Increased cortisol levels and impaired cognition in human aging: Implication for depression and dementia in later life

Reviews in the Neurosciences

Volumn 10, Issue 2, 1999, Pages 117-139

  Lupien, S J ^a,b   Nair, N P V ^a   Briere S ^a,b   Maheu, F ^b   Tu, M T ^b   Lemay, M ^b   McEwen, B S ^c   Meaney, M J ^a  

^a DOUGLAS MENTAL HEALTH UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE   (Canada)

^b CENTRE DE RECHERCHE   (Canada)

^c ROCKEFELLER UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Aging; Cognition; Dementia; Depression; Glucocorticoids; Stress

Indexed keywords

CALCIUM CHANNEL; DEXAMETHASONE; GLUCOCORTICOID; HYDROCORTISONE;

ADULT; AGED; AGING; ANIMAL EXPERIMENT; COGNITIVE DEFECT; DEMENTIA; DEPRESSION; ELECTROPHYSIOLOGY; ENDOCRINE DISEASE; HIPPOCAMPUS; HORMONE RELEASE; HUMAN; HUMAN EXPERIMENT; HYDROCORTISONE BLOOD LEVEL; HYPOTHALAMUS HYPOPHYSIS ADRENAL SYSTEM; LEARNING; MEMORY; MORPHOLOGY; NONHUMAN; NORMAL HUMAN; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RAT; REVIEW; SLEEP DEPRIVATION; STRESS;

EID: 0032781059     PISSN: 03341763     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1515/REVNEURO.1999.10.2.117     Document Type: Review

References (153)

1. Antoni FA. Hypothalamic control of ACTH secretion: Advances since the discovery of 41-residue corticotropin-releasing factor. Endocr Rev 1986; 7: 351-370.
2. Balldin J, Gottfries CG, Karlsson I, Lindstedt G, Wallinder J. Dexamethasone suppression test and serum prolactin in dementia disorders. Br J Psychiat 1983; 142: 277-281.
3. Baxter JD, Tyrell JB. The adrenal cortex. In: Felig P, Baxter JD, Broadus AE, Frohman LAS, eds. Endocrinology and Metabolism. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1987; 385-394.
4. Bennet MC, Diamond DM, Fleshner M, Rose GM. Serum corticosterone level predicts the magnitude of hippocampal primed burst potentiation and depression in urethane-anesthetized rats. Psychobiology 1991; 19: 301-307.
5. Bernard C. Les Phénomènes de la Vie. Paris: Librairie J-B Baillier et Fils; 1878.
6. Birren JE, Shcaie KW. Handbook of the Psychology of Aging: Principles and Experimentation. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1985.
7. Blazer D, Williams CD. Epidemiology of dysphoria and depression in an elderly population. Am J Psychiat 1980; 137: 439-444.
8. Bliwise DL. Normal aging. In: Kryger MH, Roth T, Dement WC, eds. Principles and Practice of Sleep Medicine. Philadelphia, PA: W.B. Saunders, 1994; 26-39.
9. Bradbury M, Dallman MF. Effects of type 1 and type 2 glucocorticoid receptor antagonists on ACTH levels in the PM. Soc Neurosci Abst 1989; 19: 716.
10. Brindley DN, Rolland Y. Possible connections between stress, diabetes, obesity, hypertension and altered lipoprotein metabolism that may rsult in atherosclerosis. Clin Sci 1989; 77: 453-461.
11. Brown WA, Qualls CB. Pituitary-adrenal disinhibition in depression: Marker of a subtype with characteristic clinical features and response to treatment? Psychiat Res 1981; 4: 115-123.
12. Buntix F, Kester A, Bergers J, Knottnerus JA. Is depression in elderly people followed by dementia? A retrospective cohort study based in general practice. Age Ageing 1991; 25: 231-233.
13. Cannon W. The wisdom of the body. Physiol Rev 1929; 9: 399-431.
14. Carnes M, Smith JC, Kalin NH, Bauwens SF. The dexamethasone suppression test in demented out-patients with and without depression. Psychiat Res 1983; 9: 337-344.
15. Carroll BJ, Curtis GC, Davies BM, Mendels J, Sugerman AA. Urinary free cortisol excretion in depression. Psychol Med 1976; 6: 43-50.
16. Carroll BJ, Feinberg M, Greden JF, Tarika J, Albala AA, Haskett RF, James NMI, Kronfol Z, Lohr N, Steiner M, deVigne JP, Young Y. A specific laboratory test for the diagnosis of melancholia. Arch Gen Psychiat 1981; 38: 15-22.
17. Clark LD, Bauer W, Cobb S. Preliminary observations on mental disturbances occurring in patients under therapy with cortisone and ACTH. N Engl J Med 1952; 246: 205-216.
18. Cohen NJ. Preserved learning capacity in amnesia: Evidence for multiple systems. In: Squire LR, Butters N, eds. Neuropsychology of Memory. New York: Guilford Press, 1984; 83-103.
19. Cohen NJ, Squire LR. Preserved learning and retention of pattern analyzing skill in amnesia: Dissociation of knowing how and knowing that. Science 1980; 210: 207-209.
20. Cotman CW, Scheff SW. Compensatory synapse growth in aged animals after neuronal death. Mech Age Dev 1979; 9: 103-117.
21. Coutard M, Osborne-Pellegrin MJ, Funder JW. Tissue distribution and specific binding of tritiated dexaethasone in vivo: Autoradiographic and cell fractionation studies in the mouse. Endocrinology 1978; 103: 1144-1152.
22. Cushing H. Psychic disturbances associated with disorders of the ductless glands. Am J Insanity 1913; 60: 965-990.
23. Dallman MF, Akana S, Cascio CS, Darlington DN, Jacobson L, Levin N. Regulation of ACTH secretion: Variations on a theme of B. Rec Prog Horm Res 1987; 43: 113-173.
24. Dannefer D. What's in a name? An account of the neglect of variability in the study of aging. In: Birren JE, Bengtson VL, eds. Emergent Theories of Aging. New York: Springer, 1988; 432-456.
25. Davis KL, Davil BM, Greenwald, BS, Mohs RC, Mathé AA, Johns CA, Horvath TB. Cortisol and Alzheimer's disease, I, Basal studies. Am J Psychiat 1986; 143: 300-305.
26. Davous P, Roudier M, Piketty ML, Abramowitz C, Lamour Y. Pharmacological modulation of cortisol secretion and dexamethasone suppression in Alzheimer's disease. Biol Psychiat 1988; 23: 13-24.
27. De Kloet ER, Wallach G, McEwen BS. Differences in corticosterone and dexamethasone binding to rat brain and pituitary. Endocrinology 1975; 96: 598-609.
28. DeKosky ST, Scheff SW, Cotman CW. Elevated corticosterone levels: A possible cause of reduced axon sprouting in aged animals. Neuroendocrinology 1984; 38: 33-38.
29. de Leon MJ, McRae T, Tsai J, George A, Marcus D, Freedman M, Wolf A, Mc Ewen BS. Abnormal cortisol response in Alzheimer's disease linked to hippocampal atrophy. Lancet 1988; 2: 391-392.
30. Diamond DM, Bennet MC, Stevens KE, Wilson RL, Rose GM. Exposure to a novel environment interferes with the induction of hippocampal primed burst potentiation. Psychobiology 1990; 18: 273-281.
31. Diamond DM, Bennett MC, Fleshner M, Rose GM. Inverted-U relationship between the level of peripheral corticosterone and the magnitude of hippocampal primed burst potentiation. Hippocampus 1992; 2: 421-430.
32. Drafta D, Schindler AE, Stroe E, Neacsu E. Age-related changes of plasma steroids in normal adult males. J Steroid Biochem 1982; 17: 683-687.
33. Feldman S, Conforti N. Participation of the dorsal hippocampus in the glucocorticoid negative-feedback effect on adrenocortical activity. Neuroendocrinology 1980; 30: 52-55.
34. Feldman S, Weidenfeld J. Neural mechanisms involved in the corticosteroid feedback effects on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Prog Neurobiol 1994; 45: 129-134.
35. Ferrier IN, Pascual J, Charlton BT, Wright C, Leake A, Griffiths HW, Fairbairn AF, Edwardson JA. Cortisol, ACTH, and dexamethasone concentrations in a psychogeriatric population. Biol Psychiat 1988; 23: 252-260.
36. Fischette CT, Komisurak BR, Ediner HM, Feder HH, Siegal A. Differential fornix ablations and the circadian rythmicity of adrenal corticosterone secretion. Brain Res 1980; 195: 373-380.
37. Foy MR, Stanton ME, Levine S, Thompson RF. Behavioral stress impairs long-term potentiation in rodent hippocampus. Behav Neural Biol 1987; 48: 138-149.
38. Friedman M, Green MF, Sharland DE. Assessment of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal function in the geriatric age group. J Gerontol 1969; 24: 292-297.
39. Gaffan D. Recognition impaired and association intact in the memory of monkeys after transection of the fornix. J Comp Physiol Psychol 1974; 86: 1100-1109.
40. Gage FH, Kelly PAT, Bjorklund A. Regional changes in brain glucose metabolisn reflect cognitive impairments in aged rats. J Neurosci 1984; 4: 2856-2865.
41. Gage FH, Dunnett SB, Bjorklund A. Age-related impairments in spatial memory are independent of those in sensorimotor skills. Neurobiol Aging 1989; 10: 347-352.
42. Gallagher M, Pelleymounter M. Spatial learning deficits in old rats: A model for memory decline in the aged. Neurobiol Aging 1988; 9: 549-556.
43. Gallagher M, Burwell RD. Reelationship of age-related decline across several behavioral domains. Neurobiol Aging 1989; 10: 691-708.
44. Garcia CA, Reding MJ, Blass JP. Overdiagnosis of dementia. J Am Geriat Soc 1981; 30: S58-S66.
45. Greenwald BS, Mathé AA, Mohs RC, Levy MI, John CA, Davis KL. Cortisol and Alzheimer's disease, II: Dexamethasone suppression, dementia severity, and affective symptoms. Am J Psychiat 1986; 143: 442-446.
46. Halbreich U, Asnis GM, Zumoff B, Nathan NS, Shindledecker R. Effect of age and sex on cortisol secretion in depressives and normals. Psychiat Res 1984; 13: 221-229.
47. Herman JP, Schafer MK-H, Young EA, Thompson R, Douglass J, Akil H, Watson SJ. Evidence for hippocampal regulation of neuroendocrine neurons of the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenocortical axis. J Neurosci 1989; 9: 3072-3082.
48. Hirsh R. The hippocampus and contextual retrieval of information from memory: A theory. Behav Biol 1974; 12: 421-444.
49. Hoff SF, Scheff SW, Benardo LS, Cotman CW. Lesions-induced synaptogenesis in the dentate gyrus of aged rats: I. Loss of reacquisition of normal synaptic density. J Comp Neurol 1982; 205: 246-252.
50. Holsboer F, Haack D, Gerben A, Vecsei P. Plasma dexamethasone concentrations and differential suppression response of cortisol and corticosterone in depressives and controls. Biol Psychiat 1984; 19: 281-291.
51. Horner H, Packan D, Sapolsky RM. Glucocorticoids inhibit glucose transport in cultured hippocampal neurons and glia. Neuroendocrinology 1990; 52: 57-64.
52. Ilife S, Tai SS, Haines A. Are elderly people living alone an at risk group? Br Med J 1992; 305: 1001-1004.
53. Issa AM, Rowe W, Gauthier S, Meaney MJ. Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal activity in aged, cognitively impaired and cognitively unimpaired rats. J Neurosci 1990; 10: 3247-3254.
54. Jacobson L, Sapolsky RM. The role of the hippocampus in feedback regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Endocr Rev 1991; 12: 118-134.
55. Jensen HK, Blichert-Toft M. Serum corticotrophin plasma cortisol and urinary excretion of 17-ketogenic steroids in the elderly (age group: 66-94 years). Acta Endocrinol 1971; 66: 25-34.
56. Jiang HK, Owyang VV, Hong JS, Gallagher M. Elevated dynorphin in the hippocampal formation of aged rats: Relation to cognitive impairments on a spatial learning task. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1989; 86: 2948-2951.
57. Joels M, De Kloet ER. Effect of glucocorticoids and norepinepherine on excitability in the hippocampus. Science 1989; 245: 1502-1504.
58. Joëls M, De Kloet ER. Mineralocorticoid and glucocorticoid receptors in the brain: Implications for ion permeability and transmitter systems. Prog Neurobiol 1994; 43: 1-36.
59. Keller-Wood M, Dallman M. Corticosteroid inhibition of ACTH secretion. Endocr Rev 1984; 5: 1-24.
60. Kerr DS. Campbell LW, Hao S-Y, Landfield PW. Corticosteroid modulation of hippocampal potentials: Increased effect with aging. Science 1989; 245: 1505-1509.
61. Kerr DS, Campbell LW, Applegate MD, Brodish A, Landfield PW. Chronic stress-induced acceleration of electrophysiologic and morphometric biomarkers of hippocampal aging. J Neurosci 1991; 11: 1316-1324.
62. Landfield P, Waymire J, Lynch G. Hippocamapl aging and adrenocorticoids: A quantitative correlation. Science 1978; 202: 1098-1101.
63. Landfield P, Baskin RK, Pitler TA. Brain-aging correlates: Retardation by hormonal-pharmacological treatments. Science 1981; 214: 581-583.
64. Landfield PW, Pitler TA. Prolonged Ca-dependent afterhyperpolarizations in hippocampal neurons of the aged rat. Science 1984; 226: 1089-1092.
65. LaRue A, Dessonvill C, Jarvik LF. Aging and mental disorders. In: Birren JE, Schaie KW, eds. Handbook of the Psychology of Aging, 2nd Ed. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1985.
66. Lawlor BA, Ryan TM, Schmeidler J, Mohs RC, Davis KL. Clinical symptoms associated with age at onset in Alzheimer's disease. Am J Psychiat 1994; 151: 1646-1649.
67. Leproult R, Copinschi G, Buxton O, Van Cauter E. Sleep loss results in an elevation of cortisol levels the next evening. Sleep 1997; 20: 865-870.
68. Lupien SJ, Lecours AR. Toutes choses n'étant pas égales par ailleurs: réflexion sur l'accroissement des différences interindividuelles avec l'âge. Revue de Neuropsychologie 1993; 3: 3-35.
69. Lupien S, Lecours AR, Lussier I, Schwartz G, Nair NPV, Meaney MJ. Basal cortisol levels and cognitive deficits in human aging. J Neurosci 1994; 14: 2893-2903.
70. Lupien S, Lecours AR, Schwartz G, Sharma S, Hauger RL, Meaney MJ, Nair NPV. Longitudinal study of basal cortisol levels in healthy elderly subjects: Evidence for sub-groups. Neurobiol Aging 1995; 17: 95-105.
71. Lupien S, Tannebaum EM, Ohashi E, Meaney MJ. Daily salivary cortisol levels in healthy elderlies correlate with feelings of fatigue, depression, and stress. Int Soc Psychoneuroendocrinol Abst 1996; 92.
72. Lupien S, Gaudreau S, Sharma S, Nair NPV, Hauger RL, Meaney MJ. Stress-induced declarative memory impairments in healthy elderly subjects: Relationship with cortisol reactivity. J Clin Endocrinol Metabol 1997; 82: 2070-2075.
73. Lupien SJ, DeLeon M, DeSanti S, Convit A, Tarshish C, Nair NPV, McEwen BS, Hauger RL, Meaney MJ. Longitudinal increase in cortisol during human aging predicts hippocampal atrophy and memory deficits. Nature Neurosci 1998; 1: 69-73.
74. Maes M, Calabrese J, Meltzer HY. Effects of age on spontaneous cortisolemia of normal volunteers and depressed patients. Psychoneuroendocrinology 1994; 19: 79-84.
75. Magarinos AM, McEwen BS, Flagge G, Fuchs E. Chronic psychosocial stress causes apical dendritic atrophy of hippocampal CA3 pyramidal neurons in sub-ordinate tree shrews. J Neurosci 1996; 16: 3534-3540.
76. Mason JW. A review of psychoendocrine research on the pituitary-adrenal cortical system. Psychosom Med 1968; 30: 576-607.
77. McEwen BS, Gould E. Adrenal steroid influences on the survival of hippocampal neurons. Biochem Pharmacol 1991; 40: 2393-2397.
78. McEwen BS, Stellar E. Stress and the individual: mechanisms leading to disease. Arch Intern Med 1993; 153: 2093-2101.
79. McEwen BS, Weiss JM, Schwartz LS. Selective retention of corticosterone by limbic structure in rat brain. Nature 1968; 220: 911-912.
80. McEwen BS, Weiss JM, Schwartz LS. Uptake of corticosterone by rat brain and its concentration by certain limbic structures. Brain Res 1969; 16: 227-241.
81. McEwen BS, DeKloet ER, Rostene WH. Adrenal steroid receptors and actions in the nervous system. Physiol Rev 1986; 66: 1121-1150.
82. Meaney MJ, Aitken DH, Bodnoff SR, Iny LJ, Tatarewicz JE, Sapolsky RM. Early, postnatal handling alters glucocorticoid receptor concentrations in selected brain regions. Behav Neurosci 1985; 99: 760-765.
83. Meaney MJ, Aitken DH, Bhatnagar S, van Berkel C, Sapolsky RM. Postnatal handling attenuates neuroendocrine, anatomical and cognitive impairments related to the aged hippocampus. Science 1988; 238: 766-768.
84. Meaney MJ, Aitken DH, Sapolsky RM. Environmental regulation of the adrenocortical stress response in female rats and its implications for individual differences in aging. Neurobiol Aging 1991; 21: 323-335.
85. Meikle AW. Dexamethasone suppression tests: Usefulness of simultaneous measurement of plasma cortisol and dexamethasone. Clin Endocrinol 1982; 16: 401-408.
86. Miller AH, Sastry G, Speranza AJ, Lawlor BA, Mohs RC, Ryan TM, Gabriel SM, Serby M, Schmeidler J, Davis KL. Lack of association between cortisol hypersecretion and nonsuppression on the DST in patients with Alzheimer's disease. Am J Psychiat 1994; 151: 267-270.
87. Munck A, Guyre PM, Holbrook NJ. Physiological functions of glucocorticoids in stress and their relations to pharmacological actions. Endocr Rev 1984; 5: 25-44.
88. Nasman B, Olsson T, Vhtanen M, Carlstrom K. A subtle disturbance in the feedback regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in the early phase of Alzheimer's disease. Psychoneuroendocrinology 1994; 20: 211-220.
89. Nelson EA, Dannefer D. Aged heterogeneity: Fact or fiction? The fate of diversity in gerontological research. Gerontologist 1991; 32: 17-23.
90. Packan D, Sapolsky RM. Glucocorticoid endangerment of the hippocampus: Tissue, steroid, and receptor specificity. Neuroendocrinology 1990; 51: 613-618.
91. Persson G, Skoog I. A prospective population study of psychosocial risk factors for late onset dementia. Int J Geriat Psychiat 1996; 11: 15-22.
92. Pfaff DW, Siva MT, Weiss JM. Telemetered recording of hormone effects on hippocampal neurons. Science 1971; 172: 394-395.
93. Poirier J, May PC, Osterburg HH, Geddes J, Cotman C, Finch CE. Selective alterations of RNA in rat hippocampus after entorhinal cortex lesioning. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1989; 87: 303-305.
94. Poirier J, Baccichet A, Dea D. Glucocorticoid modulation of apolipoprotein E and LDL receptor gene expression in the reinnervating hippocampus. J Neurochem 1991; 57: 590-595.
95. Rapp PR, Amaral DG. Individual differences in the cognitive and neurobiological consequences of normal aging. TINS 1992; 15: 340-345.
96. 3H-dexamethasone in the rat brain and pituitary. In: Stumpf WE, Grant LD, eds. Anatomical Neuroendocrinology. New Connecticut: Chapel Hill, 1975; 262-269.
97. Reifler BV, Larson E, Hanley R. Coexistence of cognitive impairment and depression in geriatric populations. Am J Psychiat 1982; 139: 623-626.
98. Reul JMHM, DeKloet ER. Two receptor systems for corticosterone in rat brain: Microdistribution and differential occupation. Endocrinology 1985; 117: 2505-2511.
99. Riegel KF. On the history of psychological gerontology. In: Eisdorfer C, Lawton M, eds. Psychology of Adult Development. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 1973; 244-253.
100. Rivier C, Plotsky PM. Mediation by corticotropin-releasing factor of adenohypophysial hormone secretion. Ann Rev Physiol 1986; 48: 475-489.
101. Rodin J. Health, control, and aging. In: Baltes MM, Baltes PR, eds. The Psychology of Control and Aging. New Jersey: Hillsdale, 1986; 139-165.
102. Ron MA, Toone BK, Garralda ME. Diagnostic accuracy in presenile dementia. Br J Psychiat 1979; 134: 161-168.
103. Rowe JW, Kahn RL. Human aging: Usual and sucessful. Science 1987; 237: 143-149.
104. Rowe W, Steverman A, Walker M, Sharma S, Barden N, Seckl JR, Meaney MJ. Antidepressants restore hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal function in aged, cognitively impaired rats. Neurobiol Aging 1997; 18: 527-533.
105. Rubinow DR, Post RM, Savard R, Gold PW. Cortisol hypersecretion and cognitive impairment in depression. Arch Gen Psychiat 1984; 41: 279-283.
106. Rusak B, Zucker I. Neural regulation of circadian rhythms. Physiol Rev 1979; 59: 449-526.
107. Russell DW, Cutrona CE. Social support, stress, and depressive symptoms among the elderly: Test of a process model. Psychol Aging 1991; 6: 190-201.
108. Sachar EJ, Hellman L, Roffwarg HP, Halpern FS, Fukushima DK, Gallagher TF. Disrupted 24-hour patterns of cortisol secretion in psychotic depression. Arch Gen Psychiat 1983; 28: 19-24.
109. Sapolsky RM. A mechanism for increased glucocorticoid toxicity in the hippocampus: Increased neuronal vulnerability to metabolic insults. J Neurosci 1985; 5: 1227-1232.
110. Sapolsky RM. Glucocorticoid toxicity in the hippocampus: temporal aspects of neuronal vulnerability. Brain Res 1985; 359: 300-307.
111. Sapolsky RM. Glucocorticoid toxicity in the hippocampus: Reversal with supplementation with brain fuels. J Neurosci 1986; 6: 2240-2245.
112. Sapolsky RM, Krey LC, McEwen BS. Glucocorticoid-sensitive hippocampal neurons are involved in terminating the adrenocortical stress response. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1984; 81: 6174-6177.
113. Sapolsky RM, Krey LC, McEwen BS. Prolonged glucocorticoid exposure reduced hippocampal neuron number: Implications for aging. J Neurosci 1985; 5: 1221-1226.
114. Sapolsky RM, Krey LC, McEwen BS. The neuroendocrinology of stress and aging: The glucocorticoid cascade hypothesis. Endocr Rev 1986; 7: 284-301.
115. Sapolsky RM, Armanini MP, Packan DR, Sutton SW, Plotsky PM. Glucocorticoid feedback inhibition of adrenocorticotropic hormone secretagogue release: Relationship to corticosteroid receptor occupancy in various limbic sites. Neuroendocrinology 1990; 51: 328-336.
116. Sarrieau A, Rowe W, O'Donnell D, Levin N, Seckl JR, Meaney MJ. Increased hypothalamic ACTH secretagogue synthesis in aged impaired vs. aged unimpaired rats. Soc Neurosci Abst 1992; 19: 567.
117. Schacter DL. Implicit memory: History and current status. J Exp Psychol-Learn Mem Cogn 1987; 13: 501-518.
118. Scheff SW, DeKosky ST. Steroid suppression of axon sprouting in the hippocampal dentate gyrus of the adult rat: Dose-response relationship. Exp Neurol 1983; 82: 183-191.
119. Scheff SW, Benardo LS, Cotman CW. Hydrocortisone adminsitration retards axon sprouting in rat dentate gyrus. Exp Neurol 1980; 68: 195-201.
120. Seeman TE, Singer BH, Rowe JW, Horwitz RI, McEwen BS. Price of adaptation - Allostatic load and its health consequences. Arch Intern Med 1997; 157: 2259-2268.
121. Seeman TE, McEwen BS, Singer BH, Albert MS, Rowe JW. Increase in urinary cortisol excretion and memory declines: MacArthur Studies of Successful Aging. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1997; 82: 2458-2465.
122. Selye H. The Physiology and Pathology of Exposure to Stress. Montréal: Acta, 1950.
123. Sharma S, Turken A, Schwartz G, Nair NPV, De Leon M, Meaney MJ, Hauger RL, Lupien S. A longitudinal study of dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEA-S) levels, cortisol levels and cognitive function in elderly human subjects. Soc Neurosci Abst 1995; 21: 1709.
124. Sherman B, Wysham C, Pfohl B. Age-related changes in the circadian rhythm of plasma cortisol in man. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1985; 61: 439-443.
125. Shors TJ, Seib TB, Levine S, Thompson RF. Inescapable vs escapable shock modulates long-term potentiation in the rat hippocampus. Science 1989; 244: 224-226.
126. Shors TJ, Levine S, Thompson RF. Effect of adrenalectomy and demedullation on the stress-induced impairment of long-term potentiation. Neuroendocrinology 1990; 51: 70-75.
127. Slovitar R, Valiquette G, Abrams G, Ronk E, Sollas A, Paul L, Neubort S. Selective loss of hippocampal granule cells in the mature rat brain after adrenalectomy. Science 1989; 243: 535-538.
128. Squire LR. The neuropsychology of human memory. Ann Rev Neurosci 1982; 5: 241-273.
129. Squire LR. Memory and Brain. New York: Oxford University Press, 1987.
130. Squire LR. Memory and the hippocampus: A synthesis from findings with rats, monkeys, and humans. Psychol Rev 1992; 99: 195-231.
131. Sterling P, Eyer J. Allostatis: A new paradigm to explain arousal pathology. In: Fisher S, Reason J, eds. Handbook of Life Stress, Cognition and Health. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1988; 629-649.
132. Swaab D, Fisser B, Kamphorst W, Troost D. The human suprachiasmatic nucleus: Neuropeptide changes in senium and Alzheimer's disease. Basic Appl Histochem 1988; 32: 43-54.
133. Swaab DF, Raadsheer FC, Endert E, Hofman MA, Kamphorst W, Ravid R. Increased cortisol levels in aging and Alzheimer's disease in postmortem cerebrospinal fluid. J Neuroendocrinol 1994; 6: 681-687.
134. Tannebaum BM, Lupien S, Ohashi E, Meaney MJ. Daily salivary cortisol levels in healthy elderlies: Relationship to dietary lifestyle. Soc Neurosci Abst 1996; 22: 1889.
135. Thompson RF. The neurobiology of learning and memory. Science 1986; 233: 941-947.
136. Tomlinson BE, Blessed G, Roth M. Observations on the brains of demented old people. J Neurol Sci 1970; 11: 205-242.
137. Touitou Y, Sulon J, Bogdan A, Touitou C, Reinberg A, Beck H, Sodoyez JC, Demey-Ponsart E, Van Cauwenberge H. Adrenal circadian system in young and elderly human subjects: a comparative study. J Endocrinol 1982; 93: 201-210.
138. Valdois S, Joanette Y, Poissant A, Ska B, Dehaut F. Heterogeneity in the cognitive profile of normal elderly. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 1990; 12: 587-596.
139. Van Cauter E, Turek FW. Endocrine and other biological rhythms. In: DeGroot LJ, ed. Endocrinology. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders, 1994; 2487-2548.
140. Van Cauter E, Leproult R, Kupfer DJ. Effects of gender and age on the levels and circadian rhythmicity of plasma cortisol. J Clin Endocrin Metab 1996; 81: 2469-2473.
141. Van Cauter E, Polonsky KS, Scheen AJ. Roles of circadian rhythmicitiy and sleep in human glucose regulation. Endocr Rev 1997; 18: 716-738.
142. Waltman C, Blackman MR, Chrousos GP, Riemann C, Harman SM. Spontaneous and glucocorticoid-inhibited adrenocorticotropic hormone and cortisol secretion are similar in healthy young and old men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1991; 73: 495-502.
143. Weiland N, Wise P. Aging progressively decreases the densities and alters the diurnal rhythms of alpha-1 adrenergic receptors in selected hypothalamic regions. Endocrinology 1990; 126: 2392-2397.
144. West CD, Brown H, Simon EL, Carter DB, Kumagai LF, Englert E. Adrenocortical function and cortisol metabolism in old age. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1961; 21: 1197-1207.
145. Wiedemann K, Holsboer F. Plasma dexamethasone kinetics during the DST after oral and intravenous administration of the test drug. Biol Psychiat 1987; 22: 1340-1345.
146. Wilson M, Greer M, Roberts L. Hippocampal inhibition of pituitary-adrenocortical function in female rats. Brain Res 1980; 197: 344-351.
147. Wise P, Walovitch R, Cohen I, Weiland N, London D. Diurnal rhythmicity and hypothalamic deficits in glucose utilization in aged ovariectomized rats. J Neurosci 1987; 7: 3469-3473.
148. Wise P, Cohen I, Weiland N, London D. Aging alters the circadian rhythm of glucose utilization in the suprachiasmatic nucleus. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1988; 85: 5305-5309.
149. Wohlwill JF. The age variable in psychological research. Psychol Bull 1970; 77: 49-64.
150. Wohlwill JF. The Study of Behavioral Development. New York: Academic Press, 1973.
151. Wolkowitz OM, Reus VI, Weingartner H, Thompson K, Breier A, Doran A, Rubinow D, Pickar D. Cognitive effects of corticosteroids. Am J Psychiat 1990; 147: 1297-1303.
152. Wolkowitz OM, Reus VI, Canick J, Levin B, Lupien SJ. Glucocorticoid medication, memory and steroid psychosis in medical illness. Ann NY Acad Sci 1997; 823: 81-96.
153. Yau JLW, Olsson T, Morris RGM, Meaney MJ, Seckl JR. Glucocorticoids, hippocampal corticosteroid receptor gene expression and antidepressant treatment: Relationship with spatial learning in young and aged rats. Neuroscience 1995; 66: 571-581.