Biotechnology as a technological paradigm in the global knowledge structure

Technology Analysis and Strategic Management

Volumn 11, Issue 2, 1999, Pages 235-254

  Russell, Alan ^a  

^a STAFFORDSHIRE UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BIOTECHNOLOGY RESOURCES;

BIOTECHNOLOGY; SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY; TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT;

EID: 0032793736     PISSN: 09537325     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/095373299107528     Document Type: Article

References (127)

1. E. Jaworsky, 'Major Trends in Science, Technology and Applications: The Next Ten Years, in: OECD, Biotechnology: Economic and Wider Impacts (OECD, Paris, 1989), p. 22.
2. Dunning, The Globalisation of Business: The Challenge of the 1990s (London, Routledge, 1993).
3. C. Freeman, 'The Diffusion of Biotechnology Through the Economy: The Time Scale', in: OECD, Biotechnology: Economic and Wider Impacts (OECD, Paris, 1989), p. 49
4. V. Walsh & I. Galimberti, 'Firm Strategies, Globalisation and New Technological Paradigms: The Case of Biotechnology', in: M. Humbert (Ed.), The Impact of Globalisation on Europe's Firms and Industries (London, Frances Pinter, 1993), p. 175.
5. G. Dosi, 'Sources, Procedures and Microcconomic Effects of Innovation', Journal of Economic Literature, 26, 1988, p. 1138.
6. L. Orsenigo, The Emergence of Biotechnology (London, Pinter, 1989).
7. Dosi, op. cit., Ref. 5, pp. 1120-1171; G. Dosi, Technical Change and Industrial Transformation (London, Macmillan, 1984); G. Dosi, 'Technological Paradigms and Technological Trajectories: The Determinants and Directions of Technical Change and the Transformation of the Economy', in: C. Freeman (Ed.), Long Waves in the World Economy (London, Pinter, 1984), pp. 78-101; G. Dosi et al (Eds), Technical Change and Economic Theory (London, Pinter, 1988); C. Freeman, The Economics of Industrial Innovation, 2nd edn (London, Pinter, 1982; C. Freeman (Ed.), The Economies of Innovation (Aldershot, Edgar Elgar, 1990); D. Foray & C. Freeman (Eds), Technology and the Wealth of Nations (London, Pinter, 1993); K. Pavitt, 'Sectoral Patterns of Technical Change: Towards a Taxonomy and a Theory', Research Policy, 13, 6, 1984, pp. 343-373; R. Nelson & S. G. Winter, 'In Search of a Useful Theory of Innovation', Research Policy, 6, 1, 1987, pp. 36-76; N. Rosenberg, Exploring the Black Box (Cambridge, Cambridge University, Press 1994).
8. Dosi, op. cit., Ref. 5, pp. 1120-1171; G. Dosi, Technical Change and Industrial Transformation (London, Macmillan, 1984); G. Dosi, 'Technological Paradigms and Technological Trajectories: The Determinants and Directions of Technical Change and the Transformation of the Economy', in: C. Freeman (Ed.), Long Waves in the World Economy (London, Pinter, 1984), pp. 78-101; G. Dosi et al (Eds), Technical Change and Economic Theory (London, Pinter, 1988); C. Freeman, The Economics of Industrial Innovation, 2nd edn (London, Pinter, 1982; C. Freeman (Ed.), The Economies of Innovation (Aldershot, Edgar Elgar, 1990); D. Foray & C. Freeman (Eds), Technology and the Wealth of Nations (London, Pinter, 1993); K. Pavitt, 'Sectoral Patterns of Technical Change: Towards a Taxonomy and a Theory', Research Policy, 13, 6, 1984, pp. 343-373; R. Nelson & S. G. Winter, 'In Search of a Useful Theory of Innovation', Research Policy, 6, 1, 1987, pp. 36-76; N. Rosenberg, Exploring the Black Box (Cambridge, Cambridge University, Press 1994).
9. Dosi, op. cit., Ref. 5, pp. 1120-1171; G. Dosi, Technical Change and Industrial Transformation (London, Macmillan, 1984); G. Dosi, 'Technological Paradigms and Technological Trajectories: The Determinants and Directions of Technical Change and the Transformation of the Economy', in: C. Freeman (Ed.), Long Waves in the World Economy (London, Pinter, 1984), pp. 78-101; G. Dosi et al (Eds), Technical Change and Economic Theory (London, Pinter, 1988); C. Freeman, The Economics of Industrial Innovation, 2nd edn (London, Pinter, 1982; C. Freeman (Ed.), The Economies of Innovation (Aldershot, Edgar Elgar, 1990); D. Foray & C. Freeman (Eds), Technology and the Wealth of Nations (London, Pinter, 1993); K. Pavitt, 'Sectoral Patterns of Technical Change: Towards a Taxonomy and a Theory', Research Policy, 13, 6, 1984, pp. 343-373; R. Nelson & S. G. Winter, 'In Search of a Useful Theory of Innovation', Research Policy, 6, 1, 1987, pp. 36-76; N. Rosenberg, Exploring the Black Box (Cambridge, Cambridge University, Press 1994).
10. Dosi, op. cit., Ref. 5, pp. 1120-1171; G. Dosi, Technical Change and Industrial Transformation (London, Macmillan, 1984); G. Dosi, 'Technological Paradigms and Technological Trajectories: The Determinants and Directions of Technical Change and the Transformation of the Economy', in: C. Freeman (Ed.), Long Waves in the World Economy (London, Pinter, 1984), pp. 78-101; G. Dosi et al (Eds), Technical Change and Economic Theory (London, Pinter, 1988); C. Freeman, The Economics of Industrial Innovation, 2nd edn (London, Pinter, 1982; C. Freeman (Ed.), The Economies of Innovation (Aldershot, Edgar Elgar, 1990); D. Foray & C. Freeman (Eds), Technology and the Wealth of Nations (London, Pinter, 1993); K. Pavitt, 'Sectoral Patterns of Technical Change: Towards a Taxonomy and a Theory', Research Policy, 13, 6, 1984, pp. 343-373; R. Nelson & S. G. Winter, 'In Search of a Useful Theory of Innovation', Research Policy, 6, 1, 1987, pp. 36-76; N. Rosenberg, Exploring the Black Box (Cambridge, Cambridge University, Press 1994).
11. Dosi, op. cit., Ref. 5, pp. 1120-1171; G. Dosi, Technical Change and Industrial Transformation (London, Macmillan, 1984); G. Dosi, 'Technological Paradigms and Technological Trajectories: The Determinants and Directions of Technical Change and the Transformation of the Economy', in: C. Freeman (Ed.), Long Waves in the World Economy (London, Pinter, 1984), pp. 78-101; G. Dosi et al (Eds), Technical Change and Economic Theory (London, Pinter, 1988); C. Freeman, The Economics of Industrial Innovation, 2nd edn (London, Pinter, 1982; C. Freeman (Ed.), The Economies of Innovation (Aldershot, Edgar Elgar, 1990); D. Foray & C. Freeman (Eds), Technology and the Wealth of Nations (London, Pinter, 1993); K. Pavitt, 'Sectoral Patterns of Technical Change: Towards a Taxonomy and a Theory', Research Policy, 13, 6, 1984, pp. 343-373; R. Nelson & S. G. Winter, 'In Search of a Useful Theory of Innovation', Research Policy, 6, 1, 1987, pp. 36-76; N. Rosenberg, Exploring the Black Box (Cambridge, Cambridge University, Press 1994).
12. Dosi, op. cit., Ref. 5, pp. 1120-1171; G. Dosi, Technical Change and Industrial Transformation (London, Macmillan, 1984); G. Dosi, 'Technological Paradigms and Technological Trajectories: The Determinants and Directions of Technical Change and the Transformation of the Economy', in: C. Freeman (Ed.), Long Waves in the World Economy (London, Pinter, 1984), pp. 78-101; G. Dosi et al (Eds), Technical Change and Economic Theory (London, Pinter, 1988); C. Freeman, The Economics of Industrial Innovation, 2nd edn (London, Pinter, 1982; C. Freeman (Ed.), The Economies of Innovation (Aldershot, Edgar Elgar, 1990); D. Foray & C. Freeman (Eds), Technology and the Wealth of Nations (London, Pinter, 1993); K. Pavitt, 'Sectoral Patterns of Technical Change: Towards a Taxonomy and a Theory', Research Policy, 13, 6, 1984, pp. 343-373; R. Nelson & S. G. Winter, 'In Search of a Useful Theory of Innovation', Research Policy, 6, 1, 1987, pp. 36-76; N. Rosenberg, Exploring the Black Box (Cambridge, Cambridge University, Press 1994).
13. Dosi, op. cit., Ref. 5, pp. 1120-1171; G. Dosi, Technical Change and Industrial Transformation (London, Macmillan, 1984); G. Dosi, 'Technological Paradigms and Technological Trajectories: The Determinants and Directions of Technical Change and the Transformation of the Economy', in: C. Freeman (Ed.), Long Waves in the World Economy (London, Pinter, 1984), pp. 78-101; G. Dosi et al (Eds), Technical Change and Economic Theory (London, Pinter, 1988); C. Freeman, The Economics of Industrial Innovation, 2nd edn (London, Pinter, 1982; C. Freeman (Ed.), The Economies of Innovation (Aldershot, Edgar Elgar, 1990); D. Foray & C. Freeman (Eds), Technology and the Wealth of Nations (London, Pinter, 1993); K. Pavitt, 'Sectoral Patterns of Technical Change: Towards a Taxonomy and a Theory', Research Policy, 13, 6, 1984, pp. 343-373; R. Nelson & S. G. Winter, 'In Search of a Useful Theory of Innovation', Research Policy, 6, 1, 1987, pp. 36-76; N. Rosenberg, Exploring the Black Box (Cambridge, Cambridge University, Press 1994).
14. Dosi, op. cit., Ref. 5, pp. 1120-1171; G. Dosi, Technical Change and Industrial Transformation (London, Macmillan, 1984); G. Dosi, 'Technological Paradigms and Technological Trajectories: The Determinants and Directions of Technical Change and the Transformation of the Economy', in: C. Freeman (Ed.), Long Waves in the World Economy (London, Pinter, 1984), pp. 78-101; G. Dosi et al (Eds), Technical Change and Economic Theory (London, Pinter, 1988); C. Freeman, The Economics of Industrial Innovation, 2nd edn (London, Pinter, 1982; C. Freeman (Ed.), The Economies of Innovation (Aldershot, Edgar Elgar, 1990); D. Foray & C. Freeman (Eds), Technology and the Wealth of Nations (London, Pinter, 1993); K. Pavitt, 'Sectoral Patterns of Technical Change: Towards a Taxonomy and a Theory', Research Policy, 13, 6, 1984, pp. 343-373; R. Nelson & S. G. Winter, 'In Search of a Useful Theory of Innovation', Research Policy, 6, 1, 1987, pp. 36-76; N. Rosenberg, Exploring the Black Box (Cambridge, Cambridge University, Press 1994).
15. Dosi, op. cit., Ref. 5, pp. 1120-1171; G. Dosi, Technical Change and Industrial Transformation (London, Macmillan, 1984); G. Dosi, 'Technological Paradigms and Technological Trajectories: The Determinants and Directions of Technical Change and the Transformation of the Economy', in: C. Freeman (Ed.), Long Waves in the World Economy (London, Pinter, 1984), pp. 78-101; G. Dosi et al (Eds), Technical Change and Economic Theory (London, Pinter, 1988); C. Freeman, The Economics of Industrial Innovation, 2nd edn (London, Pinter, 1982; C. Freeman (Ed.), The Economies of Innovation (Aldershot, Edgar Elgar, 1990); D. Foray & C. Freeman (Eds), Technology and the Wealth of Nations (London, Pinter, 1993); K. Pavitt, 'Sectoral Patterns of Technical Change: Towards a Taxonomy and a Theory', Research Policy, 13, 6, 1984, pp. 343-373; R. Nelson & S. G. Winter, 'In Search of a Useful Theory of Innovation', Research Policy, 6, 1, 1987, pp. 36-76; N. Rosenberg, Exploring the Black Box (Cambridge, Cambridge University, Press 1994).
16. Dosi, op. cit., Ref. 5, pp. 1120-1171; G. Dosi, Technical Change and Industrial Transformation (London, Macmillan, 1984); G. Dosi, 'Technological Paradigms and Technological Trajectories: The Determinants and Directions of Technical Change and the Transformation of the Economy', in: C. Freeman (Ed.), Long Waves in the World Economy (London, Pinter, 1984), pp. 78-101; G. Dosi et al (Eds), Technical Change and Economic Theory (London, Pinter, 1988); C. Freeman, The Economics of Industrial Innovation, 2nd edn (London, Pinter, 1982; C. Freeman (Ed.), The Economies of Innovation (Aldershot, Edgar Elgar, 1990); D. Foray & C. Freeman (Eds), Technology and the Wealth of Nations (London, Pinter, 1993); K. Pavitt, 'Sectoral Patterns of Technical Change: Towards a Taxonomy and a Theory', Research Policy, 13, 6, 1984, pp. 343-373; R. Nelson & S. G. Winter, 'In Search of a Useful Theory of Innovation', Research Policy, 6, 1, 1987, pp. 36-76; N. Rosenberg, Exploring the Black Box (Cambridge, Cambridge University, Press 1994).
17. T. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions 2nd. edn (London, Chigago, University of Chicago Press, 1970).
18. G. Dosi, 'Sources, Procedures and Microeconomic Effects of Innovation', Journal of Economic Literature, 26, 1988, p. 1127.
19. Dosi, ibid., p. 1128.
20. G. Dosi, in: C. Freeman (Ed.), op. cit., Ref. 7, p. 85.
21. G. Dosi, op. cit., Ref. 9, p. 1131.
22. Dosi, ibid., p. 1128.
23. Dosi, ibid., p. 1136.
24. Dosi, idem.
25. Dosi, Technical Change and Industrial Transformation (London, Macmillan, 1984), pp. 7-85.
26. V. Walsh, 'Demand, Public Markets and Innovation in Biotechnology', Science and Public Policy, 20, 3, 1993, pp. 142-143.
27. N. Rosenberg, Inside the Black Box (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1982).
28. N. Rosenberg, Perspectives on Technology (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1976), p. 75.
29. J. Dunning, op. cit., Ref. 2; J. Badaracco, The Knowledge Link (Boston, MA, Harvard Business School Press, 1991); B. Kogut & U. Zander, 'Knowledge of the Firm and the Evolutionary Theory of the Multinational Corporation', Journal of International Business Studies, Fourth Quarter, 1993, pp. 625-645; J. Stopford & S. Strange, Rival States, Rival Firms (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1991).
30. J. Dunning, op. cit., Ref. 2; J. Badaracco, The Knowledge Link (Boston, MA, Harvard Business School Press, 1991); B. Kogut & U. Zander, 'Knowledge of the Firm and the Evolutionary Theory of the Multinational Corporation', Journal of International Business Studies, Fourth Quarter, 1993, pp. 625-645; J. Stopford & S. Strange, Rival States, Rival Firms (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1991).
31. J. Dunning, op. cit., Ref. 2; J. Badaracco, The Knowledge Link (Boston, MA, Harvard Business School Press, 1991); B. Kogut & U. Zander, 'Knowledge of the Firm and the Evolutionary Theory of the Multinational Corporation', Journal of International Business Studies, Fourth Quarter, 1993, pp. 625-645; J. Stopford & S. Strange, Rival States, Rival Firms (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1991).
32. J. Dunning, op. cit., Ref. 2; J. Badaracco, The Knowledge Link (Boston, MA, Harvard Business School Press, 1991); B. Kogut & U. Zander, 'Knowledge of the Firm and the Evolutionary Theory of the Multinational Corporation', Journal of International Business Studies, Fourth Quarter, 1993, pp. 625-645; J. Stopford & S. Strange, Rival States, Rival Firms (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1991).
33. D. Foray, 'General Introduction', in: D. Foray & C. Freeman (Eds), op. cit., Ref. 7, pp. 2-3.
34. L. Orsenigo, op. cit., Ref. 6, p. 9.
35. Orsenigo, ibid., pp. 48-49.
36. Orsenigo, ibid., p. 39.
37. Advisory Council for Applied Research and Development, Advisory Board for the Research Councils and the Royal Society, Biotechnology: Report of a Joint Working Party (London, HMSO, 1980). Also known as the Spinks Report. An old but little used term it became very popular in this new context.
38. Walsh & Galimberti, op.cit., Ref. 4.
39. Walsh & Galimberti, ibid., p. 176.
40. C. Freeman, 'The Diffusion of Biotechnology Through the Economy: The Time Scale', in: OECD, Biotechnology: Economic and Wider Impacts (OECD, Paris, 1989), pp. 49-50
41. C. Freeman & C. Perez, 'Structural Crises of Adjustment, Business Cycles and Investment Behaviour', in: Dosi et al. (Eds), op. cit., Ref. 7, pp. 38-66.
42. B. Carlsson & S. Jacobsson, 'Technological System and Economic Performance: the Diffusion of Factory Automation in Sweden', in Foray & Freeman (Eds), op. cit., Ref. 7, pp. 77-92.
43. Freeman & Perez, op. cit., Ref. 29, p. 46.
44. C. Freeman, 'The Diffusion of Biotechnology Through the Economy: The Time Scale', in: OECD, Biotechnology: Economic and Wider Impacts (OECD, Paris, 1989), pp. 44-55.
45. C. Perez, 'Structural Change and the Assimilation of New Technologies in the Economic and Social System', Futures, 15, 5, pp. 357-75.
46. Freeman & Perez, op. cit., Ref. 29, p. 47.
47. Freeman & Perez, ibid., p. 38.
48. Freeman (Ed.), op. cit., Ref. 7.
49. Freeman, op. cit., Ref. 32, pp. 44-55.
50. S. Metcalfe, 'Technology Systems and Technology Policy in an Evolutionary Framework', in: D. Archibugi & J. Michie (Eds), Technology, Globalisation and Economic Performance (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1997), pp. 281-282.
51. A. Russell, 'Merging Technological Paradigms and the Knowledge Structure in the Global Political Economy', Science and Public Policy, 22, 2, 1995, pp. 106-116.
52. S. Krimsky, Genetic Alchemy: The Social History of the Recombinant DNA Controversy (Cambridge, MA, MIT Press, 1982); M. Rogers, Biohazard (New York, Knopf, 1977); C. Grobstein, A Double Image of the Double Helix: The Recombinant DNA Debate (San Francisco, W.H. Freeman, 1979); N. Wade, The Ultimate Experiment: Man-Made Evolution (New York, Walker, 1977).
53. S. Krimsky, Genetic Alchemy: The Social History of the Recombinant DNA Controversy (Cambridge, MA, MIT Press, 1982); M. Rogers, Biohazard (New York, Knopf, 1977); C. Grobstein, A Double Image of the Double Helix: The Recombinant DNA Debate (San Francisco, W.H. Freeman, 1979); N. Wade, The Ultimate Experiment: Man-Made Evolution (New York, Walker, 1977).
54. S. Krimsky, Genetic Alchemy: The Social History of the Recombinant DNA Controversy (Cambridge, MA, MIT Press, 1982); M. Rogers, Biohazard (New York, Knopf, 1977); C. Grobstein, A Double Image of the Double Helix: The Recombinant DNA Debate (San Francisco, W.H. Freeman, 1979); N. Wade, The Ultimate Experiment: Man-Made Evolution (New York, Walker, 1977).
55. S. Krimsky, Genetic Alchemy: The Social History of the Recombinant DNA Controversy (Cambridge, MA, MIT Press, 1982); M. Rogers, Biohazard (New York, Knopf, 1977); C. Grobstein, A Double Image of the Double Helix: The Recombinant DNA Debate (San Francisco, W.H. Freeman, 1979); N. Wade, The Ultimate Experiment: Man-Made Evolution (New York, Walker, 1977).
56. M.C. Mantegazzini, The Environmental Risks From Biotechnology (London, Pinter, 1986).
57. J. Vidal, 'Gene Genie', The Guardian, 4 June, 1998, supplement pp. 14-15.
58. P. Cohen, 'Crossing the Line', New Scientist, 17 January, pp. 4-5; S. Farrar, 'Rebel Baby Maker Plans the First Human Clone', The Sunday Times, 25 October, 1998.
59. P. Cohen, 'Crossing the Line', New Scientist, 17 January, pp. 4-5; S. Farrar, 'Rebel Baby Maker Plans the First Human Clone', The Sunday Times, 25 October, 1998.
60. UK Human Genetics Advisory Commission, Cloning Issues in Reproduction, Science and Medicine (London, HGAC papers, 1998).
61. H. Hobbelink, Biotechnology and the Future of World Agriculture (London, Zed Books, 1991), pp. 109-110.
62. Orsenigo, op. cit., Ref. 6, pp. 166-194.
63. OECD, 'Executive Summary', in: Biotechnology: Economic and Wider Impacts (Paris, OECD, 1989), p. 9.
64. T. Kuhn, op.cit., Ref. 8, 1970 postscript to 1962, pp. 176-177; A. Ryan, The Philosophy of the Social Sciences (London, Macmillan, 1970), p. 142. It is also possible to argue that the characteristics of a technological paradigm might alter how we view scientific paradigms.
65. T. Kuhn, op.cit., Ref. 8, 1970 postscript to 1962, pp. 176-177; A. Ryan, The Philosophy of the Social Sciences (London, Macmillan, 1970), p. 142. It is also possible to argue that the characteristics of a technological paradigm might alter how we view scientific paradigms.
66. See, K. Debackere, B. Clarysse, N.M. Wijnberg and M.A. Rappa, 'Science and Industry: A Theory of Networks and Paradigms', Technology Analysis & Strategic Management, 6, 1, 1994, pp. 21-37.
67. Callon refers to economists who challenge the 'standard' models of technological development - or 'innovation' economists as I am distinguishing them.
68. M. Callon, 'Techno-economic Networks and Irreversibility', in: J. Law (Ed.), A Sociology of Monsters (London, Routledge, 1991), p. 132.
69. At the risk of simplification, actors arc networks and networks can be actors, hence 'actor-network'. Actor-networks thus interact with each other. See, Callon, op. cit., Ref. 50, pp.132-161. Starr emphasizes the the importance of debates in the literature over the human-machine relationship. See, S.L. Starr, 'Power, Technology and the Phenomenology of Conventions: On Being Alergic to Onions', in: J. Law (Ed.), op. cit., Ref. 50, pp. 26-56. Another area of relevance for the issues discussed in this article is the possible way that traditional dualisms can be addressed by actor-network theory. These include: agency (action)/structure; micro/macro; subjective/ objective; abstract/contingent. See, J. Murdoch, 'Towards a Geography of Heterogenous Associations', in: Progress in Human Geography, 21, 3, 1997, pp. 321-337.
70. At the risk of simplification, actors arc networks and networks can be actors, hence 'actor-network'. Actor-networks thus interact with each other. See, Callon, op. cit., Ref. 50, pp.132-161. Starr emphasizes the the importance of debates in the literature over the human-machine relationship. See, S.L. Starr, 'Power, Technology and the Phenomenology of Conventions: On Being Alergic to Onions', in: J. Law (Ed.), op. cit., Ref. 50, pp. 26-56. Another area of relevance for the issues discussed in this article is the possible way that traditional dualisms can be addressed by actor-network theory. These include: agency (action)/structure; micro/macro; subjective/ objective; abstract/contingent. See, J. Murdoch, 'Towards a Geography of Heterogenous Associations', in: Progress in Human Geography, 21, 3, 1997, pp. 321-337.
71. At the risk of simplification, actors arc networks and networks can be actors, hence 'actor-network'. Actor-networks thus interact with each other. See, Callon, op. cit., Ref. 50, pp.132-161. Starr emphasizes the the importance of debates in the literature over the human-machine relationship. See, S.L. Starr, 'Power, Technology and the Phenomenology of Conventions: On Being Alergic to Onions', in: J. Law (Ed.), op. cit., Ref. 50, pp. 26-56. Another area of relevance for the issues discussed in this article is the possible way that traditional dualisms can be addressed by actor-network theory. These include: agency (action)/structure; micro/macro; subjective/ objective; abstract/contingent. See, J. Murdoch, 'Towards a Geography of Heterogenous Associations', in: Progress in Human Geography, 21, 3, 1997, pp. 321-337.
72. For example: Callon, op.cit., Ref. 50; M. Callon, 'Variety and Irreversibility in Networks of Technique Conception and Adoption', in: Foray and Freeman, op. cit., Ref. 7, pp.232-268; B. Latour, We Have Never Been Modern (Brighton, Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1993); Law (Ed.), op. cit., Ref. 50; J. Law, Organizing Modernity (Oxford, Blackwell, 1994).
73. For example: Callon, op.cit., Ref. 50; M. Callon, 'Variety and Irreversibility in Networks of Technique Conception and Adoption', in: Foray and Freeman, op. cit., Ref. 7, pp.232-268; B. Latour, We Have Never Been Modern (Brighton, Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1993); Law (Ed.), op. cit., Ref. 50; J. Law, Organizing Modernity (Oxford, Blackwell, 1994).
74. For example: Callon, op.cit., Ref. 50; M. Callon, 'Variety and Irreversibility in Networks of Technique Conception and Adoption', in: Foray and Freeman, op. cit., Ref. 7, pp.232-268; B. Latour, We Have Never Been Modern (Brighton, Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1993); Law (Ed.), op. cit., Ref. 50; J. Law, Organizing Modernity (Oxford, Blackwell, 1994).
75. For example: Callon, op.cit., Ref. 50; M. Callon, 'Variety and Irreversibility in Networks of Technique Conception and Adoption', in: Foray and Freeman, op. cit., Ref. 7, pp.232-268; B. Latour, We Have Never Been Modern (Brighton, Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1993); Law (Ed.), op. cit., Ref. 50; J. Law, Organizing Modernity (Oxford, Blackwell, 1994).
76. For example: Callon, op.cit., Ref. 50; M. Callon, 'Variety and Irreversibility in Networks of Technique Conception and Adoption', in: Foray and Freeman, op. cit., Ref. 7, pp.232-268; B. Latour, We Have Never Been Modern (Brighton, Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1993); Law (Ed.), op. cit., Ref. 50; J. Law, Organizing Modernity (Oxford, Blackwell, 1994).
77. L. Busch and A. Juska, 'Beyond Political Economy: Actor-Networks and the Globalization of Agriculture', in: Review of International Political Economy, 4, 4, 1997, pp. 688-708. Helpful as actor-network theory is, there are is also scope to consider the usefulness of policy-network theory and the interface between policy-networks and actor-networks in relation to technology. Such cndcvours are beyond the scope of this article.
78. Many fields of study could benefit from the concept of technological paradigm, modified to account for socio-political concerns. In this respect IPE can be taken alongside sociology, politics and business studies for example. However, given the issue of global technological diffusion, IPE with its explicit global and interdisciplinary concerns offers a suitable context to explore the usefulness of the modified conceptualization.
79. See, OECD, op. cit., Ref. 1; OECD, Biotechnology and the Changing Role of Government (Paris, OECD, 1988); and US Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Biotechnology in a Global Economy, OTA-BA-494 (Washington, DC US Government Printing Office, October 1991).
80. See, OECD, op. cit., Ref. 1; OECD, Biotechnology and the Changing Role of Government (Paris, OECD, 1988); and US Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Biotechnology in a Global Economy, OTA-BA-494 (Washington, DC US Government Printing Office, October 1991).
81. See, OECD, op. cit., Ref. 1; OECD, Biotechnology and the Changing Role of Government (Paris, OECD, 1988); and US Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Biotechnology in a Global Economy, OTA-BA-494 (Washington, DC US Government Printing Office, October 1991).
82. M. Talalay, C. Farrands and R. Toozc (Eds), Technology, Culture and Competitiveness (London, Routledge, 1997); S. Strange, Stales and Markets (London, Pinter, 1988); S. Strange, 'The Problem or the Solution? Capitalism and the State System', in: S. Gill and J. Mittelman (Eds), Innovation and Transformation in International Studies (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1997), pp. 236-247.
83. M. Talalay, C. Farrands and R. Toozc (Eds), Technology, Culture and Competitiveness (London, Routledge, 1997); S. Strange, Stales and Markets (London, Pinter, 1988); S. Strange, 'The Problem or the Solution? Capitalism and the State System', in: S. Gill and J. Mittelman (Eds), Innovation and Transformation in International Studies (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1997), pp. 236-247.
84. M. Talalay, C. Farrands and R. Toozc (Eds), Technology, Culture and Competitiveness (London, Routledge, 1997); S. Strange, Stales and Markets (London, Pinter, 1988); S. Strange, 'The Problem or the Solution? Capitalism and the State System', in: S. Gill and J. Mittelman (Eds), Innovation and Transformation in International Studies (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1997), pp. 236-247.
85. S. Strange, op. cit., Ref. 56, 1988; H.M. Schwartz, States versus Markets (New York, St. Martin's Press, 1994).
86. S. Strange, op. cit., Ref. 56, 1988; H.M. Schwartz, States versus Markets (New York, St. Martin's Press, 1994).
87. S. Gill and D. Law, The Global Political Economy (London, Harvester, 1987) p. xviii; R Gilpin, The Political Economy of International Relations (Princeton NJ, Princeton University Press, 1987).
88. S. Gill and D. Law, The Global Political Economy (London, Harvester, 1987) p. xviii; R Gilpin, The Political Economy of International Relations (Princeton NJ, Princeton University Press, 1987).
89. Gilpin, ibid., p. 65, emphasis added.
90. R. Cox, Production, Power, and World Order (New York, Columbia University Press, 1987), p. 21. This work has been of great influence in the recent development of the field of IPE.
91. Cox, ibid., pp. 11-12.
92. The technical and conceptual detail of the innovation economists notwithstanding.
93. Busch and Juska, op. cit., Ref. 53, pp. 694-696.
94. Cox, op. cit., Ref. 60, p. 399. Cox suggests three layers in the global political economy. The state occupies the middle layer between the prevailing world order and the social relations of production.
95. S. Guzzini, 'Structural Power, the Limits of Ncorcalist Analysis', International Organization, 47, 3, 1993, pp. 443-478.
96. Russell, op.cit., Ref. 39.
97. Strange, op. cit., 1988, Ref. 56, p. 117.
98. Strange, ibid., p.117; P. Haas, 'Knowledge, Power, and International Policy Coordination', International Organisation, 46, 1, 1992.
99. Strange, ibid., p.117; P. Haas, 'Knowledge, Power, and International Policy Coordination', International Organisation, 46, 1, 1992.
100. J. Alic, 'Technical Knowledge and Technology Diffusion', Technology Analysis & Strategic management, 5, 4, 1993, pp. 369-383.
101. Alic, ibid.; E. Von Hippel, 'Cooperation Between Rivals: Informal Know-How Trading', in: B. Carlsson (Ed.), Industrial Dynamics: Technological, Organizational and Structural Changes in Industries and Firms (Leyden, Kluwer, 1991), pp. 157-175.
102. Alic, ibid.; E. Von Hippel, 'Cooperation Between Rivals: Informal Know-How Trading', in: B. Carlsson (Ed.), Industrial Dynamics: Technological, Organizational and Structural Changes in Industries and Firms (Leyden, Kluwer, 1991), pp. 157-175.
103. In effect a cultural dimension which complements more instrumental images of technology.
104. S. Strange, 'An Eclectic Approach', in C. Murphy and R. Tooze (eds), The New International Political Economy (Boulder, Lynne Rienner, 1991) pp.33-49.
105. Cox, op. cit., Ref. 60; S. Gill (Ed.), Gramsci, Historical Materialism and International Relations (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1993); Gill and Law, op. cit., Ref. 58, p. 76-80.
106. Cox, op. cit., Ref. 60; S. Gill (Ed.), Gramsci, Historical Materialism and International Relations (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1993); Gill and Law, op. cit., Ref. 58, p. 76-80.
107. Cox, op. cit., Ref. 60; S. Gill (Ed.), Gramsci, Historical Materialism and International Relations (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1993); Gill and Law, op. cit., Ref. 58, p. 76-80.
108. With respect to the biotechnology related issue of developing edible rapeseed oil, Busch and Juska, from an actor-network perspective, identify complex network links centred within Canada that ultimately shape the globalisation of rapcsced production. See, Busch and Juska, op. cit., Ref. 53.
109. Cox, op.cit., Ref. 60, p. 311.
110. This exploration is beyond the scope of this paper. The immeditate concern here is to establish a conceptual basis.
111. T. Wiegele, Biotechnology and International Relations (Gainesville, University of Florida Press, 1991).
112. Walsh & Galimberti, op. cit., Ref. 4.
113. Orsenigo, op. cit., Ref. 22, pp. 65-67.
114. Committee on Japan, US-Japan Technology Linkages in Biotechnology: Challenges for the 1990s (Washington DC, National Academy Press, 1992).
115. R. Reich, 'Who is US?', Harvard Business Review, 68, 1, 1991, pp. 53-64.
116. 'Biotechnology in Japan: Alien Culture', The Economist, 18 November, 1995, p. 115.
117. M. Cantley & J. D. de Nettancourt, 'Biotechnology Research and Policy in the European Community: The First Decade and a Half', Federation of European Microbiological Societies, Microbiology Letters, 100, 1992, pp. 25-32.; R. Van tulder & G. June, European Multinationals in Core Technologies (Chichester, Wiley, 1988); P. Wheale & R. McNally, 'Biotechnology Policy in Europe: A Critical Evaluation, Science and Public Policy, 20, 4, 1993, pp. 261-279.
118. M. Cantley & J. D. de Nettancourt, 'Biotechnology Research and Policy in the European Community: The First Decade and a Half', Federation of European Microbiological Societies, Microbiology Letters, 100, 1992, pp. 25-32.; R. Van tulder & G. June, European Multinationals in Core Technologies (Chichester, Wiley, 1988); P. Wheale & R. McNally, 'Biotechnology Policy in Europe: A Critical Evaluation, Science and Public Policy, 20, 4, 1993, pp. 261-279.
119. M. Cantley & J. D. de Nettancourt, 'Biotechnology Research and Policy in the European Community: The First Decade and a Half', Federation of European Microbiological Societies, Microbiology Letters, 100, 1992, pp. 25-32.; R. Van tulder & G. June, European Multinationals in Core Technologies (Chichester, Wiley, 1988); P. Wheale & R. McNally, 'Biotechnology Policy in Europe: A Critical Evaluation, Science and Public Policy, 20, 4, 1993, pp. 261-279.
120. J. Stopford & S. Strange, Rival States, Rival Firms (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1991).
121. J. van Wijk et al., Intellectual Property Rights for Agricultural Biotechnology, International Service for National Agricultural Research, Research Report No.3, The Hague, 1993, p. 15.
122. Hobbelink, op. cit., Ref. 45. p. 103.
123. J. Compeerapap, 'The Thai Debate on Biotechnology and Regulations', Biotechnology and Development Monitor, No. 32, September 1997, p. 13.
124. S. van de Wateringen, 'US Pushes Ecuador to Sign IPR Agreement', Biotechnology and Development Monitor, No. 33, December 1997, p. 21.
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126. Hobbelink, op.cit., Ref. 45.
127. A. Russell, The Biotechnology Revolution: An International Perspective (Brighton, Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1988).