Political space in Southeast Asia: 'Asian-style' and other democracies

Democratization

Volumn 6, Issue 1, 1999, Pages 224-245

  Hewison, Kevin ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

DEMOCRACY; POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT; POLITICAL SYSTEM;

(SOUTHEAST); ASIA;

EID: 0032767994     PISSN: 13510347     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/13510349908403604     Document Type: Article

References (66)

1. This study does not examine the Philippines. For further discussion, see the account by James Putzel in this collection.
2. See, for example, the essays in Anek Laothamatas (ed.), Democratization in Southeast and East Asia (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies and Chiangmai: Silkworm Books, 1997).
3. For a more detailed account of 'political space' see Kevin Hewison and Garry Rodan, 'The Decline of the Left in Southeast Asia', in R. Miliband and L. Panitch (eds.), Socialist Register 1994 (London: Merlin Press), pp.235-40.
4. See Kevin Hewison and Garry Rodan, 'The Ebb and Flow of Civil Society and the Decline of the Left in Southeast Asia', in G. Rodan (ed.), Political Oppositions in Industrialising Asia (London: Routledge, 1996). This part of the account draws on earlier works, and the contribution of Garry Rodan is gratefully acknowledged.
5. Milton Osborne, Southeast Asia. An Introductory History, Seventh Edition (St Leonards: Allen & Unwin, 1997), p.115.
6. J. M. Pluvier, South-East Asia from Colonialism to Independence (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1974), pp.6-21 and F. Von der Mehden, South-East Asia, 1930-1970; The Legacy of Colonialism and Nationalism (London: Thames & Hudson, 1974), Ch.1.
7. J. M. Pluvier, South-East Asia from Colonialism to Independence (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1974), pp.6-21 and F. Von der Mehden, South-East Asia, 1930-1970; The Legacy of Colonialism and Nationalism (London: Thames & Hudson, 1974), Ch.1.
8. Pluvier, op. cit., p.10.
9. David J. Steinberg and others, In Search of Southeast Asia: A Modern History (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1971), pp.251, 275-6, 290-98, 326.
10. Martin Stuart-Fox, A History of Laos (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), pp.199-203.
11. At the time of writing, the political situation in Cambodia was in a state of flux following a second national election and violent disputes over the results.
12. Prior to this, some colonial leaders and the monarch in Thailand often railed against the introduction of parliamentary representation, arguing that this was an 'Anglo-Saxon' idea and practice, that the people were ill-prepared through either education or experience for such freedom and responsibility - see, for example, comments by King Prajadhipok, Thailand's last absolute ruler, and his advisors, western as well as Siamese, reported in Benjamin A. Batson, The End of the Absolute Monarchy in Siam (Singapore: Oxford University Press,1984), pp.283-307.
13. Anthony Milner (ed.), Australia in Asia: Comparing Cultures (Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1996), p.146.
14. Chan Heng Chee, 'Democracy: Evolution and Implementation. An Asian Perspective', in Robert Hartley et. al. (eds.), Democracy and Capitalism: Asian and American Perspectives (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1993), pp.1-26.
15. Ibid., pp.21-4.
16. Clark P. Neher and Marlay Ross, Democracy and Development in Southeast Asia. The Winds of Change (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1995).
17. Heng Hiang Khng, 'Economic Development and Political Change: The Democratization Process in Singapore', in Anek (ed)., op. cit., pp.113-40.
18. Cited in Stephanie Lawson, 'Culture, Democracy, and Political Conflict Management in Asia and the Pacific: An Agenda for Research', Pacifica Review Vol.6, No.2 (1994), pp.91-2.
19. See Fareed Zakaria, 'Culture is Destiny. A Conversation with Lee Kuan Yew', Foreign Affairs, Vol.73, No.2 (1994), pp.109-26. A number of western commentators have also made much of the role of culture. For a critique of this approach, see G. Rodan, 'Theorising Political Opposition in East and Southeast Asia', in G. Rodan (ed.), op. cit., pp. 14-17. Of course, the recourse by Lee and others to Confucianism immediately limits the definition of 'Asian' to East Asia and parts of Southeast Asia.
20. See Fareed Zakaria, 'Culture is Destiny. A Conversation with Lee Kuan Yew', Foreign Affairs, Vol.73, No.2 (1994), pp.109-26. A number of western commentators have also made much of the role of culture. For a critique of this approach, see G. Rodan, 'Theorising Political Opposition in East and Southeast Asia', in G. Rodan (ed.), op. cit., pp. 14-17. Of course, the recourse by Lee and others to Confucianism immediately limits the definition of 'Asian' to East Asia and parts of Southeast Asia.
21. Chua Beng-Huat, 'Still Awaiting New Initiatives: Democratization in Singapore', Asian Studies Review, Vol.21, Nos.2-3 (1997), p.121.
22. This section draws on Garry Rodan, 'Preserving the One-Party State in Contemporay Singapore', in Kevin Hewison et al. (eds.), Southeast Asia in the 1990s: Authoritarianism, Democracy and Capitalism (St. Leonards: Allen & Unwin, 1993), Garry Rodan, 'State-Society Relations and Political Opposition in Singapore', in Garry Rodan (ed.), op. cit., pp.95-127, Chua, op. cit. and Heng, op. cit.
23. This section draws on Garry Rodan, 'Preserving the One-Party State in Contemporay Singapore', in Kevin Hewison et al. (eds.), Southeast Asia in the 1990s: Authoritarianism, Democracy and Capitalism (St. Leonards: Allen & Unwin, 1993), Garry Rodan, 'State-Society Relations and Political Opposition in Singapore', in Garry Rodan (ed.), op. cit., pp.95-127, Chua, op. cit. and Heng, op. cit.
24. This section draws on Garry Rodan, 'Preserving the One-Party State in Contemporay Singapore', in Kevin Hewison et al. (eds.), Southeast Asia in the 1990s: Authoritarianism, Democracy and Capitalism (St. Leonards: Allen & Unwin, 1993), Garry Rodan, 'State-Society Relations and Political Opposition in Singapore', in Garry Rodan (ed.), op. cit., pp.95-127, Chua, op. cit. and Heng, op. cit.
25. This section draws on Garry Rodan, 'Preserving the One-Party State in Contemporay Singapore', in Kevin Hewison et al. (eds.), Southeast Asia in the 1990s: Authoritarianism, Democracy and Capitalism (St. Leonards: Allen & Unwin, 1993), Garry Rodan, 'State-Society Relations and Political Opposition in Singapore', in Garry Rodan (ed.), op. cit., pp.95-127, Chua, op. cit. and Heng, op. cit.
26. Garry Rodan, 'Preserving the One-Party State in Contemporary Singapore', p.78.
27. This section is based on Khoo Boo Teik, 'Democracy and Authoritarianism in Malaysia since 1957. Class, Ethnicity and Changing Capitalism', in Anek (ed.), op. cit., pp.46-76; James Jesudason, 'The Syncretic State and the Structuring of Oppositional Politics in Malaysia', in Garry Rodan (ed.), op. cit., pp. 128-60; W. Case, 'Malaysia: Still the Semi-Democratic Paradigm', Asian Studies Review, Vol.21, Nos.2-3 (1997), pp.79-90 and H. Crouch, 'Malaysia: Neither Authoritarian nor Democratic', in Kevin Hewison et. al. (eds.), op. cit., pp.133-57.
28. This section is based on Khoo Boo Teik, 'Democracy and Authoritarianism in Malaysia since 1957. Class, Ethnicity and Changing Capitalism', in Anek (ed.), op. cit., pp.46-76; James Jesudason, 'The Syncretic State and the Structuring of Oppositional Politics in Malaysia', in Garry Rodan (ed.), op. cit., pp. 128-60; W. Case, 'Malaysia: Still the Semi-Democratic Paradigm', Asian Studies Review, Vol.21, Nos.2-3 (1997), pp.79-90 and H. Crouch, 'Malaysia: Neither Authoritarian nor Democratic', in Kevin Hewison et. al. (eds.), op. cit., pp.133-57.
29. This section is based on Khoo Boo Teik, 'Democracy and Authoritarianism in Malaysia since 1957. Class, Ethnicity and Changing Capitalism', in Anek (ed.), op. cit., pp.46-76; James Jesudason, 'The Syncretic State and the Structuring of Oppositional Politics in Malaysia', in Garry Rodan (ed.), op. cit., pp. 128-60; W. Case, 'Malaysia: Still the Semi-Democratic Paradigm', Asian Studies Review, Vol.21, Nos.2-3 (1997), pp.79-90 and H. Crouch, 'Malaysia: Neither Authoritarian nor Democratic', in Kevin Hewison et. al. (eds.), op. cit., pp.133-57.
30. This section is based on Khoo Boo Teik, 'Democracy and Authoritarianism in Malaysia since 1957. Class, Ethnicity and Changing Capitalism', in Anek (ed.), op. cit., pp.46-76; James Jesudason, 'The Syncretic State and the Structuring of Oppositional Politics in Malaysia', in Garry Rodan (ed.), op. cit., pp. 128-60; W. Case, 'Malaysia: Still the Semi-Democratic Paradigm', Asian Studies Review, Vol.21, Nos.2-3 (1997), pp.79-90 and H. Crouch, 'Malaysia: Neither Authoritarian nor Democratic', in Kevin Hewison et. al. (eds.), op. cit., pp.133-57.
31. Khoo Boo Teik, op. cit., p.63.
32. Jesudason, op. cit, p.129.
33. Case, op. cit., p.81.
34. Jesudason, op. cit. p.132.
35. Adam Schwarz, A Nation in Waiting. Indonesia in the 1990s (St Leonards: Allen & Unwin, 1994), pp.35-6; R. Robison, 'Indonesia: Tensions in State and Regime', in Hewison et al. (eds.), op. cit., p.47.
36. Adam Schwarz, A Nation in Waiting. Indonesia in the 1990s (St Leonards: Allen & Unwin, 1994), pp.35-6; R. Robison, 'Indonesia: Tensions in State and Regime', in Hewison et al. (eds.), op. cit., p.47.
37. Prudhisan Jumbala, Nation-Building and Democratization in Thailand: A Political History (Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University Social Research Institute, 1992), p.86.
38. Damien Kingsbury, The Politics of Indonesia (Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1998), pp.108-111.
39. Michael R.J. Vatikiotis, Indonesian Politics Under Suharto: Order, Development and Pressure for Change, Revised Edition (London: Routledge, 1994), p.104.
40. David Jenkins cited in Schwartz, op. cit., p.37.
41. See R. Robison, 'Indonesia: Tensions in State and Regime', in Hewison et al. (eds.), op. cit., pp.49-54.
42. Vatikiotis op. cit., p.193.
43. See Andrew Maclntyre, Indonesia (Kensington: The Asia-Australia Institute, University of New South Wales, 1991), pp.15-16, and see Anders Uhlin, 'Transnational Democratic Diffusion and Indonesian Democracy Discourses', Third World Quarterly, Vol.14, No.3 (1993), pp.517-44.
44. See Andrew Maclntyre, Indonesia (Kensington: The Asia-Australia Institute, University of New South Wales, 1991), pp.15-16, and see Anders Uhlin, 'Transnational Democratic Diffusion and Indonesian Democracy Discourses', Third World Quarterly, Vol.14, No.3 (1993), pp.517-44.
45. Ariel Heryanto, 'Indonesian Middle-Class Opposition in the 1990s', in Rodan (ed.), op. cit., pp.246-8.
46. Ian Chalmers, 'Rolling Back Democracy in the Late Soeharto Era: Some Implications for Indonesia's Political Culture', Asian Studies Review, Vol.21, Nos.2-3 (1997), pp.56-7.
47. Kingsbury, op. cit., Ch.7.
48. For the former view see Chalmers op. cit, and for the latter see Heryanto, op. cit and Edward Aspinall, 'The Broadening Base of Political Opposition in Indonesia', in Rodan (ed.), op. cit., pp.215-40.
49. For the former view see Chalmers op. cit, and for the latter see Heryanto, op. cit and Edward Aspinall, 'The Broadening Base of Political Opposition in Indonesia', in Rodan (ed.), op. cit., pp.215-40.
50. For the former view see Chalmers op. cit, and for the latter see Heryanto, op. cit and Edward Aspinall, 'The Broadening Base of Political Opposition in Indonesia', in Rodan (ed.), op. cit., pp.215-40.
51. R. Robison and Andrew Rosser (1998), 'Resisting Reform: Why Indonesia's New Order Will Overcome the IMF', Paper presented to the Conference 'From Miracle to Meltdown: The End of Asian Capitalism' (Asia Research Centre, Murdoch University, 20-22 Aug.), p.18.
52. The observations made in this section owe much to several previous publications. The contributions of Surin Maisrikrod, author of 'The Making of Thai Democracy: A Study of Political Alliances Among the State, the Capitalists, and the Middle Class', in Anek (ed.), op. cit., pp. 141-66, Garry Rodan and Richard Robison are gratefully acknowledged.
53. Prudhisan, op. cit., p.89.
54. This is not to say that the military was united in their response. The military was certainly split, but the factions that had become most politically influential favoured this approach. See Chai-Anan Samudavanija, Kusuma Snitwongse and Suchit Bunbongkarn, From Armed Suppression to Political Offensive: Attitudinal Transformation of Thai Military Officers Since 1976 (Institute of Security and International Studies, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, n.d.).
55. See Prudhisan, op. cit., pp.91-117.
56. Kevin Hewison, 'Of Regimes, State and Pluralities: Thai Politics Enters the 1990s', in Hewison et al. (eds.), pp.167-71.
57. Pasuk Phongpaichit and Chris Baker, Thailand: Economy and Politics (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1995), p.331.
58. See Pasuk and Baker, op. cit., pp.346-7 and Anek, op. cit.
59. See Pasuk and Baker, op. cit., pp.346-7 and Anek, op. cit.
60. See Kevin Hewison, 'Of Regimes, States and Pluralities: Thai Politics Enters the 1990s', in K. Hewison et al. (eds.), pp.159-89.
61. John L.S. Girling, Thailand: Society and Politics (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1981), pp.147-8.
62. Members of Parliament and their ministerial leaders did much to bring themselves into disrepute. The initial popular enthusiasm for the Chatichai government was replaced by cynicism. By late 1990, almost everyone believed that the government was corrupt. This was confirmed in Chatichai's final cabinet reshuffle, conducted to further the financial interests of the coalition parties.
63. Anek Laothamatas, 'Sleeping Giant Awakens? The Middle Class in Thai Politics', Asian Review (Bangkok, annual, 1993), p.99.
64. Pasuk Phongpaichit, 'The Thai Middle Class and the Military: Social Perspectives in the Aftermath of May 1992' (Thai Studies Group, Australian National University, 18 Oct. 1992), p.5.
65. Kevin Hewison and Surin Maisrikrod, 'Thailand's 1996 Election: A Cheer for Democracy?', Australian Quarterly, Vol.69, No.1 (1997), pp.30-40.
66. P. Burnell and P. Calvert, 'The Resilience of Democracy: An Introduction', in this collection, p.17.