Productive or reproductive? The roles of Iraqi women during the Iraq-Iran war

Middle Eastern Studies

Volumn 35, Issue 2, 1999, Pages 27-44

  Efrati, Noga ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BIRTH RATE; GENDER ROLE; LABOR PARTICIPATION; WOMENS STATUS;

IRAQ;

EID: 0032764476     PISSN: 00263206     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/00263209908701265     Document Type: Article

References (80)

1. M. Farouk-Sluglett, 'Liberation or Repression? Pan-Arab Nationalism and the Women's Movement in Iraq', in D. Hopwood, H. Ishow and T. Koszinowski (eds.), Iraq: Power and Society (Reading, 1993), pp.51-73; S. Joseph. 'The Mobilization of Iraqi Women Into the Wage Labor Force', in V.H. Sutlive et al. (eds.), Women and Politics in Twentieth Century Africa and Asia. Studies in Third World Societies, No.16, 1981, pp.69-90; S. Joseph, 'Elite Strategies for State Building: Women, Family, Religion and State in Iraq and Lebanon', in D. Kandiyoti (ed.), Women, Islam, and the State (London, 1991), pp.176-200. A. Rassam, 'Political Ideology and Women in Iraq: Legislation and Cultural Constrains', in J.G. Jabbra and N.W. Jabbra (eds.), Women and Development in the Middle East and North Africa (Leiden, 1992), pp.82-95. A. Rassam, 'Revolution Within the Revolution? Women and the State in Iraq', in T. Niblock (ed.), Iraq: The Contemporary State (London, 1982), pp.88-99. A. al-Sharqi, 'The Emancipation of Iraqi Women', in T. Niblock (ed.), Iraq: The Contemporary State (London, 1982), pp.74-87. See also: D. Cobbett, 'Women in Iraq', in CARDRI, Saddam's Iraq: Revolution or Reaction (London, 1989), pp. 120-37. S. Omar, 'Women: Honour, Shame and Dictatorship', in Fran Hazelton (ed.), Iraq Since the Gulf War: Prospects for Democracy (London, 1994), pp.60-71.
2. M. Farouk-Sluglett, 'Liberation or Repression? Pan-Arab Nationalism and the Women's Movement in Iraq', in D. Hopwood, H. Ishow and T. Koszinowski (eds.), Iraq: Power and Society (Reading, 1993), pp.51-73; S. Joseph. 'The Mobilization of Iraqi Women Into the Wage Labor Force', in V.H. Sutlive et al. (eds.), Women and Politics in Twentieth Century Africa and Asia. Studies in Third World Societies, No.16, 1981, pp.69-90; S. Joseph, 'Elite Strategies for State Building: Women, Family, Religion and State in Iraq and Lebanon', in D. Kandiyoti (ed.), Women, Islam, and the State (London, 1991), pp.176-200. A. Rassam, 'Political Ideology and Women in Iraq: Legislation and Cultural Constrains', in J.G. Jabbra and N.W. Jabbra (eds.), Women and Development in the Middle East and North Africa (Leiden, 1992), pp.82-95. A. Rassam, 'Revolution Within the Revolution? Women and the State in Iraq', in T. Niblock (ed.), Iraq: The Contemporary State (London, 1982), pp.88-99. A. al-Sharqi, 'The Emancipation of Iraqi Women', in T. Niblock (ed.), Iraq: The Contemporary State (London, 1982), pp.74-87. See also: D. Cobbett, 'Women in Iraq', in CARDRI, Saddam's Iraq: Revolution or Reaction (London, 1989), pp. 120-37. S. Omar, 'Women: Honour, Shame and Dictatorship', in Fran Hazelton (ed.), Iraq Since the Gulf War: Prospects for Democracy (London, 1994), pp.60-71.
3. M. Farouk-Sluglett, 'Liberation or Repression? Pan-Arab Nationalism and the Women's Movement in Iraq', in D. Hopwood, H. Ishow and T. Koszinowski (eds.), Iraq: Power and Society (Reading, 1993), pp.51-73; S. Joseph. 'The Mobilization of Iraqi Women Into the Wage Labor Force', in V.H. Sutlive et al. (eds.), Women and Politics in Twentieth Century Africa and Asia. Studies in Third World Societies, No.16, 1981, pp.69-90; S. Joseph, 'Elite Strategies for State Building: Women, Family, Religion and State in Iraq and Lebanon', in D. Kandiyoti (ed.), Women, Islam, and the State (London, 1991), pp.176-200. A. Rassam, 'Political Ideology and Women in Iraq: Legislation and Cultural Constrains', in J.G. Jabbra and N.W. Jabbra (eds.), Women and Development in the Middle East and North Africa (Leiden, 1992), pp.82-95. A. Rassam, 'Revolution Within the Revolution? Women and the State in Iraq', in T. Niblock (ed.), Iraq: The Contemporary State (London, 1982), pp.88-99. A. al-Sharqi, 'The Emancipation of Iraqi Women', in T. Niblock (ed.), Iraq: The Contemporary State (London, 1982), pp.74-87. See also: D. Cobbett, 'Women in Iraq', in CARDRI, Saddam's Iraq: Revolution or Reaction (London, 1989), pp. 120-37. S. Omar, 'Women: Honour, Shame and Dictatorship', in Fran Hazelton (ed.), Iraq Since the Gulf War: Prospects for Democracy (London, 1994), pp.60-71.
4. M. Farouk-Sluglett, 'Liberation or Repression? Pan-Arab Nationalism and the Women's Movement in Iraq', in D. Hopwood, H. Ishow and T. Koszinowski (eds.), Iraq: Power and Society (Reading, 1993), pp.51-73; S. Joseph. 'The Mobilization of Iraqi Women Into the Wage Labor Force', in V.H. Sutlive et al. (eds.), Women and Politics in Twentieth Century Africa and Asia. Studies in Third World Societies, No.16, 1981, pp.69-90; S. Joseph, 'Elite Strategies for State Building: Women, Family, Religion and State in Iraq and Lebanon', in D. Kandiyoti (ed.), Women, Islam, and the State (London, 1991), pp.176-200. A. Rassam, 'Political Ideology and Women in Iraq: Legislation and Cultural Constrains', in J.G. Jabbra and N.W. Jabbra (eds.), Women and Development in the Middle East and North Africa (Leiden, 1992), pp.82-95. A. Rassam, 'Revolution Within the Revolution? Women and the State in Iraq', in T. Niblock (ed.), Iraq: The Contemporary State (London, 1982), pp.88-99. A. al-Sharqi, 'The Emancipation of Iraqi Women', in T. Niblock (ed.), Iraq: The Contemporary State (London, 1982), pp.74-87. See also: D. Cobbett, 'Women in Iraq', in CARDRI, Saddam's Iraq: Revolution or Reaction (London, 1989), pp. 120-37. S. Omar, 'Women: Honour, Shame and Dictatorship', in Fran Hazelton (ed.), Iraq Since the Gulf War: Prospects for Democracy (London, 1994), pp.60-71.
5. M. Farouk-Sluglett, 'Liberation or Repression? Pan-Arab Nationalism and the Women's Movement in Iraq', in D. Hopwood, H. Ishow and T. Koszinowski (eds.), Iraq: Power and Society (Reading, 1993), pp.51-73; S. Joseph. 'The Mobilization of Iraqi Women Into the Wage Labor Force', in V.H. Sutlive et al. (eds.), Women and Politics in Twentieth Century Africa and Asia. Studies in Third World Societies, No.16, 1981, pp.69-90; S. Joseph, 'Elite Strategies for State Building: Women, Family, Religion and State in Iraq and Lebanon', in D. Kandiyoti (ed.), Women, Islam, and the State (London, 1991), pp.176-200. A. Rassam, 'Political Ideology and Women in Iraq: Legislation and Cultural Constrains', in J.G. Jabbra and N.W. Jabbra (eds.), Women and Development in the Middle East and North Africa (Leiden, 1992), pp.82-95. A. Rassam, 'Revolution Within the Revolution? Women and the State in Iraq', in T. Niblock (ed.), Iraq: The Contemporary State (London, 1982), pp.88-99. A. al-Sharqi, 'The Emancipation of Iraqi Women', in T. Niblock (ed.), Iraq: The Contemporary State (London, 1982), pp.74-87. See also: D. Cobbett, 'Women in Iraq', in CARDRI, Saddam's Iraq: Revolution or Reaction (London, 1989), pp. 120-37. S. Omar, 'Women: Honour, Shame and Dictatorship', in Fran Hazelton (ed.), Iraq Since the Gulf War: Prospects for Democracy (London, 1994), pp.60-71.
6. M. Farouk-Sluglett, 'Liberation or Repression? Pan-Arab Nationalism and the Women's Movement in Iraq', in D. Hopwood, H. Ishow and T. Koszinowski (eds.), Iraq: Power and Society (Reading, 1993), pp.51-73; S. Joseph. 'The Mobilization of Iraqi Women Into the Wage Labor Force', in V.H. Sutlive et al. (eds.), Women and Politics in Twentieth Century Africa and Asia. Studies in Third World Societies, No.16, 1981, pp.69-90; S. Joseph, 'Elite Strategies for State Building: Women, Family, Religion and State in Iraq and Lebanon', in D. Kandiyoti (ed.), Women, Islam, and the State (London, 1991), pp.176-200. A. Rassam, 'Political Ideology and Women in Iraq: Legislation and Cultural Constrains', in J.G. Jabbra and N.W. Jabbra (eds.), Women and Development in the Middle East and North Africa (Leiden, 1992), pp.82-95. A. Rassam, 'Revolution Within the Revolution? Women and the State in Iraq', in T. Niblock (ed.), Iraq: The Contemporary State (London, 1982), pp.88-99. A. al-Sharqi, 'The Emancipation of Iraqi Women', in T. Niblock (ed.), Iraq: The Contemporary State (London, 1982), pp.74-87. See also: D. Cobbett, 'Women in Iraq', in CARDRI, Saddam's Iraq: Revolution or Reaction (London, 1989), pp. 120-37. S. Omar, 'Women: Honour, Shame and Dictatorship', in Fran Hazelton (ed.), Iraq Since the Gulf War: Prospects for Democracy (London, 1994), pp.60-71.
7. M. Farouk-Sluglett, 'Liberation or Repression? Pan-Arab Nationalism and the Women's Movement in Iraq', in D. Hopwood, H. Ishow and T. Koszinowski (eds.), Iraq: Power and Society (Reading, 1993), pp.51-73; S. Joseph. 'The Mobilization of Iraqi Women Into the Wage Labor Force', in V.H. Sutlive et al. (eds.), Women and Politics in Twentieth Century Africa and Asia. Studies in Third World Societies, No.16, 1981, pp.69-90; S. Joseph, 'Elite Strategies for State Building: Women, Family, Religion and State in Iraq and Lebanon', in D. Kandiyoti (ed.), Women, Islam, and the State (London, 1991), pp.176-200. A. Rassam, 'Political Ideology and Women in Iraq: Legislation and Cultural Constrains', in J.G. Jabbra and N.W. Jabbra (eds.), Women and Development in the Middle East and North Africa (Leiden, 1992), pp.82-95. A. Rassam, 'Revolution Within the Revolution? Women and the State in Iraq', in T. Niblock (ed.), Iraq: The Contemporary State (London, 1982), pp.88-99. A. al-Sharqi, 'The Emancipation of Iraqi Women', in T. Niblock (ed.), Iraq: The Contemporary State (London, 1982), pp.74-87. See also: D. Cobbett, 'Women in Iraq', in CARDRI, Saddam's Iraq: Revolution or Reaction (London, 1989), pp. 120-37. S. Omar, 'Women: Honour, Shame and Dictatorship', in Fran Hazelton (ed.), Iraq Since the Gulf War: Prospects for Democracy (London, 1994), pp.60-71.
8. M. Farouk-Sluglett, 'Liberation or Repression? Pan-Arab Nationalism and the Women's Movement in Iraq', in D. Hopwood, H. Ishow and T. Koszinowski (eds.), Iraq: Power and Society (Reading, 1993), pp.51-73; S. Joseph. 'The Mobilization of Iraqi Women Into the Wage Labor Force', in V.H. Sutlive et al. (eds.), Women and Politics in Twentieth Century Africa and Asia. Studies in Third World Societies, No.16, 1981, pp.69-90; S. Joseph, 'Elite Strategies for State Building: Women, Family, Religion and State in Iraq and Lebanon', in D. Kandiyoti (ed.), Women, Islam, and the State (London, 1991), pp.176-200. A. Rassam, 'Political Ideology and Women in Iraq: Legislation and Cultural Constrains', in J.G. Jabbra and N.W. Jabbra (eds.), Women and Development in the Middle East and North Africa (Leiden, 1992), pp.82-95. A. Rassam, 'Revolution Within the Revolution? Women and the State in Iraq', in T. Niblock (ed.), Iraq: The Contemporary State (London, 1982), pp.88-99. A. al-Sharqi, 'The Emancipation of Iraqi Women', in T. Niblock (ed.), Iraq: The Contemporary State (London, 1982), pp.74-87. See also: D. Cobbett, 'Women in Iraq', in CARDRI, Saddam's Iraq: Revolution or Reaction (London, 1989), pp. 120-37. S. Omar, 'Women: Honour, Shame and Dictatorship', in Fran Hazelton (ed.), Iraq Since the Gulf War: Prospects for Democracy (London, 1994), pp.60-71.
9. Compare A. al-Sharqi, The Emancipation of Iraqi Women', in T. Niblock (ed.), Iraq: The Contemporary State (London, 1982), pp.74-87 with M. Farouk-Sluglett, 'Liberation or Repression? Pan-Arab Nationalism and the Women's Movement in Iraq', in D. Hopwood, H. Ishow and T. Koszinowski (eds.), Iraq: Power and Society (Oxford, 1993), pp.51-73.
10. Compare A. al-Sharqi, The Emancipation of Iraqi Women', in T. Niblock (ed.), Iraq: The Contemporary State (London, 1982), pp.74-87 with M. Farouk-Sluglett, 'Liberation or Repression? Pan-Arab Nationalism and the Women's Movement in Iraq', in D. Hopwood, H. Ishow and T. Koszinowski (eds.), Iraq: Power and Society (Oxford, 1993), pp.51-73.
11. A. Rassam, 'Political Ideology', pp.82-4. A. Rassam, 'Revolution Within the Revolution?', pp.97-9.
12. A. Rassam, 'Political Ideology', pp.82-4. A. Rassam, 'Revolution Within the Revolution?', pp.97-9.
13. P. Marr, The Modern History of Iraq (Boulder, 1985), pp. 300-1.
14. A. al-Sayyid Jasim, Saddam Husayn - 'Imlaq Fi al-Rafidayn (Baghdad, 1988), p.137; M. Yunis Bahri, Values Related to Women in President Saddam Hussein's Addresses to Women (Baghdad, 1985), pp.22-3.
15. A. al-Sayyid Jasim, Saddam Husayn - 'Imlaq Fi al-Rafidayn (Baghdad, 1988), p.137; M. Yunis Bahri, Values Related to Women in President Saddam Hussein's Addresses to Women (Baghdad, 1985), pp.22-3.
16. Iraq, 1 Sept. 1983.
17. 'A. Jasim 'Abd Allah, 'Harakat al-Tashghil al-Niswi fi al-'Iraq', al-Mar'a al-'Arabiyya, Vol.5 (1987), pp.59-78.
18. al-Jumhuriyya, 15 Sept. 1983.
19. Members of the party's Central Workers Bureau and its secretary, members of the executive committee of the General Federation of Trade Unions, members of the executive committee of the Trade Unions Federation of Baghdad Workers, heads of trade unions, and so on.
20. al-Jumhuriyya, 10 Oct. 1983.
21. 'Abd Allah, pp.59-78.
22. S. Joseph, 'The Mobilization of Iraqi Women', p.69.
23. Republic of Iraq, Ministry of Information, Women in Contemporary Iraq (Baghdad 1975) p.13.
24. 'Abd Allah, pp.61-4.
25. Ibid., p.64.
26. Ibid., pp.65-6, 71-2.
27. As mentioned previously, according to some reports, by 1982 factories, state organizations and government offices have had their workforce reduced by as much as 40 to 45 per cent. See: Marr, p.301; Middle East Economic Digest, Oct. 1982, p.4.
28. 'Abd Allah, pp.66-8.
29. Ibid., 68.
30. Ibid., p.69.
31. General Federation of Iraqi Women, The Working Program of the Iraqi Republic to Improve the Woman's Status, The National Papers Presented to the International Congress for the United Nations women's contract held in Copenhagen during 14-30/7/1980, pp.34-5.
32. Ibid., p. 39.
33. Ibid., p. 39-40.
34. Ibid., p. 44.
35. al-Jumhuriyya, 29 July 1984.
36. Republic of Iraq, National Committee for the Preparation for the Nairobi International Conference, General Report Presented to Nairobi International Conference: Review and Assessment of the achievements of the United Nations Decade for Women (Baghdad, 1985), pp.21-2.
37. Bahri, p.14; Farouk-Sluglett, p.72.
38. al-Jumhuriyya, 14 Jan. 1988.
39. Al-Qadisiyya was the site of the battle between the Arab and the Persian Armies, which put an end to Sassanid rule over Iraq in AD 635. The war with Iran was also called al-Qadisiyya: Qadisiyyat Saddam.
40. al-Jumhuriyya, 29 Oct. 1987: al-Jumhuriyya, 6 Dec. 1987: al-Jumhuriyya, 14 Jan. 1988.
41. al-Jumhuriyya, 29 Oct. 1987: al-Jumhuriyya, 6 Dec. 1987: al-Jumhuriyya, 14 Jan. 1988.
42. al-Jumhuriyya, 29 Oct. 1987: al-Jumhuriyya, 6 Dec. 1987: al-Jumhuriyya, 14 Jan. 1988.
43. O. Bengio, 'Iraq: The Demographic Vision and its Actualization' in A. Ayalon and G.G. Gilbar (eds.), Demography and Politics in the Arab States (in Hebrew) (Tel-Aviv, 1995). pp. 100-1; O. Bengio, 'Iraq', Middle East Contemporary Survey, Vol.12 (1988), p.517.
44. O. Bengio, 'Iraq: The Demographic Vision and its Actualization' in A. Ayalon and G.G. Gilbar (eds.), Demography and Politics in the Arab States (in Hebrew) (Tel-Aviv, 1995). pp. 100-1; O. Bengio, 'Iraq', Middle East Contemporary Survey, Vol.12 (1988), p.517.
45. al-Jumhuriyya, 4 May 1986. As quoted in: Foreign Broadcast Information Service - Daily Report (Middle East and Africa), 8 May 1986, p. E1.
46. al-Jumhuriyya, 4 May 1986. As quoted in: Foreign Broadcast Information Service - Daily Report (Middle East and Africa), 8 May 1986, p. E1.
47. al-Jumhuriyya, 1 June 1986.
48. al-Jumhuriyya, 18 Nov. 1987; al-Jumhuriyya, 14 Jan. 1988.
49. al-Jumhuriyya, 18 Nov. 1987; al-Jumhuriyya, 14 Jan. 1988.
50. al-Jumhuriyya, 31 Jan. 1988.
51. al-Jumhuriyya, 29 Oct. 1987; al-Jumhuriyya, 8 Nov. 1987; al-Jumhuriyya, 23 Jan. 1988.
52. al-Jumhuriyya, 29 Oct. 1987; al-Jumhuriyya, 8 Nov. 1987; al-Jumhuriyya, 23 Jan. 1988.
53. al-Jumhuriyya, 29 Oct. 1987; al-Jumhuriyya, 8 Nov. 1987; al-Jumhuriyya, 23 Jan. 1988.
54. Resolution No. 43, The Official Gazette, No. 10 (5 March 1986), pp.2-3; Resolution No. 44, The Official Gazette, No.16 (16 April 1986), pp.3-4.
55. Resolution No. 43, The Official Gazette, No. 10 (5 March 1986), pp.2-3; Resolution No. 44, The Official Gazette, No.16 (16 April 1986), pp.3-4.
56. Resolution No. 881, The Official Gazette, No. 4 (27 Jan. 1988), p.5; Resolution No. 882, The Official Gazette, No.7 (17 Feb. 1988), p.3. Both of them were published in al-Waqa'i' al-'Iraqiyya on 7 Dec. 1987.
57. Resolution No. 881, The Official Gazette, No. 4 (27 Jan. 1988), p.5; Resolution No. 882, The Official Gazette, No.7 (17 Feb. 1988), p.3. Both of them were published in al-Waqa'i' al-'Iraqiyya on 7 Dec. 1987.
58. Farouk-Sluglett, pp.71-2; Joseph, 'Elite Strategies for State-Building', p. 187;
59. D. Cobbett, p. 126; Bengio, 'Iraq: The Demographic Vision', pp. 91-3.
60. See the Ba'th's Constitution, Articles 12 and 38 in: Nidat al-Ba'th: al-Mu'tamaral al-Qawmiyya al-Sab'a al-Ula 1947-1964 (Beirut, 1976), pp. 26, 28-9.
61. 'al-Mar'a fi Diyafat Usrat al-Sayyid al-Na'ib', al-Mar'a, Vol.8 (July, 1978), pp.10-11.
62. Farouk-Sluglett, p. 72; Bahri, pp.13-14.
63. Bahri, p. 13.
64. Qanun al-Ahwal al-Shakhsiyya No. 188 of 1959, al-Waqa'i' al-'Iraqiyya, No.280 (30 Dec. 1959), pp.3-4.
65. Qanun al-Ahwal al-Shakhsiyya No. 188 of 1959, al-Waqa'i' al-'Iraqiyya, No.280 (30 Dec. 1959), pp.3-4.
66. A. al-Kubaysi, al-Ahwal al-Shakhsiyya (Baghdad, 1972), Vol. 1, pp.158-63.
67. al-Waqa'i' al-'Iraqiyya, No.2766 (31 March 1980), p.528.
68. al-Jumhuriyya, 1 June 1986.
69. al-Jumhuriyya, 29 Oct. 1987.
70. Iraq, Ministry of Planning, Annual Abstract of Statistics, 1988 (Baghdad, 1989), p.92; Annual Abstract of Statistics, 1989 (Baghdad, 1990), p. 107; Annual Abstract of Statistics, 1990 (Baghdad, 1991), p.108. Similar data for 1987 was not available.
71. Iraq, Ministry of Planning, Annual Abstract of Statistics, 1988 (Baghdad, 1989), p.92; Annual Abstract of Statistics, 1989 (Baghdad, 1990), p. 107; Annual Abstract of Statistics, 1990 (Baghdad, 1991), p.108. Similar data for 1987 was not available.
72. Iraq, Ministry of Planning, Annual Abstract of Statistics, 1988 (Baghdad, 1989), p.92; Annual Abstract of Statistics, 1989 (Baghdad, 1990), p. 107; Annual Abstract of Statistics, 1990 (Baghdad, 1991), p.108. Similar data for 1987 was not available.
73. Farouk-Sluglett, p.70.
74. Rassam, 'Political Ideology', p. 82.
75. J.M. Peteet, 'Authenticity and Gender', in J.E. Tucker (ed.), Arab Women: Old Boundaries, New Frontiers (Bloomington. 1986), pp.49-62.
76. It seems though that the campaign, started at the end of 1987, was not a result of an ongoing demobilization, but more likely a response to an anticipated demobilization. See statistics concerning armed forces personnel: The Middle East Military Balance 1987-1988, p. 299; The Middle East Military Balance 1988-1989, p.178; The Middle East Military Balance 1989-1990, p.229.
77. It seems though that the campaign, started at the end of 1987, was not a result of an ongoing demobilization, but more likely a response to an anticipated demobilization. See statistics concerning armed forces personnel: The Middle East Military Balance 1987-1988, p. 299; The Middle East Military Balance 1988-1989, p.178; The Middle East Military Balance 1989-1990, p.229.
78. It seems though that the campaign, started at the end of 1987, was not a result of an ongoing demobilization, but more likely a response to an anticipated demobilization. See statistics concerning armed forces personnel: The Middle East Military Balance 1987-1988, p. 299; The Middle East Military Balance 1988-1989, p.178; The Middle East Military Balance 1989-1990, p.229.
79. Joseph, with regard to the 1970s and up to 1980, remarked that women were expected to build Iraq by joining the wage labour force as well as by producing the future labour force. See Joseph, 'The Mobilization of Iraqi Women', p.82. Bengio noted that the demographic question with connection to national security was already raised in the 1970s. See O. Bengio, 'Iraq: The Demographic Vision', p.95.
80. Joseph, with regard to the 1970s and up to 1980, remarked that women were expected to build Iraq by joining the wage labour force as well as by producing the future labour force. See Joseph, 'The Mobilization of Iraqi Women', p.82. Bengio noted that the demographic question with connection to national security was already raised in the 1970s. See O. Bengio, 'Iraq: The Demographic Vision', p.95.