-108 in L. Real, ed. Ecological genetics. Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton, NJ.
102. _. 1997. Mutation accumulation in nuclear, organelle, and prokaryotic transfer RNA genes. Mol. Biol. Evol. 14:914-925.
103. LYNCH, M., AND J. BLANCHARD. 1998. Deleterious mutation accumulation in organelle genomes. Genetica 102/103:29-39.
104. LYNCH, M., AND H.-W. DENG. 1994. Genetic slippage in response to sex. Am. Nat. 144:242-261.
105. LYNCH, M., AND W. G. HILL. 1986. Phenotypic evolution and neutral mutation. Evolution 40:915-935.
106. LYNCH, M., AND B. WALSH. 1998. Genetics and analysis of quantitative traits. Sinauer, Sunderland, MA.
107. LYNCH, M., R. BURGER, D. BUTCHER, AND W. GABRIEL. 1993. The mutational meltdown in asexual populations. J. Heredity 84: 339-344.
108. LYNCH, M., J. CONERY, AND R. BURGER. 1995a. Mutational melt-downs in sexual populations. Evolution 49:1067-1080.
109. _. 1995b. Mutation accumulation and the extinction of small populations. Am. Nat. 146:489-518.
110. LYNCH, M., L. LATTA, J. HICKS, AND M. GIORGIANNI. 1998. Mutation, selection, and the maintenance of life-history variation in natural population. Evolution 52:727-733.
111. MACKAY, T. F. C., R. E LYMAN, AND M. S. JACKSON. 1992. Effects of P element insertion on quantitative traits in Drosophila melanogaster. Genetics 130:315-332.
112. MACKAY, T. F. C., J. D. FRY, R. F. LYMAN, AND S. V. NUZHDIN. 1994. Polygenic mutation in Drosophila melanogaster: estimates from response to selection of inbred strains. Genetics 136:937-951.
113. MACKAY, T. F. C., R. F. LYMAN, AND W. G. HILL. 1995. Polygenic mutation in Drosophila melanogaster: non-linear divergence among unselected strains. Genetics 139:849-859.
114. MALMBERG, R. L. 1977. The evolution of epistasis and the advantage of recombination in populations of bacteriophage T4. Genetics 86:607-621.
115. MARTORELL, C., M. A. TORO, AND C. GALLEGO. 1998. Spontaneous mutation for life-history traits in Drosophila melanogaster. Genetica 102/103:315-324.
116. MILLER, M. J., N. H. XUONG, AND E. P. GUIDUSHEK. 1982. Quantitative analysis of the heat shock response of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. J. Bact. 151:311-327.
117. MORTON, N. E., J. F. CROW, AND H. J. MULLER. 1956. An estimate of the mutational damage in man from data on consanguineous matings. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 42:855-863.
118. MUKAI, T. 1964. The genetic structure of natural populations of Drosophila melanogaster. I. Spontaneous mutation rate of polygenes controlling viability. Genetics 50:1-19.
119. _. 1969. The genetic structure of natural populations of Drosophila melanogaster. VII. Synergistic interaction of spontaneous mutant polygenes controlling viability. Genetics 61:749-761.
120. _. 1979. Polygenic mutation. Pp. 177-196 in J. N. Thompson, Jr. and J. M. Thoday, eds. Quantitative genetic variation. Academic Press, New York.
121. _. 1980. The genetic structure of natural populations of Drosophila melanogaster. XIV. Effects of the incomplete dominance of the IN(2LR)SM1 (Cy) chromosome on the estimates of various genetic parameters. Genetics 94:749-761.
122. MUKAI, T., AND O. YAMAGUCHI. 1974. The genetic structure of natural populations of Drosophila. XI. Genetic variability in a local population. Genetics 82:63-82.
123. MUKAI, T., AND T. YAMAZAKI. 1968. The genetic structure of natural populations of Drosophila melanogaster. V. Coupling-repulsion effect of spontaneous mutant polygenes controlling viability. Genetics 59:513-535.
124. _. 1971. The genetic structure of natural populations of Drosophila melanogaster. X. Developmental time and viability. Genetics 69:385-398.
125. MUKAI, T., S. I. CHIGUSA, L. E. METTLER, AND J. F. CROW. 1972. Mutation rate and dominance of genes affecting viability in Drosophila melanogaster. Genetics 72:335-355.
126. MULLER, H. J. 1950. Our load of mutations. Am. J. Hum. Gen. 2: 111-176.
127. NADEAU, J. H., AND D. SANKOFF. 1997. Comparable rates of gene loss and functional divergence after genome duplications early in vertebrate evolution. Genetics 147:1259-1266.
128. NUZHDIN, S. V., AND T. F. C. MACKAY. 1995. The genomic rate of transposable element movement in Drosophila melanogaster. Mol. Biol. Evol. 12:180-181.
129. NUZHDIN, S. V., J. D. FRY, AND T. F. C. MACKAY. 1995. Polygenic mutation in Drosophila melanogaster: the causal relationship of bristle number to fitness. Genetics 139:861-872.
130. NUZHDIN, S. V., E. G. PASYUKOVA, AND T. F. C. MACKAY. 1996. Positive association between copia transposition rate and copy number in Drosophila melanogaster. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 263:823-831.
131. OHNISHI, O. 1974. Spontaneous and ethyl methanesulfonate-induced mutations controlling viability in Drosophila melanogaster. Ph.D. diss., University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI.
132. _. 1977a. Spontaneous and ethyl methane-sulfonate induced mutations controlling viability in Drosophila melanogaster. I. Recessive lethal mutations. Genetics 87:519-527.
133. _. 1977b. Spontaneous and ethyl methane-sulfonate induced mutations controlling viability in Drosophila melanogaster. II. Homozygous effect of polygenic mutations. Genetics 87:529-545.
134. _. 1977c. Spontaneous and ethyl methane-sulfonate induced mutations controlling viability in Drosophila melanogaster. III. Heterozygous effect of polygenic mutations. Genetics 87:547-556.
135. OHTA, T. 1992. The nearly netural theory of molecular evolution. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 23:263-286.
136. OKA, H. I., J. HAYASHI, AND I. SHIOJIRI. 1958. Induced mutations of polygenes for quantitative characters in rice. J. Heredity 49: 11-14.
137. PAMILO, P., M. NEI, AND W.-H. LI. 1987. Accumulation of mutations in sexual and asexual populations. Genet. Res. 49:135-146.
138. PARTRIDGE, L., AND N. H. BARTON. 1993. Optimality, mutation and the evolution of aging. Nature 362:305-311.
139. PASYUKOVA, E. G., S. V. NUZHDIN, AND D. A. FILATOV. 1998. The relationship between the rate of transposition and transposable element copy number for copia and Doc retroposons of Drosophila melanogaster. Genet. Res. 72:1-11.
140. PERROT, V., S. RICHERD, AND M. VALERO. 1991. Transition from haploidy to diploidy. Nature 351:315-317.
141. PLETCHER, S. D., D. HOULE, AND J. W. CURTSINGER. 1998. Age-specific properties of spontaneous mutations affecting mortality in Drosophila melanogaster. Genetics 148:287-303.
142. RICE, W. R. 1994. Degeneration of a nonrecombining chromosome. Science 263:230-232.
143. RUSSELL, W. A., G. F. SPRAGUE, AND L. H. PENNY. 1963. Mutations affecting quantitative characters in long-term inbred lines of maize. Crop Sci. 3:175-178.
144. SAKAI, K.-I., AND A. SUZUKI. 1964. Induced mutation and pleiotropy of genes responsible for quantitative characters in rice. Rad. Bot. 4:141-151.
145. SANTIAGO, E., J. ALBORNOZ, A. DOMINGUEZ, M. A. TORO, AND C. LÓPEZ-FANJUL. 1992. The distribution of spontaneous mutations on quantitative traits and fitness in Drosophila melanogaster. Genetics 132:771-781.
146. SCHULTZ, S. T., AND M. LYNCH. 1997. Deleterious mutation and extinction: effects of variable mutational effects, synergistic epistasis, beneficial mutations, and degree of outcrossing. Evolution 51:1363-1371.
147. SHABALINA, S. A., L. Y. YAMPOLSKY, AND A. S. KONDRASHOV. 1997. Rapid decline of fitness in panmictic populations of Drosophila melanogaster maintained under relaxed natural selection. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94:13034-13039.
148. SHARP, P. M., AND W.-H. LI. 1989. On the rate of DNA sequence evolution in Drosophila. J. Mol. Evol. 28:398-402.
149. SIMMONS, M. J., AND J. F. CROW. 1977. Mutations affecting fitness in Drosophila populations. Annu. Rev. Genet. 11:49-78.
150. SPASSKY, B., N. SPASSKY, H. LEVENE, AND T. DOBZHANSKY. 1958. Release of genetic variability through recombination. I. Drosophila pseudoobscura. Genetics 43:844-867.
151. SPIESS, E. B. 1959. Release of genetic variability through recombination. II. Drosophila persimilis. Genetics 44:43-58.
152. SPIESS, E. B., AND A. C. ALLEN. 1961. Release of genetic variability through recombination. VII. Second and third chromosomes of Drosophila melanogaster. Genetics 46:1531-1553.
153. SPRAGUE, G. F., W. A. RUSSELL, AND L. H. PENNY. 1960. Mutations affecting quantitative traits in the selfed progeny of double monoploid maize stocks. Genetics 45:855-866.
154. THATCHER, J. W., J. M. SHAW, AND W. J. DICKINSON. 1998. Marginal fitness contributions of nonessential genes in yeast. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95:253-257.
155. TURELLI, M. 1984. Heritable genetic variation via mutation-selection balance: Lerch's zeta meets the abdominal bristle. Theor. Popul. Biol. 25:138-193.
156. VASSILIEVA, L. L., AND M. LYNCH. 1999. The rate of spontaneous mutation for life-history traits in Caenorhabditis elegans. Genetics 151:119-129.
157. WALLACE, B. 1956. Studies of irradiated populations of Drosophila melanogaster. J. Genet. 56:280-293.
158. WALSH, J. B. 1995. How often do duplicated genes evolve new functions? Genetics 110:345-364.
159. WAYNE, M. L., AND T. F. C. MACKAY. 1998. Quantitative genetics of ovariole number in Drosophila melanogaster. II. Mutational variation and genotype-environment interaction. Genetics 148: 201-210.
160. WEBER, K. E., AND L. T. DIGGINS. 1990. Increased selection response in larger populations. II. Selection for ethanol vapor resistance in Drosophila melanogaster at two population sizes. Genetics 125:585-597.
161. WILKINS, A. S. 1992. Genetic analysis of animal development. 2d ed. Wiley-Liss, New York.
162. ZENG, Z.-B., AND C. C. COCKERHAM. 1991. Variance of neutral genetic variances within and between populations for a quantitative character. Genetics 129:535-553.