Why do flowers vary? The functional ecology of variation in flower size and form within natural plant populations

BioScience

Volumn 49, Issue 8, 1999, Pages 631-640

  Galen, Candace ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0032807238     PISSN: 00063568     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/1313439     Document Type: Article

References (85)

1. Anderson S, Widén B. 1993. Pollinator-mediated selection on floral traits in a synthetic population of Senecio integrifolius (Asteraceae). Oikos 66: 72-79.
2. Antlfinger AE, Wendel LF. 1997. Reproductive effort and floral photosynthesis in Spiranthes cernua (Orchidaceae). American Journal of Botany 84: 769-780.
3. Armbruster WS. 1996. Evolution of floral morphology and function: An integrative approach to adaptation, constraint, and compromise in Dalechampia (Euphorbiaceae). Pages 241-272 in Lloyd DG, Barrett SCH, eds. Floral Biology. New York: Chapman & Hall.
4. Ashman TL. 1994. Reproductive allocation in hermaphrodite and female plants of Sidalcea oregana ssp. spicata (Malvaceae) using four currencies. American Journal of Botany 81: 433-438.
5. Bell G, Lechowicz MJ. 1991. The ecology and genetics of fitness in forest plants. I. Environmental heterogeneity measured by expiant trials. Journal of Ecology 79: 663-685.
6. Bliss LC. 1985. Alpine. Pages 41-65 in Chabot BF, Mooney HA, eds. Physiological Ecology of North American Plant Communities. New York: Chapman & Hall.
7. Brody AK. 1992. Oviposition choices by a pre-dispersal seed predator (Hylema sp.). I. Correspondence with hummingbird pollinators, and the role of plant size, density and floral morphology. Oecologia 91: 56-62.
8. Campbell DR. 1991. Effects of floral traits on sequential components of fitness in lpomopsis aggregata. American Naturalist 137: 713-737.
9. _. 1996. Evolution of floral traits in a hermaphroditic plant: Field measurements of heritabilities and genetic correlations. Evolution 50: 1442-1453.
10. _. 1997. Genetic and environmental variation in life-history traits of a monocarpic perennial: A decade-long field experiment. Evolution 51: 373-382.
11. Coley PD. 1983. Herbivory and defensive characteristics of tree species in a lowland tropical forest. Ecological Monographs 53: 209-233.
12. Coley PD, Bryant JP, Chapin FS III. 1985. Resource availability and plant antiherbivore defense. Science 230: 895-899.
13. Conner JK, Rush S. 1996. Effects of flower size and number on pollinator visitation to wild radish, Raphanus raphanistrum. Oecologia 105: 509-516.
14. Conner JK, Rush S, Jennetten P. 1996. Measurements of natural selection on floral traits in wild radish (Raphanus raphanistrum). I. Selection through lifetime female fitness. Evolution 50: 1127-1136.
15. Cresswell JE, Galen C. 1991. Frequency-dependent selection and adaptive surfaces for floral character combinations: The pollination of Polemonium viscosum. American Naturalist 138: 1342-1353.
16. Davidson JF. 1950. The genus Polemonium [Tournefort] L. University of California Publications in Botany 23: 209-282.
17. Dawson TE, Geber MA. 1999. Sexual dimorphism in physiology and morphology. Pages 175-215 in Geber MA, Dawson TE, eds. Gender and Sexual Dimorphism in Flowering Plants. Berlin/Heidelberg (Germany): Springer-Verlag.
18. Dawson TE, Weller S, Sakai A. 1998. Physiology, phylogeny, and adaptation in Hawaiian plants. Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America 79: 8.
19. Delph LF. 1996. Flower size dimorphism in plants with unisexual flowers. Pages 217-240 in Lloyd DG, Barren SCH, eds. Floral Biology. New York: Chapman & Hall.
20. Eckhart VM, Geber MA, Jonas CS. 1998. Developmental controls of flowering-time evolution in Clarkia (Onagraceae). American Journal of Botany 83: 81.
21. Ehleringer JR, Miller PC. 1975. Water relations of selected plant species in the alpine tundra, Colorado. Ecology 56: 370-380.
22. Elmqvist T, Liu D, Carlsson U, Giles BE. 1993. Anther-smut infection in Silene dioica: Variation in floral morphology and patterns of spore deposition. Oikos 68: 207-216.
23. Enquist BJ, Ebersole JJ. 1994. Effects of water on photosynthesis of Bistorta vivipara: The importance of water relations and leaf nitrogen in two communities, Pikes Peak, Colorado, USA. Arctic and Alpine Research 26: 29-34.
24. Feeny P. 1976. Plant apparency and chemical defense. Recent Advances in Phytochemistry 10: 1-40.
25. Fenster CB, Ritland K. 1994. Quantitative genetics of mating system divergence in the yellow monkeyflower species complex. Heredity 73: 422-435.
26. Galen C. 1983. The effects of nectar-thieving ants on seedset in floral scent morphs of Polemonium viscosum. Oikos 41: 245-249.
27. _. 1996a. Rates of floral evolution: Adaptation to bumblebee pollination in an alpine wildflower, Polemonium viscosum. Evolution 50: 120-125.
28. _. 1996b. The evolution of floral form: Insights from an alpine wildflower, Polemonium viscosum (Polemoniaceae). Pages 273-291 in Lloyd DG, Barrett SCH, eds. Floral Biology. New York: Chapman & Hall.
29. _. 1999. Flowers and enemies: Predation by nectar-thieving ants in relation to variation in floral form of an alpine wild-flower, Polemonium viscosum. Oikos 85: 426-434.
30. Galen C, Kevan PG. 1980. Scent and color, floral polymorphism and pollination biology in Polemonium viscosum Nutt. American Midland Naturalist 104: 281-289.
31. Galen C, Newport MEA. 1987. Bumblebee behavior and selection on flower size in the sky pilot, Polemonium viscosum. Oecologia 74: 20-23.
32. Galen C, Zimmer KA, Newport MEA. 1987. Pollination in floral scent morphs of Polemonium viscosum: A mechanism for disruptive selection on flower size. Evolution 41: 599-606.
33. Galen C, Dawson TE, Stanton ML. 1993. Carpels as leaves: Meeting the carbon cost of reproduction in an alpine buttercup. Oecologia 95: 187-193.
34. Galen C, Sherry RA, Carroll AB. 1999. Are flowers physiological sinks or faucets? Costs and correlates of water use by flowers of Polemonium viscosum. Oecologia 118: 461-470.
35. Grant V. 1950. The protection of ovules in flowering plants. Evolution 4: 179-201.
36. Gregg RE. 1963. The Ants of Colorado. Boulder (CO): University of Colorado Press.
37. Guerrant EO. 1989. Early maturity, small flowers and autogamy: A developmental connection? Pages 61-84 in Bock JH, Linhart YB, eds. The Evolutionary Ecology of Plants. Boulder (CO): Westview Press.
38. Hainsworth FR, Wolf LL, Mercier T. 1984. Pollination and pre-dispersal seed predation: Net effects on reproduction and inflorescence characteristics in Ipomopsis aggregata. Oecologia 63: 405-409.
39. Hemborg ÅM. 1998. Seasonal dynamics in reproduction of first-year females and males in Silene dioica. International Journal of Plant Science 159: 958-967.
40. Herrera CM. 1996. Floral traits and plant adaptation to insect pollinators: A devil's advocate approach. Pages 65-87 in Lloyd DG, Barrett SCH, eds. Floral Biology. New York: Chapman & Hall.
41. Hodges SA. 1997. Floral nectar spurs and diversification. International Journal of Plant Sciences 158 (Supplement): S81-S88.
42. Howe HF, Westley LC. 1988. Ecological relationships of plants and animals. New York: Oxford University Press.
43. Hurlbert AH, Aki Hosoi S, Temeles EJ, Ewald PW. 1996. Mobility of Impatiens capensis flowers: Effect on pollen deposition and hummingbird foraging. Oecologia 105: 243-246.
44. Irwin RE, Brody AK. 1998. Nectar robbing in Ipomopsis aggregata: Effects on pollinator behavior and plant fitness. Oecologia 116: 519-527.
45. Johnson SD, Steiner KE. 1997. Long-tongued fly pollination and evolution of floral spur length in the Disa draconis complex (Orchidaceae). Evolution 51: 45-53.
46. Jurik TW. 1985. Differential costs of sexual and vegetative reproduction in wild strawberry populations. Oecologia 66: 394-403.
47. Kudoh H, Whigham DF. 1998. The effect of petal size manipulation on pollinator/seedpredator mediated female reproductive success of Hibiscus moscheutos. Oecologia 117: 70-79.
48. Laporte MM, Delph LF. 1996. Sex-specific physiology and source-sink relations in the dioecious plant Silene latifolia. Oecologia 106: 63-72.
49. Lohman DJ, Zangerl AR, Berenbaum MR. 1996. Impact of floral herbivory by parsnip webworm (Oecophoridae: Depressaria pastinacella Duponchel) on pollination and fitness of wild parsnip (Apiaceae: Pastinaca sativa L.). American Midland Naturalist 136: 407-412.
50. Miller RB. 1981. Hawkmoths and the geographic patterns of floral variation in Aquilegia caerulea. Evolution 35: 763-777.
51. Mitchell RJ, Shaw RG. 1992. Heritability of floral traits for the perennial wildflower, Penstemon centranthifolius. Heredity 71: 185-192.
52. Mitchell RJ, Shaw RG, Waser NM. 1998. Pollinator selection, quantitative genetics, and predicted evolutionary responses of floral traits in Penstemon centranthifolius (Scrophulariaceae). International Journal of Plant Science 159: 331-337.
53. National Climatic Data Center. 1998. National Climatic Data Center. (May 1999).
54. Nilsson LA. 1988. The evolution of flowers with deep corolla tubes. Nature 334:147-149.
55. Nobel PS. 1977. Water relations of flowering Agave deserti. Botanical Gazette 138: 1-6.
56. Norment CJ. 1988. The effect of nectarthieving ants on the reproductive success of Frasera speciosa (Gentianaceae). American Midland Naturalist 120: 331-336.
57. Oberbauer SF, Billings WD. 1981. Drought tolerance and water use by plants along an alpine topographic gradient. Oecologia 50: 325-331.
58. O'Connell LM, Johnston MO. 1998. Male and female pollination success in a deceptive orchid, a selection study. Ecology 79: 1246-1260.
59. Peterson KM, Billings WD. 1982. Growth of alpine plants under controlled drought. Arctic and Alpine Research 14: 189-194.
60. Prys-Jones OE, Willmer PB. 1992. The biology of alkaline nectar in the purple toothwort (Lathraea dandestina): Ground level defences. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 45: 373-388.
61. Puterbaugh MN. 1998. The roles of ants as flower visitors: Experimental analysis in three alpine plant species. Oikos 83: 36-46.
62. Reader RJ, Bonser SP. 1993. Control of plant frequency on an environmental gradient: Effects of abiotic variables, neighbours, and predators on Poa pratensis and Poa compressa (Gramineae). Canadian Journal of Botany 71: 592-597.
63. Rhoades DF, Cates RG. 1976. Toward a general theory of plant antiherbivore chemistry. Recent Advances in Phytochemistry 19: 168-213.
64. Robertson JL, Wyatt R. 1990. Evidence for pollination ecotypes in the yellow fringed orchid, Platanthera ciliaris. Evolution 44: 121-133.
65. Roubik DW. 1982. The ecological impact of nectar-robbing bees and pollinating hummingbirds on a tropical shrub. Ecology 63: 354-360.
66. Runions CJ, Geber MA. 1998. A heterochronic shift leading to self pollination in Clarkia xantiana ssp. parviflora. American Journal of Botany 85: 51.
67. Schemske DW, Horvitz CC. 1984. Variation among floral visitors in pollination ability: A recondition for mutualism specialization. Science 225: 519-521.
68. Shykoff JA, Bucheli E. 1995. Pollinator visitation patterns, floral rewards, and the probability of transmission of Microbotryum violaceum, a venereal disease of plants. Journal of Ecology 83: 189-198.
69. Shykoff JA, Bucheli E, Kaltz O. 1997. Anther smut disease in Dianthus Silvester (Caryophyllaceae): Natural selection on floral traits. Evolution 51: 383-392.
70. Simpson MG. 1998. Reversal in ovary position from inferior to superior in the Haemodoraceae: Evidence from floral ontogeny. International Journal of Plant Science 159: 466-479.
71. Spira TP, Pollak OD. 1986. Comparative reproductive biology of alpine biennial and perennial gentians (Gentiana: Gentianaceae) in California. American Journal of Botany 73: 39-47.
72. Sprengel CK. [1793] 1972. Das Entdeckte Geheimniss der Natur in der Befruchtung der Blumen I. Vieweg sen., Bau und in der Befruchtung der Blumen I. Vieweg sen. Reprint, Berlin: Kramer J, Swann HK, Lehre; New York: Weldon and Wesley Codicote.
73. Stanton ML, Galloway LF. 1990. Natural selection and allocation to reproduction. Lectures in Mathematics and Life Sciences 22: 1-50.
74. Stanton ML, Young HJ, Ellstrand NC, Clegg JM. 1991. Consequences of floral variation for male and female reproduction in experimental populations of wild radish, Raphanus sativus L. Evolution 45: 268-280.
75. Stanton ML, Rejmanek M, Galen C. 1994. Changes in vegetation and soil fertility along a predictable snowmelt gradient in the Mosquito Range, Colorado, USA. Arctic and Alpine Research 26: 364-374.
76. Stebbins GL. 1970. Adaptive radiation of reproductive characteristics in angiosperms. I. Pollination mechanisms. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 1: 307-326.
77. _. 1974. Flowering plants: Evolution above the species level. Cambridge (MA): Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
78. Strauss SY, Armbruster WS. 1997. Linking herbivory and pollination-new perspectives on plant and animal ecology and evolution. Ecology 78: 1617-1618.
79. Strauss SY, Conner JK, Rush SL. 1996. Foliar herbivory affects floral characters and plant attractiveness to pollinators: Implications for male and female plant fitness. American Naturalist 147: 1098-1107.
80. Vu JCV, Yelenosky G, Bausher MG. 1985. Photosynthetic activity in the flower buds of "Valencia" Orange (Citrus sinensis [L.] Osbeck). Plant Physiology 78: 420-423.
81. Waser NM, Chittka L, Price MV, Williams NM, Ollerton J. 1996. Generalization in pollination systems, and why it matters. Ecology 77: 1043-1060.
82. 2 flow and coordinated reduction between photosynthetic systems. Pages 417-419 in Altscheffsky M, ed. Current Research in Photosynthesis IV. Dordrecht (The Netherlands): Kluwer Academic Publishing.
83. Wilson P. 1995. Selection for pollination success and the mechanical fit of Impatiens flowers around bumblebee bodies. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 55: 355-383.
84. Wilson P, Thomson JD. 1996. How do flowers diverge? Pages 88-111 in Lloyd DG, Barrett, SCH, eds. Floral Biology. New York: Chapman & Hall.
85. Young HJ, Stanton JL, Ellstrand NC, Clegg JM. 1994. Temporal and spatial variation in heritability and genetic correlations among floral traits in Raphanus sativus, wild radish. Heredity 73: 298-308.