The co-radiations of pollinating insects and angiosperms in the Cretaceous

Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden

Volumn 86, Issue 2, 1999, Pages 373-406

  Grimaldi, David ^a  

^a DIVISION OF INVERTEBRATE ZOOLOGY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0032770618     PISSN: 00266493     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/2666181     Document Type: Article

References (173)

1. Alexander, B. A. 1992. An exploratory analysis of cladistic relationships within the superfamily Apoidea, with special reference to sphecid wasps (Hymenoptera). J. Hymenoptera Res. 1: 25-61.
2. _ & C. D. Michener. 1995. Phylogenetic studies of the families of short-tongued bees (Hymenoptera: Apoidea). Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull. 55: 377-424.
3. Armstrong, J. E. & A. K. Irvine. 1990. Functions of the staminodia in the beetle-pollinated flowers of Eupomatia laurina. Biotropica 22: 429-431.
4. Bänziger, H. 1982. Fruit-piercing moths (Lep., Noctuidue) in Thailand: A general survey and some new perspectives. Mitt. Schweiz. Entomol. Ges. 55: 213-240.
5. Barron, E. J. 1987. Cretaceous plate tectonic reconstructions. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 59: 3-29.
6. Bernardi, N. 1973a. +Rhagionemestrius Ussatchov (Diptera: Brachycera), not a nemestrinid. Pap. Avulsos Zool., São Paulo 27: 111-113.
7. _. 1973b. The genera of the family Nemestrinidae (Diptera: Brachycera). Arch. Zool. Estado São Paulo 24: 211-318.
8. Bequaert, J. C. & F. M. Carpenter. 1936. The Nemestrinidae of the Miocene of Florissant, Colorado, and their relations to the recent fauna. J. Paleontol. 10: 395-409.
9. Brundin, L. 1966. Transantarctic relationships and their significance, as evidenced by chironomid midges with a monograph of the subfamilies Podonominae and Aphroteniinae and the austral Heptagyiae. Kongl. Svenska Vetensk. Akad. Handl. Fjarde Sere. 11.
10. Caldas, E. B., R. C. Martins-Neto & F. P. Lima Filho. 1989. Afropollis sp. (pollen) no trato intestinal de Vespa (Hymenoptera: Apocrita: Xyelidae) no Cretaceo da Baccia do Araripe. Atas Simposio de Geologia do Nordeste, Fortalesa 13: 195.
11. Carpenter, F. M. 1992. Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology (R), Arthropoda 4, Parts 3 and 4: Hexapoda. Geol. Soc. Amer., Univ. Kansas, Lawrence.
12. Carpenter, J. M. 1981. The phylogenetic relationships and natural classification of the Vespoidea (Hymenoptera). Syst. Entomol. 7: 11-38.
13. _. 1989. The phylogenetic system of the Gayellini (Hymenoptera: Vespidae; Masarinae). Psyche 95: 211-241.
14. _. 1990. Phylogenetic relationships and the origin of social behavior in the Vespidae. Pp. 56-67 in K. G. Ross & R. W. Matthews (editors), The Social Biology of Wasps. Cornell Univ. Press, New York.
15. _. 1993. Biogeographic patterns in the Vespidae (Hymenoptera): Two views of Africa and South America. Pp. 139-155 in P. Goldblatt (editor), Biological Relationships Between Africa and South America. Yale Univ. Press, New Haven.
16. _. 1997. Generic classification of the Australian pollen wasps (Hymenoptera: Vespidae; Masarinae). J. Kansas Entomol. Soc. (Suppl.) 69: 384-400.
17. _ & A. P. Rasnitsyn. 1990. Mesozoic Vespidae. Psyche 97: 1-20.
18. Cockerell, T. D. A. 1919. Two interesting insects in Burmese amber. The Entomologist 53: 169-170.
19. Colless, D. & D. K. McAlpine. 1991. Diptera. Pp. 717-786 in Insects of Australia, vol. 2. CSIRO, Canberra, and Cornell Univ. Press, Ithaca.
20. Crane, P. R. 1996. The fossil history of the Gnetales. Int. J. Pl. Sci. 157 (Suppl.): S50-S57.
21. _ & E. A. Jarzembowski. 1980. Insect leaf mines from the Palaeocene of southern England. J. Nat. Hist. 14: 629-636.
22. _ & C. D. Hult. 1988. Welwitschia the wonderful. Bull. Field Mus. Nat. Hist., Feb. 1988: 22-29.
23. _ & S. Lidgard. 1990. Angiosperm radiation and patterns of Cretaceous palynological diversity. Pp. 377-407 in P. D. Taylor & G. P. Larwood (editors). Major Evolutionary Radiations. Clarendon Press, Oxford.
24. _, E. M. Friis & K. Raunsgaard Pedersen. 1994. Palaeobotanical evidence on the early radiation of magnoliid angiosperms. Pl. Syst. Evol. (Suppl.) 8: 51-72.
25. _, _ & _. 1995. The origin and early diversification of angiosperms. Nature 374: 27-33.
26. Crepet, W. L. 1979. Insect pollination: A paleontological perspective. BioScience 29: 102-108.
27. _. 1985. Advanced (constant) insect pollination mechanisms: Pattern of evolution and implications vis-à-vis angiosperm diversity. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 71: 607-630.
28. _. 1996. Timing in the evolution of derived floral characters: Upper Cretaceous (Turonian) taxa with tricolpate and tricolpate-derived pollen. Rev. Palaeobot. Palynol. [vol./pp.]
29. _ & E. M. Friis. 1987. The evolution of insect pollination in angiosperms. Pp. 181-201 in E. M. Friis, W. G. Chaloner & P. R.Crane (editors), The Origin of Angiosperms and Their Biological Consequences. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge.
30. _ & K. C. Nixon. 1994. Flowers of Turonian Magnoliidae and their implications. Pl. Syst. Evol. (Suppl.) 8: 73-91.
31. Cumming, J. M., B. J. Sinclair & D. M. Wood. 1995. Homology and phylogenetic implications of male genitalia in Diptera-Eremoneura. Entomol. Scand. 26: 120-151.
32. Dafni, A., P. Bernhardt, A. Shmida, Y. Ivri, S. Greenbaum, C. O'Toole & L. Losita. 1990. Red bowl-shaped flowers: Convergence for beetle pollination in the Mediterranean Region. Israel J. Bot. 39: 81-92.
33. Daniels, T. H. 1983. Carlowrightia. In: Flora Neotropica 34: 1-116.
34. Darling, D. C. & M. J. Sharkey. 1990. Hymenoptera. Pp. 123-153 in D. Grimaldi (editor), Insects from the Santana Formation, Lower Cretaceous of Brazil. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 195.
35. Davis, D. R. 1986. A new family of monotrysian moths from Austral South America (Lepidoptera: Palaephalidae), with a phylogenetic review of the Monotrysia. Smithsonian Contr. Zool. 434.
36. Dexter, J. S. 1913. Mosquitoes pollinating orchids. Science 37: 867.
37. Doyle, J. A. & M. J. Donoghue. 1986. Seed plant phylogeny and the origin of angiosperms: An experimental cladistic approach. Bot. Rev. 52: 321-431.
38. Durden, C. J. & H. Rose. 1978. Butterflies from the Middle Eocene: The earliest occurrence of fossil Papilionoidea (Lepidoptera). Texas Mem. Mus. Pearce-Sellards Ser. 29.
39. Endress, P. K. 1987a. The Chloranthaceae: Reproductive structures and phylogenetic position. Bot. Jahrb. Syst. 109: 153-226.
40. _. 1987b. The early evolution of the angiosperm flower. Trends Ecol. Evol. 2: 300-304.
41. _. 1990. Evolution of reproductive structures and functions in primitive angiosperms (Magnoliidae). Mem. New York Bot. Gard. 55: 5-34.
42. _. 1994. Diversity and Evolutionary Biology of Tropical Flowers. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge and New York.
43. Engel, M. S. 1998a. Fossil honeybees and evolution in the genus Apis (Hymenoptera: Apidae). Apidologie 29: 265-281.
44. _. 1998b. A new species of the Baltic amber bee genus Electrapis (Hymenoptera: Apidae). J. Hymenoptera Res. 7: 94-101.
45. Evenhuis. N. L. 1983. Observations on territoriality of Oligodranes mitis Cresson (Diptera: Bombyliidae) on flowers of Erigeron neomexicanus (Asteraceae). Entomol. News 94: 25-28.
46. _. 1994, Catalogue of the Fossil Flies of the World (Insecta: Diptera). Backhuys, Leiden.
47. Finnamore, A. T. & M. E. Neary. 1978. Blueberry pollinators of Nova Scotia, with a checklist of the blueberry pollinators in eastern Canada and northeastern United States. Ann. Soc. Entomol. Québec 23: 168-181.
48. Fraser, N. C., D. A. Grimaldi, P. E. Olsen & B. Axsmith. 1996. A Triassic Lagerstatte from eastern North America. Nature 380: 615-619.
49. Friedlander. T. P., J. C. Regier, C. Mitter & D. L. Wagner. 1996. A nuclear gene for higher level phylogenetics: Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase tracks Mesozoicage divergences within Lepidoptera (Insecta). Molec. Biol. Evol. 13: 594-604.
50. Friis, E. M., K. Raunsgaard Pedersen & P. R. Crane. 1994. Angiosperm floral structures from the Early Cretaceous of Portugal. Pl. Syst. Evol. [Suppl.] 8: 31-49.
51. Gazit, S., I. Galon & H. Podoler. 1982. The role of nitidulid beetles in natural pollination of Annona in Israel. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 107: 849-852.
52. Gess, S. K. 19 96. The Pollen Wasps. Ecology and Natural History of the Masarinae. Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge.
53. Gomez Pallerolo, J. E. 1986. Nuevos insectos fósiles de las calizas litográficas del Cretácico Inferior del Montsec (Lérida). Bol. Geol. Mineral, 97: 27-46.
54. Gottsberger, G. 1988. The reproductive biology of primitive angiosperms. Taxon 37: 630-643.
55. Graenicher, S. 1910. The bee-flies (Bombyliidae) in their relations to flowers. Bull. Wisconsin Nat. Hist. Soc. 8: 91-101.
56. Grant, V. & K. Grant. 1965. Flower Pollination in the Phlox Family. Columbia Univ. Press, New York.
57. Grimaldi, D. 1988. Bee flies and bluets: Bombylius (Diptera: Bombyliidae) flower-constant on the distylous species, Hedyotis caerulea (Rubiaceae), and the manner of foraging. J. Nat. Hist. 22: 1-10.
58. _. 1995. A remarkable new species of Ogcodes (Diptera: Acrocendae) in Dominican amber. Amer. Mus. Novit. 3127: 1-8.
59. _. 1996. Amber: Window to the Past. Abrams/Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., New York.
60. _ & J. Cumming. 1999. Brachyceran Diptera in Cretaceous ambers, and Mesozoic diversification of the Eremoneura. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 239: 1-110.
61. _, C. W. Beck & J. J. Boon. 1989. Occurrence, chemical characteristics, and paleontology of the fossil resins from New Jersey. Amer. Mus. Novit. 2948: 1-28.
62. _, E. Bonwich, M. Delannoy & S. Doberstein. 1994. Electron microscopic studies of mummified tissues in amber fossils. Amer. Mus. Novit. 3097: 1-31.
63. _. D. Agosti & J. M. Carpenter. 1997. New and rediscovered primitive ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) in Cretaceous amber from New Jersey, and their phylogenetic relationships. Amer. Mus. Novit. 3208: 1-43.
64. Harper, J. L. & W. A. Wood. 1957. Biological flora of the British Isles. Senecio jacobaea L. J. Ecol. 45: 617-637.
65. Hawthorn, L. R., G. E. Bohart & E. H. Toole. 1956. Carrot seed yield and germination as affected by different levels of insect pollination. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 67: 384-389.
66. Hennig, W. 1960. Die Dipteren-Fauna von Neuseeland als systematisches und tiergeographisches Problem. Beitr. Entomol. 10: 221-329 [English translation by P. Wygodzinsky in Pacific Inst. Monogr. 9: 1-81. 1966].
67. Hennig, W. 1960. Die Dipteren-Fauna von Neuseeland als systematisches und tiergeographisches Problem. Beitr. Entomol. 10: 221-329 [English translation by P. Wygodzinsky in Pacific Inst. Monogr. 9: 1-81. 1966].
68. _. 1966a. Spinnenparasiten der Familie Acroceridae im baltischen Bernstein. Stuttgarter Beitr. Naturk. 165: 1-21.
69. _. 1966b. Bombyliidae im Kopal und im baltischen Bernstein (Diptera: Brachycera). Stuttgarter Beitr. Naturk. 166: 1-20.
70. _. 1968. Ein weiterer Vertreter der Familie Acroceridae im baltischen Bernstein (Diptera: Brachycera). Stuttgarter Beitr. Naturk. 185: 1-6.
71. _. 1969. Kritische Betrachtungen über die phylogenetische Bedeutung von Bernsteinfossilien: Die Gattungen Proplatypygus (Diptera, Bombyliidae) und Palaeopsylla (Siphonaptera). Mem. Soc. Entomol. Ital. 48: 57-67.
72. _. 1970. Insektenfossilien aus der unteren Kreide. II. Empididae (Diptera, Brachycera). Stuttgarter Beitr. Naturk. 214: 1-12.
73. _. 1971. Insektenfossilien aus der unteren Kreide. III. Empidiformia ("Microphorinae") aus der unteren Kreide und aus dem Baltischen Bernstein; ein Vertreter der Cyclorrhaphaa aus der unteren Kreide. Stuttgarter Beitr. Naturk. 232: 1-28.
74. Herendeen, P. S., P. R. Crane & A. N. Drinnan. 1995. Fagaceous flowers, fruits, and cupules from the Campanian (Late Cretaceous) of central Georgia, U.S.A. Int. J. Pl. Sci. 156: 93-116.
75. Hering, E. M. 1951. Biology of the Leaf Miners. W. Junk, The Hague.
76. Hobby, B. M. & K. G. V. Smith. 1961. The bionomics of Empis tessellata F. (Dipt. Empididae). Entomol. Monthly Mag. 97: 2-10.
77. Hong, Y-C. 1983. Middle Jurassic Fossil Insects in North China, pp. 1-223. Geological Publishing House, Beijing.
78. Hull, F. M. 1945. A revisional study of the fossil Syrphidae. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard Univ. 95: 251-355.
79. _. 1949. The morphology and inter-relationship of the genera of syrphid flies, recent and fossil. Trans. Zool. Soc. London 26: 257-408.
80. _. 1973. Bee Flies of the World. The Genera of the Family Bombyliidae. Bull. U.S. Natl. Mus. 286.
81. Jarzembowski, E. A. 1991. The Weald Clay of the Weald: Report of 1988/89 field meetings. New insects from the Weald Clay of the Weald. Proc. Geol. Assoc. 102: 83-108.
82. Kato, M. & T. Inoue. 1994. Origin of insect pollination. Nature 368: 195.
83. Knoll, F. 1921. Bombylius fuliginosus und die Farbe der Blumen. (Insekten und Blumen I). Abh. K.K. Zool.-Bot. Ges. Wien 12: 17-119.
84. Kovalev, V. G. 1974. A new genus of the family Empididae (Diptera) and its phylogenetic relationships. Paleontol. J. 1974(2): 196-204.
85. _. 1978. A new fly genus (Empididae) from Late Cretaceous retinites of the Taymyr. Paleontol. J. 1978(3): 351-356.
86. Kozlov, M.V. 1989. New Upper Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous Lepidoptera (Papilionida). English translation in Paleontol. J. 23: 34-39 (1990).
87. Krassilov, V. A. & A. P. Rasnitsyn. 1982. A unique find: Pollen in the intestine of early Cretaceous sawflies. Paleontol. J. 16: 80-95.
88. Kristensen, N. P. 1984. Studies on the morphology and systematics of primitive Lepidoptera (Insecta). Steenstrupia 10: 141-191.
89. _. 1997. Early evolution of the Lepidoptera + Trichoptera lineage: Phylogeny and the ecological scenario. Pp. 253-271 in P. Grandcolas (editor), The Origin of Biodiversity in Insects: Phylogenetic Tests of Evolutionary Scenarios. Mém. Mus. Natl. Hist. Nat. 173.
90. _ & E. S. Nielsen. 1979. A new subfamily of micropterygid moths from South America. A contribution to the morphology and phylogeny of the Micropterygidae, with a generic catalogue of the family (Lepidoptera: Zeugloptera). Steenstrupia 5: 69-147.
91. _ & A. W. Skalski. 1997. Phylogeny and palaeontology. Pp. 7-25 in Handbuch der Zoologie: Lepidoptera (Insecta). W. Gruyter, Stuttgart.
92. Kühne, W. G., L. Kubig & T. Schlüter. 1973. Eine Micropterygide (Lepidoptera, Homoneura) aus mittelkretazischem Harz Westfrankreichs. Mitt. Deutsch. Entomol. Ges. 32: 61-65.
93. Labandeira, C. C. 1998. Early history of arthropod and vascular plant associations. Annual Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 26: 329-377.
94. _ & J. J. Sepkoski. 1993. Insect diversity in the fossil record. Science 261: 265-396.
95. _, D. L. Dilcher, D. R. Davis & D. L. Wagner. 1994. Ninety-seven million years of angiosperm-insect association: Paleobiological insights into the meaning of coevolution. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 91: 12278-12282.
96. Lidgard, S. & P. R. Crane. 1988. Quantitative analyses of the early angiosperm radiation. Nature 331: 344-346.
97. Liu, N. & A. Nagatomi. 1995. The mouthpart structure of the Scenopinidae (Diptera). Jap. J. Entomol. 63: 181-202.
98. Lutz, H. 1990. Systematische und palökologische Untersuchungen an Insekten aus dem Mittel-Eozän der Grube Messel bei Darmstadt. Courier Forschungsinst. Senkenberg 124: 1-165.
99. _. 1993. Eckfaldapis electrapoides nov. gen. n. sp., eine "Honigbeine" aus dem Mittel-Eozän des "Eckfelder Maares" bei Manderscheid/Eifel, Deutschland (Hymenoptera: Apidae: Apinae). Mainzer Naturwiss. Archiv 31: 177-199.
100. Mackay, M. R. 1970. Lepidoptera in Cretaceous amber. Science 167: 379-380.
101. McAlpine, J. F. 1965. Observations on anthophilous Diptera at Lake Hazen, Ellesmere Island. Canad. Field-Naturalist 79: 247-252.
102. _ (editor). 1981. Manual of Nearctic Diptera, vol. 1. Agric. Canada Monogr. 27. Ottawa.
103. _ (editor). 1986. Manual of Nearctic Diptera, vol. 2. Agric. Canada Monogr. 28. Ottawa.
104. Martins-Neto, R. G. & M. A. Vulcano. 1989. Amphiesmenoptera (Trichoptera + Lepidoptera) na Formac̈ão Santana (Cretáceo Inferior) Bacia do Araripe, Nordeste do Brasil. I - Lepidoptera (Insecta). Anais Acad. Brasil. Ci. 61: 459-466.
105. Michener, C. D. 1990. Classification of the Apidae (Hymenoptera). Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull. 54: 75-164.
106. _. 1997. Genus-group names of bees and supplemental family-group names. Sci. Pap. Nat. Hist. Mus. Univ. Kansas 1: 1-81.
107. _ & D. Grimaldi. 1988a. A Trigona from Late Cretaceous amber of New Jersey (Hymenoptera: Apidae: Meliponinae). Amer. Mus. Novit. 2917: 1-10.
108. _ & _. 1988b. The oldest fossil bee: apoid history, stasis, and the evolution of social behavior. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 85: 6424-6426.
109. Moldenke, A. R. 1976. California pollination ecology and vegetation types. Phytologia 34: 305-361.
110. Nagatomi, A. & K. Soroida. 1985. The structure of the mouthparts of the orthorrhaphous Brachycera (Diptera), with special reference to blood-sucking. Beitr. Entomol., Berlin 35: 263-368.
111. _, N. Liu & K. Yanagida. 1994. Notes on the Proratinae (Diptera: Scenopinidae). S. Pacific Study 14: 137-222.
112. Nartshuk, E. P. 1996. A new fossil acrocerid fly from the Jurassic beds of Kazakhstan (Diptera: Acroceridae). Zoosyst. Rossica 4: 313-315.
113. Needham, J. C., S. W. Frost & B. H. Tothill. 1928. Leaf-Mining Insects. Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore.
114. Negrobov, O. P. 1978. Flies of the superfamily Empidoidea (Diptera) from Cretaceous retinite in northern Siberia. Paleontol. J. 1978(2): 221-228.
115. Nielsen, E. S. 1987. The recently discovered primitive (non-Ditrysia) family Palaephalidae (Lepidoptera) in Australia. Invert. Taxon. 1: 201-229.
116. _ & I. F. B. Common. 1991. Lepidoptera (moths and butterflies). Pp. 817-915 in CSIRO (editor). The Insects of Australia, 2nd ed. Cornell Univ. Press, Ithaca.
117. _ & N. P. Kristensen. 1996. The Australian moth family Lophocoronidae and the basal phylogeny of the Lepidoptera-Glossata. Invert. Taxon. 10: 1199-1302.
118. Norstog, K. 1987. Cycads and the origin of insect pollination. Amer. Sci. 75: 270-279.
119. Novokshonov, V. G. 1996. Some Mesozoic scorpionflies (Insecta: Panorpida = Mecoptea) of the families Mesopsychidae, Pseudopolycentropodidae, Bittacidae, and Permochoristidae. Paleontol. J. 31: 65-71.
120. Opler, P. A. 1973. Fossil lepidopterous leaf mines demonstrate the age of some insect-plant relationships. Science 179: 1321-1323.
121. _. 1982. Fossil leaf-mines of Bucculatrix (Lyonetiidae) on Zelkova (Ulmaceae) from Florissant, Colorado. J. Lepid. Soc. 36: 145-147.
122. Ornduff, R. 1997. Size classes, reproductive behavior, and insect associates of Cycas media (Cycadaceae) in Australia. Bot. Gaz. 152: 203-207.
123. Pedersen, K., P. R. Crane & E. M. Friis. 1989. The morphology and phylogenetic significance of Vardekloeftia Harris (Bennettitales). Rev. Palaeobot. Palynol. 60: 7-24.
124. Powell, J. A. 1980. Evolution of larval food preferences in microlepidoptera. Annual Rev. Entomol. 25: 133-159.
125. Proctor, M., P. Yeo & A. Lack. 1996. The Natural History of Pollination. Timber Press, Portland, Oregon.
126. Rasnitsyn, A. P. 1983. First find of a moth from the Jurassic. Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR 84: 53/ 269: 467-471.
127. _ & V. A. Krassilov. 1996a. First find of pollen grains in the gut of Permian insects. Paleontol. J. 30: 484-490.
128. _. 1996b. Pollen in the gut contents of fossil insects as evidence of coevolution. Paleontol. J. 30: 716-722.
129. _ & C. D. Michener. 1991. Miocene fossil bumble bee from the Soviet Far East with comments on the chronology and distribution of fossil bees (Hymenoptera: Apidae). Ann. Entomol. Soc. Amer. 84: 583-589.
130. Ren, D. 1998a. Late Jurassic Brachycera from northeastern China (Insecta: Diptera). Acta Zootax. Sin. 23: 65-81.
131. _. 1998b. Flower-associated Brachycera flies as fossil evidence for Jurassic angiosperm origins. Science 280: 85-87.
132. Rohdendorf, B. B. 1964. Historical Development of the Diptera, Trans. Paleontol. Inst. Akad. Nauk SSSR 100: 1-311.
133. Roig-Alsina, A. & C. P. Michener. 1993. No. 4. Studies of the phylogeny and classification of long-tongued bees (Hymenoptera: Apoidea). Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull. 55: 123-173.
134. Roubik, D. W. 1989. Ecology and Natural History of Tropical Bees. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge and New York.
135. Rozefelds, A. C. 1988. Lepidoptera mines in Pachypteris leaves (Corystomspermaceae: Pteridospermophyta) from the Upper Jurassic/Lower Cretaceous Battle Camp Formation, north Queensland. Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensland 99: 77-81.
136. Schlinger, E. I. 1960. A review of the genus Eulonchus Gerstaecker. Part I. The species of the Smaragdinus group (Diptera: Acroceridae). Ann. Entomol. Soc. Amer. 53: 416-422.
137. Schlüter, T. 1984. Kretazische Lebensspuren von solitären Hymenopteren und ihre Nomenklatur. Aufschluss 35: 423-430.
138. Scott-Elliot, C. F. 1896. Notes on flower-haunting Diptera. Trans. Entomol. Soc. London 1896: 117-128.
139. Shcherbakov, V., E. D. Lukashevich & V. A. Blagoderov. 1995. Triassic Diptera and initial radiation of the order. Dipterol. Res. 6: 75-115.
140. Sinclair, B. J. 1995. Generic revision of the Clinocerinae (Empididae), and description and phylogenetic relationships of the Trichopezinae, new status (Diptera: Empidoidea). Canad. Entomol. 127: 665-752.
141. Skalski, A. W. 1979a. A new member of the family Micropterygidae (Lepidoptera) fom the Lower Cretaceous of Transbaikalya. Paleontol. Zhurn. 1979(2): 90-97.
142. _. 1979b. Records of the oldest Lepidoptera. Nota Lepid. 2: 61-66.
143. _. 1984. A new Lower Cretaceous Lepidoptera (Homoneura). Bull. Polish Acad. Sci., Biol. 32: 389-392.
144. _. 1990. An annotated review of fossil records of Lower Lepidoptera. Bull. Sugadaira Montane Res. Cen. 11: 125-128.
145. Someren, G. R. C van. 1978. Observations on the behaviour and feeding of Bombylius uniformis Paramonov and B. flammeus Bowden (Dipt., Bombyliidae) in Kenya. Entomol. Monthly Mag. 114: 107-111.
146. Spicer, R. A., P. McArees & J. L. Chapman. 1993. Cretaceous phytogeography and climate signals. Philos. Trans., Ser. B 341: 277-286.
147. Straw. R. M. 1963. Bee fly pollination in Penstemon ambiguus. Ecology 44: 818-819.
148. Taylor, D. W. & L. J. Hickey. 1992. Phylogenetic evidence for the herbaceous origin of angiospernis. Pl. Syst. Evol. 180: 137-156.
149. Taylor, T. N & A. C. Scott. 1983. Interaction of plants and animals during the Carboniferous. BioScience 23: 488-493.
150. Thien, L. B. 1969a. Mosquito pollination of Habenaria obstuata (Orchidaceae). Amer. J. Bot. 56: 232-237.
151. _. 1969b. Mosquitoes can pollinate orchids. Morris Arbor. Bull. 20: 19-23.
152. _. 1974. Floral biology of Magnolia. Amer. J. Bot. 61: 1037-1045.
153. _ et al. 1983. The reproductive biology of a relict -Illicium floridanum Ellis. Amer. J. Bot. 70: 719-727.
154. _ et al. 1985. The pollination of Zygogynum (Winteraceae) by a moth, Sabatinca: An ancient association? Science 227: 540-542.
155. Thorp, R. W. 1979. Structural, behavioral, and physiological adaptations of bees (Apoidea) for collecting pollen. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 66: 788-812.
156. Vockeroth, J. R. 1969. A revision of the genera of the Syrphini (Diptera: Syrphidae). Mem. Entomol. Soc. Canad. 62: 1-176.
157. _ & F. C. Thompson. 1986. Syrphidae. Pp. 713-743 in J. F. McAlpine (editor). Manual of Nearctic Diptera. Agric. Canada Monogr., Ottawa.
158. Wenzel, J. W. 1990. A social wasp's nest from the Cretaceous Period, Utah, USA, and its biogeographical significance. Psyche 97: 21-29.
159. Whalley, P. E. S. 1977. Lower Cretaceous Lepidoptera. Nature 266: 526.
160. _. 1978. New taxa of fossil and recent Micropterigidae with a discussion of their evolution and a comment on the evolution of Lepidoptera (Insecta). Ann. Transvaal Mus. 31: 65-81.
161. _. 1985. The systematics and paleogeography of the Lower Jurassic insects of Dorset, England. Bull. Br. Mus. (Nat. Hist.) Geol. Ser. 39: 107-189.
162. _. 1986. A review of the current fossil evidence of Lepidoptera in the Mesozoic. Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 28: 253-271.
163. Wilford, J. N. 1995. Which came first: bees or flowers? Find points to bees. New York Times, May 23: CI, CII.
164. Wolfe, J. A. & G. R. Upchurch. 1987. North American non-marine climates and vegetation during the Late Cretaceous. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 61: 33-77.
165. Woodley, N. E. 1986. Parhadrestiinae, a new subfamily for Parhadrestia James and Cretaceogaster Teskey (Diptera: Stratiomyidae). Syst. Entomol. 11: 377-387.
166. Yeates, D. 1992. Towards a monophyletic Bombyliidae (Diptera): The removal of the Proratinae (Diptera: Scenopinidae). Amer. Mus. Novit. 3051: 1-30.
167. _. 1994. The cladistics and classification of the Bombyliidae (Diptera: Asiloidea). Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 219: 1-191.
168. _ & D. Grimaldi. 1993. A new Metatrichia window fly (Diptera: Scenopinidae) in Dominican amber, with a review of the systematics and biogeography of the genus. Amer. Mus. Novit. 3078: 1-8.
169. _ & M. E. Irwin. 1996. Apioceridae (Insecta: Diptera): Cladistic reappraisal and biogeography. Zool. J. Linn. Soc. 116: 247-301.
170. Young, A. M., M. Schaller & M. Strand. 1984. Floral nectaries and trichomes in relation to pollination in some species of Theobromia and Herrania (Sterculiaceae). Amer. J. Bot. 71: 466-480.
171. Zaitsev, V. F. 1987. New species of Cretaceous fossil bee flies and a review of paleontological data on the Bombyliidae (Diptera). Entomol. Rev. 66: 150-160.
172. _. 1991. The phylogeny and system of dipterous insects of the superfarnily Bombylioidea (Diptera). Entomol. Rev. 71: 94-114.
173. Zeuner, F. E. & F. J. Manning. 1976. A monograph on fossil bees (Hymenoptera: Apoidea). Bull. Brit. Mus. (Nat. Hist.). Geol. 27: 149-268.