Patellofemoral pain syndrome. A review of current issues

Sports Medicine

Volumn 28, Issue 4, 1999, Pages 245-262

  Thomeé, Roland ^a   Augustsson, Jesper ^a   Karlsson, Jon ^a  

^a SAHLGRENSKA UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL   (Sweden)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANATOMY; ARTHRALGIA; BIOMECHANICS; BURSITIS; DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS; HUMAN; KNEE FUNCTION; LARSEN SYNDROME; PAIN; PATELLOFEMORAL JOINT; PERSONALITY; PHYSICAL ACTIVITY; QUADRICEPS FEMORIS MUSCLE; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SITTING; SYMPTOM; TENDINITIS; WALKING;

ARTHRALGIA; FEMALE; FEMUR; HUMANS; KNEE JOINT; MALE; PATELLA; PROGNOSIS; SYNDROME;

EID: 0032759029     PISSN: 01121642     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2165/00007256-199928040-00003     Document Type: Review

References (158)

1. 1. Cutbill JW, Ladly KO, Bray RC, et al. Anterior knee pain: a review. Clin J Sport Med 1997; 7: 40-5
2. 2. Grayson TH, editor. Disorders of the patellofemoral joint. 2nd ed. Baltimore (MD): Williams & Wilkins, 1990
3. 3. Reid DC. The myth, mystic and frustration of anterior knee pain. Clin J Sport Med 1993; 3: 139-43
4. 4. Insall JN. Current concepts review: patellar pain. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1982; 64 (1): 147-52
5. 5. Thomeé R, Renström P, Karlsson J, et al. Patellofemoral pain syndrome in young women: I. A clinical analysis of alignment, common symptoms and functional activity level. Scand J Med Sci Sports 1995; 5: 237-44
6. 6. Webster's seventh new collegiate dictionary. Springfield (MA): GC Merriam Co., 1969
7. 7. Aleman O. Chondromalacia post-traumatica patellae. Acta Chir Scand 1928; 63: 149-63
8. 8. Büdinger K. Uber traumatische knorpelrisse in kniegeleuk. Dtsch Z Chir 1908; 92: 510
9. 9. Abernethy P, Wilson G, Logan P. Strength and power assessment. Sports Med 1995; 19: 401-17
10. 10. Darracott J, Vernon-Roberts B. The bony changes in 'chondromalacia patellae'. Rheum Phys Med 1971; 11: 175-9
11. 11. DeHaven KE, Dolan WA, Mayer PJ. Chondromalacia patellae in athletes. Am J Sports Med 1979; 7: 5-11
12. 12. Hvid I, Andersen LI. The quadriceps angle and its relation to femoral torsion. Acta Orthop Scand 1982; 53: 577-9
13. 13. Kelly MA, Insall JN. Historical perspectives of chondromalacia patellae. Orthop Clin North Am 1992; 23: 517-21
14. 14. Leslie IJ, Bentley G. Arthroscopy in the diagnosis of chondromalacia patellae. Ann Rheum Dis 1978; 37: 540-7
15. 15. Tria AJ, Palumbo RC, Alicea JA. Conservative care for patellofemoral pain. Orthop Clin North Am 1992; 23: 545-54
16. 16. Ficat R, Hungerford D. Disorders of the patello-femoral joint. Baltimore (MD): Williams & Wilkins, 1977
17. 17. Hughston JC, Walsh WM, Puddu G. Patellar subluxation and dislocation. Philadelphia (PA): WB Saunders, 1984
18. 18. Hungerford DS, Barry M. Biomechanics of the patellofemoral joint. Clin Orthop 1979; 144: 9-15
19. 19. Lieb FJ, Perry J. Quadriceps function. An electromyographic study under isometric conditions. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1971; 53 (4): 749-58
20. 20. Reynolds L, Levin TA, Medieros JM, et al. EMG activity of the vastus medialis oblique and the vastus lateralis in their role in patellar alignment. Am J Phys Med 1983; 62: 61-70
21. 21. James S. Chondromalacia of the patella in the adolescent. In: Kennedy JC, editor. The injured adolescent knee. Baltimore (MD): Williams & Wilkins, 1979: 205-251
22. 22. Clement DB, Taunton JE, Smart GW, et al. A survey of running injuries. Phys Sports Med 1981; 9: 47-58
23. 23. Fairhank JC, Pynsent PB, van Poortvliet JA, et al. Mechanical factors in the incidence of knee pain in adolescents and young adults. J Bone Joint Surg Br 1984; 66 (5): 685-93
24. 24. Hörding G. Chondromalacia patellae bland skolungdom. Nord Med 1983; 98: 207-8
25. 25. Kannus P, Aho H, Järvinen M. Computerized recording of visits to an outpatients sports clinic. Am J Sports Med 1987; 15: 79-85
26. 26. Kujala UM, Kvist M, Österman K. Knee injuries in athletes: review of exertion injuries and retrospective study of outpatient sports clinical material. Sports Med 1986; 3: 447-60
27. 27. Newman P, Thomson J, Barnes J, et al. A clinic for athletic injuries. Proc R Soc Med 1969; 62: 939-41
28. 28. Orava S. Exertion injuries due to sports and physical exercise: a clinical and statistical study of nontraumatic overuse injuries of the musculoskeletal system of athletes and keep-fit athletes [thesis]. Oulo: University of Oulo, 1980
29. 29. Bentley G, Dowd G. Current concepts of etiology and treatment of chondromalacia patellae. Clin Orthop Rel Res 1984; 189: 209-28
30. 30. Kujala UM, Österman K, Kvist M, et al. Factors predisposing to patellar chondropathy and patellar apecitis in athletes. Int Orthop 1986; 10: 195-200
31. 31. Klingman RE, Liaos S, Hardin K. The effect of subtalar joint posting on patellar glide position in subjects with excessive rearfoot pronation. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 1997; 25 (3): 185-91
32. 32. Galanty HL, Matthews C, Hergenroeder AC. Anterior knee pain in adolescents. Clin J Sports Med 1994; 4: 176-81
33. 33. Kannus P, Niittymäki S. Which factors predict outcome in the nonoperative treatment of patellofemoral pain syndrome? A prospective follow-up study. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1994; 26: 289-96
34. 34. Karlsson J, Thomeé R, Swärd L. Eleven year follow-up of patellofemoral pain syndrome. Clin J Sports Med 1996; 6: 22-6
35. 35. Messier SP, Davis SE, Curl WW, et al. Etiologic factors associated with patellofemoral pain in runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1991; 23: 1008-15
36. 36. Schutzer SF, Ramsby GR, Fulkerson JP. The evaluation of patello-femoral pain using computerised tomography: a preliminary study. Clin Orthop 1984; 204: 186-293
37. 37. Schutzer SF, Ramsby GR, Fulkerson JP. Computed tomographic classification of patello-femoral pain patients. Orthop Clin North Am 1986; 17: 235-48
38. 38. Merchant AC, Mercer RL, Jacobsen RH, et al. Roentgenographic analysis of patello-femoral congruence. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1974; 56 (7): 1391-6
39. 39. Stanford W, Phelan J, Kathol MH, et al. Patello-femoral joint motion: evaluation by ultrafast computed tomography. Skeletal Radiol 1988; 17: 487-92
40. 40. Insall JN, Aglietti P, Tria AJ. Patellar pain and incongruence II: clinical application. Clin Orthop 1983; 176: 225-32
41. 41. Dupuy DE, Hangen DH, Zachazewski JE, et al. Kinematic CT of the patellofemoral joint. Am J Roentgenol 1997; 169 (1): 211-5
42. 42. Dillon PZ, Updyke WF, Allen WC. Gait analysis with reference to chondromalacia patellae. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 1983; 5: 127-31
43. 43. Powers CM, Perry J, Hsu A, et al. Are patellofemoral pain and quadriceps femoris muscle torque associated with locomotor function? Phys Ther 1997; 77 (10): 1063-75
44. 44. Antich TJ, Randall C, Westbrook RA, et al. Evaluation of knee extensor mechanism disorders: clinical presentation of 112 patients. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 1986; 8: 248-54
45. 45. Thomeé R, Renström P, Karlsson J, et al. Patellofemoral pain syndrome in young women: II. Muscle function in patients and healthy controls. Scand J Med Sci Sports 1995; 5: 245-51
46. 46. Bennett JG, Stauber WT. Evaluation and treatment of anterior knee pain using eccentric exercise. Med Sci Sports Excerc 1986; 18 (5): 526-30
47. 47. Campbell DE, Glenn W. Rehabilitation of knee flexor and knee extensor muscle strength in patients with meniscectomies, ligamentous repairs, and chondromalacia. Phys Ther 1982; 62: 10-5
48. 48. Dvir Z, Halperin N. Patellofemoral pain syndrome: a preliminary model for analysis and interpretation of isokinetic and pain parameters. Clin Biomech 1992; 7: 240-6
49. 49. Hoke B, Howell D, Stack M. The relationship between isokinetic testing and dynamic patellofemoral compression. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 1983; 4: 150-3
50. 50. MacIntyre D, Robertson G. Quadriceps muscle activity in women runners with and without patellofemoral pain syndrome. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1992; 73: 10-4
51. 51. Werner S. An evaluation of knee extensor and knee flexor torques and EMGs in patients with patello-femoral pain syndrome in comparison with matched controls. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc 1995; 3 (2): 89-94
52. 52. Doxey GE, Eisenman P. The influence of patellofemoral pain on electromyographic activity during submaximal isometric contractions. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 1984; 9: 211-6
53. 53. Möller BN, Krebs B, Tideman-Dal C, et al. Isometric contractions in the patellofemoral pain syndrome: an electromyographic study. Arch Orthop Traum Surg 1986; 105: 24-7
54. 54. Cerny K. Vastus medialis oblique/vastus lateralis muscle activity ratios for selected exercises in persons with and without patellofemoral pain syndrome. Phys Ther 1995; 75 (8): 672-83
55. 55. Souza DR, Gross MT. Comparison of vastus medialis obliquus: vastus lateralis muscle integrated electromyographic ratios between healthy subjects and patients with patellofemoral pain. Phys Ther 1991; 71: 310-20
56. 56. Voight ML, Wieder DL. Comparative reflex response time of vastus medialis obliquus and vastus lateralis in normal subjects and subjects with extensor mechanism dysfunction. Am J Sports Med 1991; 19: 131-7
57. 57. Boucher J, King M, Lefebvre R, et al. Quadriceps femoris muscle activity in patellofemoral pain syndrome. Am J Sports Med 1992; 20: 527-32
58. 58. Witvrouw E, Sneyers C, Lysens R, et al. Reflex response times of vastus medialis oblique and vastus lateralis in normal subjects and in subjects with patellofemoral pain syndrome. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 1996; 24 (3): 160-5
59. 59. Powers CM, Landel R, Perry J. Timing and intensity of vastus muscle activity during functional activities in subjects with and without patellofemoral pain. Phys Ther 1996; 76 (9): 946-55
60. 60. Morrish GM, Woledge RC. A comparison of the activation of muscles moving the patella in normal subjects and in patients with chronic patellofemoral problems. Scand J Rehabil Med 1997; 29 (1): 43-8
61. 61. Gilleard W, McConnell J, Parsons D. The effect of patellar taping on the onset of vastus medialis obliquus and vastus lateralis muscle activity in persons with patellofemoral pain. Phys Ther 1998; 78 (1): 25-32
62. 62. McConnell J. The management of chondromalacia patellae: a long term solution. Aust J Phys Ther 1986; 32: 215-23
63. 63. Hehne HJ. Biomechanics of the patellofemoral joint and its clinical relevance. Clin Orthop 1990; 258: 73-85
64. 64. Grabiner MD, Koh TJ, Miller GF. Fatigue rates of vastus mediatis oblique and vastus lateralis during static and dynamic knee extension. J Orthop Res 1991; 9: 391-7
65. 65. Weinstabl R, Schaf W, Firas W. The extensor apparatus of the knee joint and its peripheral vasti: anatomic investigation and clinical relevance. Surg Radiol Anat 1989; 11: 17-22
66. 66. Speakman H, Weisberg J. The vastus medialis controversy. Phys Ther 1977; 63: 279-83
67. 67. Mariam PP, Caruso I. An electromyographic investigation of subluxation of the patella. J Bone Joint Surg Br 1979; 61 (2): 169-71
68. 68. Stratford P. Electromyography of the quadriceps femoris muscle in subjects with normal knees and acutely effused knees. Phys Ther 1981; 62: 279-83
69. 69. Doucette SA, Child DD. The effect of open and closed chain exercise and knee joint position on lateral patellar compression syndrome. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 1996; 23 (2): 104-10
70. 70. Doucette SA, Goble EM. The effect of exercise on patellar tracking in lateral patellar compression syndrome. Am J Sports Med 1992; 20: 434-40
71. 71. Zappala FG, Taffel CB, Scuderi GR. Rehabilitation of the patellofemoral joint disorders. Orthop Clin North Am 1992; 23: 555-66
72. 72. Palmitter R, An K-N, Scott S, et al. Kinetic chain exercise in knee rehabilitation. Sports Med 1991; 11 (6): 402-13
73. 73. Beynnon B, Johnson R, Fleming B, et al. The strain behaviour of the anterior cruciate ligament during squalling and active flexion extension. Am J Sports Med 1997; 25 (6): 823-9
74. 74. Fitzgerald GK. Open versus closed kinetic chain exercise: issues in rehabilitation after anterior cruciate ligament reconstructive surgery. Phys Ther 1997; 77 (12): 1747-54
75. 75. Thomeé R, Grimby G, Svantesson U, et al. Quadriceps muscle performance in sitting and standing in young women with patellofemoral pain syndrome and healthy controls. Scand J Med Sci Sports 1996; 6 (4): 233-41
76. 76. Secher NH, Rube N, Elers J. Strength of two-and one-legged extension in man. Acta Physiol Scand 1988; 134: 333-9
77. 77. Bynum BE, Barrack RL, Alexander AH. Open versus closed chain kinetic exercises after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. Am J Sports Med 1995; 23: 401-6
78. 78. Shelbourne KD, Nitz P. Accelerated rehabilitation after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 1992; 15: 256-64
79. 79. De Carlo M, Shelbourne D, McCarroll J, et al. Traditional versus accelerated rehabilitation following ACL reconstruction: a one-year follow-up. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 1992; 6: 309-16
80. 80. Shelbourne K, Klootwyk T, Wilckens J, et al. Ligament stability two to six years after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction with autogenous patellar tendon graft and participation in accelerated rehabilitation program. Am J Sports Med 1995; 5: 575-9
81. 81. Callaghan MJ, Oldham JA. The role of quadriceps exercise in the treatment of patellofemoral pain syndrome. Sports Med 1996; 21: 384-91
82. 82. Greenberger H, Paterno M. Relationship of knee extensor strength and hopping test performance in the assessment of lower extremity function. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 1995; 5: 202-6
83. 83. Wilk K, Romaniello W, Soscia S, et al. The relationship between subjective knee scores, isokinetic testing, and functional testing in the ACL-reconstructed knee. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 1994; 2: 60-72
84. 84. Augustsson J, Esko A, Thomeé R, et al. Weight training of the thigh muscles using closed vs open kinetic chain exercises: a comparison of performance enhancement. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 1998; 27 (1): 3-8
85. 85. Steinkamp LA, Dillingham MF, Markel MD, et al. Biomechanical considerations in patellofemoral joint rehabilitation. Am J Sports Med 1993; 21 (3): 438-44
86. 86. Tegner Y. Cruciate ligament injuries in the knee: evaluation and rehabilitation [thesis]. Linköping: Linköping University, 1985
87. 87. Lindblom U, Nemeth G. Smärttyper med eftersatt differential-diagnostik. Läkartidningen 1992; 89: 1392-9
88. 88. Biedert RM, Stauffer E, Friedrich N. Occurrence of free nerve endings in the soft tissue of the knee joint: a histologic investigation. Am J Sports Med 1992; 20: 430-3
89. 89. Kennedy JC, Alexander IJ, Hayes KC. Nerve supply of the human knee and its functional importance. Am J Sports Med 1982; 10: 329-35
90. 90. Fulkerson JP, Tenant R, Jiving JS, et al. Histologic evidence of retinacular nerve injury. Clin Orthop Rel Res 1985; 197: 195-205
91. 91. Goodfellow J, Hungerford DS, Woods C. Patello-femoral joint mechanics and pathology. 2: chondromalacia patellae. J Bone J Surg Br 1976; 58 (3): 291-9
92. 92. Werner S, Eriksson E, Isokinetic quadriceps training in patients with patellofemoral pain syndrome. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc 1993; 1: 162-8
93. 93. Scott J, Huskisson EC. Graphic representation of pain. Pain 1976; 6: 175-84
94. 94. Dixon JS, Bird HA. Reproducibility along a 10 cm vertical visual analogue scale. Ann Rheum Dis 1981; 40: 887-9
95. 95. Price DD, McGrath PA, Rafii A, et al. The validation of visual analogue scales as ratio scale measures for chronic and experimental pain. Pain 1983; 17 (1): 45-56
96. 96. Seymour RA, Simpson JM, Charlton JE, et al. An evaluation of length and end-phrase of visual analogue scales in dental pain. Pain 1985; 21: 177-85
97. 97. Downie WW, Leatham PA, Rhind VM, et al. Studies with pain rating scales. Ann Rheum Dis 1978; 37: 378-81
98. 98. Joyce CRB, Zutshi DW, Hrubes V, et al. Comparison of fixed interval and visual analogue scales for rating chronic pain. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1975; 8: 415-20
99. 99. Kremer E, Atkinson JH, Ignelzi RJ. Measurement of pain: patient preference does not confound pain measurement. Pain 1981; 10 (2): 241-8
100. 100. Ohnhaus E, Adler R. Methodological problems in the measurement of pain: a comparison between the verbal rating scale and the visual analogue scale. Pain 1975; 1: 379-84
101. 101. Carlsson AM. Assessment of chronic pain. I: aspects of the reliability and validity of the visual analog scale. Pain 1983; 16 (1): 87-101
102. 102. Harms-Ringdahl K, Carlsson AM, Ekholm J, et al. Pain assessment with different intensity scales in response to loading of joint structures. Pain 1986; 27: 401-11
103. 103. Borg G. A category scale with ratio properties for inter modal and inter individual comparisons. In: Geisler HG, Petzold P, editors. Psychophysical judgement and the process of perception. Berlin: VEB Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften, 1982: 25-34
104. 104. Chapman SL, Casey KL, Dubner R, et al. Pain measurement: an overview. Pain 1985; 22: 1-31
105. 105. Wright BD, Stone MH. Best test design: Rasch measurements. Chicago: Mesa Press, 1979
106. 106. Thomeé R, Grimby G, Wright BD, et al. Rasch analysis of visual analog scale measurements before and after treatment of patients with patellofemoral pain syndrome. Scand J Rehabil Med 1995; 27: 145-51
107. 107. Rutherford OM, Jones DA, Newham DJ. Clinical and experimental application of the percutaneous twitch superimposition technique for the study of the human muscle activation. J Neurol 1986; 49: 1288-91
108. 108. Lindh MH, Johansson LG, Hedberg M, et al. Studies on maximal voluntary muscle contraction in patients with fibromyalgia. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1995; 75: 1217-22
109. 109. Thomeé R. A comprehensive treatment approach for patellofemoral pain syndrome in young women. Phys Ther 1997; 77 (12): 1690-703
110. 110. Carlsson AM, Werner S, Mattlar C-E, et al. Personality in patients with long term patello-femoral pain syndrome. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc 1993; 1 (3-4): 178-83
111. 111. Fordyce WE. Behavioral factors in pain. Neurosurg Clin 1991; 2: 749-59
112. 112. Lindström IL. A successful intervention program for patients with subacute low back pain [thesis]. Göteborg: Göteborg University, 1994
113. 113. Schwarz C, Blazina ME, Sisto DJ, et al. The results of operative treatment of osteochondritis dissecans of the patella. Am J Sports Med 1988; 16: 522-9
114. 114. Sontag S. Illness as metaphor. New York (NY): Vintage, 1977
115. 115. Eng JJ, Pierrynowski MR. Evaluation of soft foot orthotics in the treatment of patellofemoral pain syndrome. Phys Ther 1993; 73: 62-70
116. 116. Fisher RL. Conservative treatment of patello-femoral pain. Orthop Clin North Am 1986; 17: 269-72
117. 117. Lindberg U. The patellofemoral pain syndrome [thesis]. Linköping: Linköping University, 1986
118. 118. Lysholm J, Nordin M, Ekstrand J, et al. The effect of a patella brace on the performance in knee extension strength test in patients with patellar pain. Am J Sports Med 1984; 12: 110-2
119. 119. Malek MM, Mangine RE. Patello-femoral pain syndrome: a comprehensive and conservative approach. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 1981; 2: 108-16
120. 120. Radin EL. A rational approach to the treatment of patello-femoral pain. Clin Orthop 1979; 144: 107-9
121. 121. Shelton GL, Thigpen LK. Rehabilitation of patellofemoral dysfunction: a review of literature. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 1991; 14: 243-9
122. 122. Werner S, Eriksson E. Isokinetic quadriceps training in patients with patellofemoral pain syndrome. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc 1993; 1: 162-8
123. 123. Whitelaw GP, Rullo DJ, Markowitz HD, et al. A conservative approach to anterior knee pain. Clin Orthop 1989; 246: 234-7
124. 124. Arroll B, Ellis-Pegler E, Edwards A, et al. Patellofemoral pain syndrome: a critical review of the clinical trials on nonoperative therapy. Am J Sports Med 1997; 20: 207-12
125. 125. Wise HH, Fiebert JM, Kates JL. EMG biofeedback treatment for patellofemoral pain syndrome. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 1984; 6: 95-103
126. 126. Yates C, Grana WA. Patellofemoral pain: a prospective study. Orthopaedics 1986; 9: 663-7
127. 127. Evans TK, Paulos LE. Complications of patello-femoral surgery. Orthop Clin North Am 1992; 23: 697-710
128. 128. Karlsson J, Lansinger O, Swärd L. Bad results after anterior advancement of the tibial tuberosity for patellofemoral pain syndrome. Arch OrthopTrauma Surg 1992; 111: 99-104
129. 129. Sandow MJ, Goodfellow JW. The natural history of anterior knee pain in adolescents. J Bone Joint Surg Br 1985; 67 (1): 36-8
130. 130. Jensen DB, Albrektsen SB. The natural history of chondromalacia patellae: a 12 year follow-up. Acta Orthop Belg 1990; 56: 503-6
131. 131. O'Neill DB, Micheili LJ, Warner JP. Patellofemoral stress: a prospective analysis of exercise treatment in adolescents and adults. Am J Sports Med 1992; 20: 151-6
132. 132. McMullen W, Roncarati A, Koval P. Static and isokinetic treatments of chondromalacia patella: a comparative investigation. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 1990; 12: 256-66
133. 133. Stiene HA, Brosky, T, Reinking M, et al. A comparison of closed kinetic chain and isokinetic joint isolation exercise in patients with patellofemoral dysfunction. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 1996; 24 (3): 136-41
134. 134. Beckman M, Craig R, Lehman RC. Rehabilitation of the patellofemoral dysfunction in the athlete. Clin Sports Med 1989; 8: 841-60
135. 135. Brunet ME, Stewart GW. Patellofemoral rehabilitation. Clin Sports Med 1989; 8: 319-29
136. 136. Gray D. Physical therapy techniques for conservative treatment of patellar pain and instability. Adapt Techn Sports Med 1994; 2: 263-72
137. 137. Curtiss PH. Changes produced in the synovial membrane and synovial fluid by disease. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1964; 46: 873-88
138. 138. Kannus P, Jozsa L, Renström P, et al. The effects of training, immobilization and remobilization on musculoskeletal tissue. 1: training and immobilization. Scand J Med Sci Sports 1992; 2: 100-18
139. 139. Paukkonen K, Selkäinaho K, Jurvelin J, et al. Cells and nuclei of articular cartilage chondrocytes in young rabbits enlarged after nonstrenuous exercise. J Anat 1985; 142: 13-20
140. 140. Radin EL. The physiology and degeneration of joints. Semin Arthritis Rheum 1973; 2: 245-57
141. 141. Fitzgerald GK, McClure PW. Reliability of measurements obtained with four tests for patellofemoral alignment. Phys Ther 1995; 75: 84-92
142. 142. Werner S, Knutsson E, Eriksson E. The effect of taping the patella on concentric and eccentric torque and emg of knee extensor and knee flexor muscles in patients with patello-femoral pain syndrome. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc 1993; 1: 169-77
143. 143. Kowall MG, Kolk G, Nuber G, et al. Patellar taping in the treatment of patellofemoral pain: a prospective randomized study. Am J Sports Med 1996; 24 (1): 61-6
144. 144. Larsen B, Andreasen E, Urfer A, et al. Patellar taping: a radiographic examination of the medial glide technique. Am J Sports Med 1995; 23 (4): 465-71
145. 145. Fulkerson, JP, Schutzer SF. After failure of conservative treatment for painful patello-femoral malalignment: lateral release or realignment? Orthop Clin North Am 1986; 17: 283-8
146. 146. Fabbriciani C, Panni AS, Delcogliano A. Role of arthroscopic lateral release in the treatment of patello-femoral disorders. Arthroscopy 1992; 8: 531-6
147. 147. Hayes WC, Huberti HH, Lewallen DG, et al. Patellofemoral contact pressures and the effects of surgical reconstructive procedures. In: Ewing JW, editor. Articular cartilage and knee joint function: basic science and arthroscopy. New York (NY): Raven Press, 1990: 57-77
148. 148. Insall J, Bullogh PG, Burstein AH. Proximal 'tube' realignment of the patella for chondromalacia patellae. Clin Orthop 1979; 144: 63-9
149. 149. Scuderi G, Cuomo F, Scott WN. Lateral release and proximal realignment for patellar subluxation and dislocation: a longterm follow-up. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1988; 70 (6): 856-61
150. 150. Fielding JW, Liebler WA, Tambakis A. The effect of a tibial-tubercle transplant in children on the growth of the upper tibial epiphysis. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1960; 42: 1426-34
151. 151. Cox JS. Evaluation of the Roux-Elmslie-Trillat procedure for knee extensor realignment. Am J Sports Med 1982; 10: 303-10
152. 152. Ferguson Jr AB, Brown TD, Fu FH, et al. Relief of patellofemoral contact stress by anterior displacement of the tibial tubercle. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1979; 61 (2): 159-66
153. 153. Maquet P. Mechanics and osteoarthritis of the patello-femoral joint. Clin Orthop 1979; 144: 70-3
154. 154. Engebretsen L, Svenningsen S, Benum P. Advancement of the tibial tuberosity for patellar pain: a 5-year follow-up. Acta Orthop Scand 1989; 60: 20-2
155. 155. Radin EL, Pan HQ. Long term follow-up study on the Maquet procedure with special reference to the causes of failure. Clin Orthop 1993; 290: 253-8
156. 156. Fulkerson JP. Anteromedialization of the tibial tuberosity for patello-femoral malalignment. Clin Orthop 1983; 177: 176-81
157. 157 Ficat RP, Ficat C, Gedeon P, et al. Spongialization: a new treatment for diseased patellae. Clin Orthop 1979; 144: 74-83
158. 158. Papagelopoulos PJ, Sim FH. Patellofemoral pain syndrome: diagnosis and management. Orthopaedics 1997; 20: 148-57