Neural control of human motor development

Current Opinion in Neurobiology

Volumn 9, Issue 6, 1999, Pages 676-682

  Forssberg, Hans ^a  

^a K ^*  (Sweden)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CEREBRAL PALSY; HUMAN; LOCOMOTION; MOTOR CONTROL; MOTOR DEVELOPMENT; MOTOR PERFORMANCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PYRAMIDAL TRACT; REVIEW;

EID: 0032796446     PISSN: 09594388     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0959-4388(99)00037-9     Document Type: Review

References (67)

1. Bernstein N. The Coordination and Regulation of Movements. 1967;Pergamon, Oxford, UK.
2. Schoner G., Kelso J.A. Dynamic pattern generation in behavioral and neural systems. Science. 239:1988;1513-1520.
3. Ulrich B.D. Dynamic systems in theory and skill development in infants and children. Connolly K.J., Forssberg H. Neurophysiology and Neuropsychology of Motor Development. 1997;319-345 Mac Keith Press, London.
4. Thelen E., Skala K., Kelso J.S. The dynamic nature of early coordination: evidence from bilateral leg movements in young infants. Dev Psychobiol. 23:1987;179-186.
5. Sporns O., Edelman G.M. Solving Bernstein's problem: a proposal for the development of coordinated movement by selection. Child Development. 64:1993;960-981.
6. Changeux J.P. Variation and selection in neural function. Trends Neurosci. 20:1997;291-293.
7. Prechtl H.F.R. The importance of fetal movements. Connolly K.J., Forssberg H. Neurophysiology And Neuropsychology of Motor Development. 1997;42-53 Mac Keith Press, London. In this review, the author discusses a series of studies on the early emergence and longitudinal development of fetal movement patterns.
8. Einspieler C., Prechtl H.F., Ferrari F., Cioni G., Bos A.F. The qualitative assessment of general movements in preterm, term and young infants - review of the methodology. Early Hum Dev. 50:1997;47-60.
9. Hadders-Algra M., Prechtl H.F. Developmental course of general movements in early infancy. I: Descriptive analysis of change in form. Early Hum Dev. 28:1992;201-213.
10. Hadders-Algra M., Klip-Van den Nieuwendijk A., Martijn A., Van Eykern L.A. Assessment of general movements: towards a better understanding of a sensitive method to evaluate brain function in young infants. Dev Med Child Neurol. 39:1997;88-98.
11. Prechtl H.F. State of the art of a new functional assessment of the young nervous system. An early predictor of cerebral palsy. Early Hum Dev. 50:1997;1-11. In this review, the author presents the results of studies on the general movements of small infants. The general finding is that qualitative deviations from normal harmonic and symmetrical movement patterns are associated with an increased risk of developing neurodevelopmental disorders later in life.
12. Hadders-Algra M., Groothius A.M.C. Quality of general movements in infancy is related to the development of neurological dysfunction, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and aggressive behavior. Dev Med Child Neurol. 41:1999;381-391.
13. Hadders-Algra M., Brogren E., Forssberg H. Ontogeny of postural adjustments during sitting in infancy: variation, selection and modulation. J Physiol. 493:1996;273-288.
14. Hadders-Algra M., Brogren E., Forssberg H. Training affects the development of postural adjustments in sitting infants. J Physiol. 493:1996;289-298.
15. Forssberg H., Nashner L.M. Ontogenetic development of postural control in man: adaptation to altered support and visual conditions during stance. Neuroscience. 2:1982;545-552.
16. Sveistrup H., Woollacott M.H. Practice modifies the developing automatic postural response. Exp Brain Res. 114:1997;33-43.
17. Hadders-Algra M., Brogren E., Forssberg H. Postural adjustments during sitting at preschool age: presence of a transient toddling phase. Dev Med Child Neurol. 40:1998;436-447.
18. Lin J.P., Brown J.K., Walsh E.G. The maturation of motor dexterity: or why Johnny can't go any faster. Dev Med Child Neurol. 38:1996;244-254.
19. Sundermier L., Woollacott M.H. The influence of vision on the automatic postural muscle responses of newly standing and newly walking infants. Exp Brain Res. 120:1998;537-540.
20. Assaiante C. Development of locomotor balance control in healthy children. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 22:1998;527-532.
21. Ledebt A., Bril B., Breniere Y. The build-up of anticipatory behavior. An analysis of the development of gait initiation in children. Exp Brain Res. 120:1998;9-17.
22. Forssberg H. Ontogeny of human locomotor control. I. Infant stepping, supported locomotion and transition to independent locomotion. Exp Brain Res. 57:1985;480-493.
23. Yang J.F., Stephens M.J., Vishram R. Infant stepping: a method to study the sensory control of human walking. J Physiol. 507:1998;927-937.
24. Yang J.F., Stephens M.J., Vishram R. Transient disturbances to one limb produce coordinated, bilateral responses during infant stepping. J Neurophysiol. 79:1998;2329-2337. Transient disturbances (e.g. swing leg perturbations and increased loading of the stance leg) were applied to infants while they stepped on a moving treadmill belt. The stepping movements were adapted to maintain equilibrium and forward progression. The adaptations resembled those found in cat spinal locomotion and adult human locomotion.
25. Adolph K.E., Vereijken B., Denny M.A. Learning to crawl. Child Dev. 69:1998;1299-1312.
26. Berger W., Altenmueller E., Dietz V. Normal and impaired development of children's gait. Hum Neurobiol. 3:1984;163-170.
27. Cioni G., Duchini F., Milianti B., Paolicelli P.B., Sicola E., Boldrini A., Ferrari A. Differences and variations in the patterns of early independent walking. Early Hum Dev. 35:1993;193-205.
28. Leonard C.T., Hirschfeld H., Forssberg H. The development of independent walking in children with cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol. 33:1991;567-577.
29. Leonard C.T., Hirschfeld H., Moritani T., Forssberg H. Myotatic reflex development in normal children and children with cerebral palsy. Exp Neurol. 111:1991;379-382.
30. Breniere Y., Bril B. Development of postural control of gravity forces in children during the first 5 years of walking. Exp Brain Res. 121:1998;255-262.
31. Jeng S.F., Liao H.F., Lai J.S., Hou J.W. Optimization of walking in children. Med Sci Sports Exercise. 29:1997;370-376.
32. Green J.R., Moore C.A., Ruark J.L., Rodda P.R., Morvee W.T., VanWitzenburg M.J. Development of chewing in children from 12 to 48 months: longitudinal study of EMG patterns. J Neurophysiol. 77:1997;2704-2716. The development of activation patterns in masticatory muscles was examined longitudinally in four children from 12 to 48 months of age. The basic chewing pattern of reciprocally activated antagonistic muscle groups was established at 12 months of age, but continued to change through the 36 month period examined.
33. Thelen E., Corbetta D., Spencer J.P. Development of reaching during the first year: role of movement speed. J Exp Psychol [Hum Percept Perform]. 22:1996;1059-1076.
34. Konczak J., Borutta M., Dichgans J. The development of goal directed reaching in infants. II. Learning to produce task-adequate patterns of joint torque. Exp Brain Res. 113:1997;465-474. The hand and proximal joint trajectories during reaching movements were studied in nine infants from the onset of reaching (fifth postnatal month) up to the age of 3 years. Infants could reliably grasp for objects 3-4 months after the onset of reaching, but efficient movement trajectories did not develop before the second year of life.
35. Wimmers R.H., Savelsbergh G.J., Beek P.J., Hopkins B. Evidence for a phase transition in the early development of prehension. Dev Psychobiol. 32:1998;235-248.
36. Konczak J., Dichgans J. The development toward stereotypic arm kinematics during reaching in the first 3 years of life. Exp Brain Res. 117:1997;346-354.
37. Kuhtz-Buschbeck J.P., Stolze H., Johnk K., Boczek-Funcke A., Illert M. Development of prehension movements in children: a kinematic study. Exp Brain Res. 122:1998;424-432.
38. von Hofsten C., Vishton P., Spelke E.S., Feng Q., Rosander K. Predictive action in infancy: tracking and reaching for moving objects. Cognition. 67:1998;255-285.
39. Savelsbergh G., von Hofsten C., Jonsson B. The coupling of head, reach and grasp movement in nine months old infant prehension. Scand J Psychol. 38:1997;325-333.
40. Armand J., Olivier E., Edgley S.A., Lemon R.N. Postnatal development of corticospinal projections from motor cortex to the cervical enlargement in the macaque monkey. J Neurosci. 17:1997;251-266. The postnatal development of corticospinal projections was investigated in macaque monkeys using anterograde transport of wheat germ agglutin horseradish peroxidase injected into the primary cortex of the hand motor area. Although there were projections at all levels of the spinal cord at birth, the direct cortico-motoneuronal projections to the hand motoneuronal pool was not present. The density of these projections increased rapidly during the first months.
41. Olivier E., Edgley S.A., Armand J., Lemon R.N. An electrophysiological study of the postnatal development of the corticospinal system in the macaque monkey. J Neurosci. 17:1997;267-276. Postnatal development of the corticospinal system was investigated using transcranial magnetic stimulation and direct electrical stimulation of corticospinal axons in the medulla and the spinal cord in macaque monkeys. Fine finger movements were not observed before functional cortico-motoneuronal connections were established. Rapid changes in the physiological properties coincided with the development of the precision grip.
42. Heinen F., Fietzek U.M., Berweck S., Hufschmidt A., Deuschl, Korinthenberg R. Fast corticospinal system and motor performance in children: conduction proceeds skill. Pediatr Neurol. 19:1998;217-221.
43. Muller K., Kass-Iliyya F., Reitz M. Ontogeny of ipsilateral corticospinal projections: a developmental study with transcranial magnetic stimulation. Ann Neurol. 42:1997;705-711. The presence of ipsilateral projections to hand and arm muscles from the primary motor cortex was studied using transcranial magnetic stimulation in children between 3 and 11 years of age. A muscle response could be elicited in children below 10 years of age, with a latency 12-14 ms longer than that to responses of contralateral muscles.
44. Reitz M., Muller K. Differences between 'congenital mirror movements' and 'associated movements' in normal children: a neurophysiological case study. Neurosci Lett. 256:1998;69-72.
45. Heinen F., Glocker F.X., Fietzek U., Meyer B.U., Lucking C.H., Korinthenberg R. Absence of transcallosal inhibition following focal magnetic stimulation in preschool children. Ann Neurol. 43:1998;608-612.
46. Mayston M.J., Harrison L.M., Stephens J.A. A neurophysiological study of mirror movements in adults and children. Ann Neurol. 45:1999;583-594. The mechanisms underlying mirror movements in children and adults were studied using transcranial magnetic stimulation, cutaneomuscular reflexes and cross-correlation analysis of motor unit discharges. The results suggest that mirror movements are produced by simultaneous activation of crossed corticospinal pathways originating from both left and right motor cortices.
47. Forssberg H. The neurophysiology of manual skill development. Connolly K.J. The Psychobiology of the Hand. 1998;97-122 Mac Keith Press, London.
48. Gibbs J., Harrison L.M., Stephens J.A. Cross-correlation analysis of motor unit activity recorded from two separate thumb muscles during development in man. J Physiol. 499:1997;255-266. Cross-correlograms were constructed from the discharges of motor units recorded by surface EMG signals from the long and short abductor muscles of the same thumb in children aged between 4 and 15 years. With increasing age, there was an increased prevalence of central cross-correlogram peaks, as well as an increased size and a decreased duration of the central peak.
49. Forssberg H., Eliasson A.C., Kinoshita H., Westling G., Johansson R.S. Development of human precision grip. IV: Tactile adaptation of isometric finger forces to the frictional condition. Exp Brain Res. 104:1995;323-330.
50. Eliasson A.C., Forssberg H., Ikuta K., Apel I., Westling G., Johansson R.S. Development of human precision grip. V: Anticipatory and triggered grip actions during sudden loading. Exp Brain Res. 106:1995;425-433.
51. Gibbs J., Harrison L.M., Stephens J.A., Evans A.L. Cutaneomuscular reflex responses recorded from the lower limb in children and adolescents with cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol. 41:1999;456-464.
52. Brogren E., Hadders-Algra M. Postural control in children with spastic diplegia: muscle activity during perturbations in sitting. Dev Med Child Neurol. 38:1996;379-388.
53. Woollacott M.H., Burtner P., Jensen J., Jasiewicz J., Roncesvalles N., Sveistrup H. Development of postural responses during standing in healthy children and children with spastic diplegia. Neurosci Biobeh Rev. 22:1998;583-589.
54. Berger W., Quintern J., Dietz V. Pathophysiology of gait in children with cerebral palsy. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol. 53:1982;538-548.
55. Crenna P. Spasticity and 'spastic' gait in children with cerebral palsy. Neurosci Biobeh Rev. 22:1998;571-578.
56. Forssberg H., Eliasson A.C., Redon-Zouiiteni C., Mercuri E., Dubowitz L.M. Impaired grip-lift synergy in children with unilateral brain lesions. Brain. 122:1999;1157-1168. The development of the force coordination pattern during precision grip was studied in children with congenital hemiplegia due to perinatal brain lesions. There was a strong correlation between the performance and alterations of the MRI scans, in particular with the total size of the lesions and with lesions in the basal ganglia/thalamus and deep white matter.
57. Gordon A.M., Charles J., Duff S.V. Fingertip forces during object manipulation in children with hemiplegic cerebral palsy. II: Bilateral coordination. Dev Med Child Neurol. 41:1999;176-185.
58. Gordon A.M., Duff S.V. Fingertip forces during object manipulation in children with hemiplegic cerebral palsy. I: Anticipatory scaling. Dev Med Child Neurol. 41:1999;166-175.
59. Valvano J., Newell K.M. Practice of a precision isometric grip-force task by children with spastic cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol. 40:1998;464-473.
60. O'Sullivan M.C., Miller S., Ramesh V., Conway E., Gilfillan K., McDonough S., Eyre J.A. Abnormal development of biceps brachii phasic stretch reflex and persistence of short latency heteronymous reflexes from biceps to triceps brachii in spastic cerebral palsy. Brain. 121:1998;2381-2395.
61. Leonard C.T., Moritani T., Hirschfeld H., Forssberg H. Deficits in reciprocal inhibition in children with cerebral palsy as revealed by H reflex testing. Dev Med Child Neurol. 32:1990;974-984.
62. Leonard C.T., Diedrich P.M., Matsumoto T., Moritani T., McMillan J.A. H-reflex modulations during voluntary and automatic movements following upper motor neuron damage. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol. 109:1998;475-483.
63. Brouwer B., Smits E. Corticospinal input onto motor neurons projecting to ankle muscles in individuals with cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol. 38:1996;787-796.
64. Gibbs J., Harrison L.M., Stephens J.A., Evans A.L. Does abnormal branching of inputs to motoneurones explain abnormal muscle contraction in cerebral palsy? Dev Med Child Neurol. 41:1999;465-472. Cross-correlograms were constructed from the discharges of motor units recorded by surface EMG signals from the long and short abductor muscles of the same thumb and from various lower limb muscle in children with cerebral palsy (CP) aged 4-13 years. There was a motor-unit synchronization between pairs of thumb muscles in control subjects but not in children with CP. Abnormal motor-unit synchronization was not found between lower limb antagonistic muscles in children with CP. There is thus no support for an abnormal common synaptic drive underlying the abnormal muscle activation patterns and widespread reflex responses in children with CP.
65. Carr L.J., Harrison L.M., Evans A.L., Stephens J.A. Patterns of central motor reorganisation in hemiplegic cerebral palsy. Brain. 116:1993;1223-1247.
66. Cao Y., Vikingstad E.M., Huttenlocher P.R., Towle V.L., Levin D.N. Functional magnetic resonance studies of the reorganization of the human hand sensorimotor area after unilateral brain injury in the perinatal period. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 91:1994;9612-9616.
67. Heinen F., Kirschner J., Fietzek U., Glocker F.X., Mall V., Korinthenberg R. Absence of transcallosal inhibition in adolescents with diplegic cerebral palsy. Muscle Nerve. 22:1999;255-257.