The single-issue party thesis: Extreme right parties and the immigration issue

West European Politics

Volumn 22, Issue 3, 1999, Pages 182-197

  Mudde, Cas ^a  

^a CENTRAL EUROPEAN UNIVERSITY   (Hungary)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

IMMIGRATION POLICY; NATIONAL POLITICS; PARTY POLITICS; THEORETICAL STUDY;

EUROPE;

EID: 0032757901     PISSN: 01402382     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/01402389908425321     Document Type: Article

References (84)

1. I will not get into the discussion over the correct terminology; see Cas Mudde, 'The War of Words: Defining the Extreme Right Party Family', West European Politics 19/2 (April 1996) pp.225-48. I use the term 'extreme right' here in a generic sense, encompassing all parties labelled generally as such or as 'racist', 'anti-immigrant', 'radical right-wing', 'fascist' or 'new-, national-, radical right-wing populist'. However, the section on ideology, in particular, is based on the 'core' ERPs, probably excluding 'border cases' such as the Scandinavian Progress Parties and the Italian Lega Nord.
2. For example, Hans-Georg Betz, Radical Right-Wing Populism in Western Europe (Basingstoke: Macmillan 1994); Herbert Kitschelt (in collaboration with Anthony J. McGann) The Radical Right in Western Europe. A Comparative Analysis (Ann Arbor: U. of Michigan 1995); Paul Taggart, 'New Populist Parties in Western Europe', West European Politics 18/1 (Jan. 1995) pp.34-51.
3. For example, Hans-Georg Betz, Radical Right-Wing Populism in Western Europe (Basingstoke: Macmillan 1994); Herbert Kitschelt (in collaboration with Anthony J. McGann) The Radical Right in Western Europe. A Comparative Analysis (Ann Arbor: U. of Michigan 1995); Paul Taggart, 'New Populist Parties in Western Europe', West European Politics 18/1 (Jan. 1995) pp.34-51.
4. For example, Hans-Georg Betz, Radical Right-Wing Populism in Western Europe (Basingstoke: Macmillan 1994); Herbert Kitschelt (in collaboration with Anthony J. McGann) The Radical Right in Western Europe. A Comparative Analysis (Ann Arbor: U. of Michigan 1995); Paul Taggart, 'New Populist Parties in Western Europe', West European Politics 18/1 (Jan. 1995) pp.34-51.
5. E.g. Cees van der Eijk et al., 'Cleavages, Conflict Resolution and Democracy', in Mark Franklin et al. (eds.) Electoral Change. Responses to Evolving Social and Attitudinal Structures in Western Countries (Cambridge: CUP 1992) pp.406-31; Michael S. Lewis-Beck and Glenn E. Mitchell II, 'French Electoral Theory: The National Front Test', Electoral Studies 12/2 (June 1993) pp.112-27; Wolfgang Rüdig et al., 'Up and Down with the Greens. Ecology and Party Politics in Britain, 1989-1992', Electoral Studies 15/1 (Feb. 1996) pp.1-20.
6. E.g. Cees van der Eijk et al., 'Cleavages, Conflict Resolution and Democracy', in Mark Franklin et al. (eds.) Electoral Change. Responses to Evolving Social and Attitudinal Structures in Western Countries (Cambridge: CUP 1992) pp.406-31; Michael S. Lewis-Beck and Glenn E. Mitchell II, 'French Electoral Theory: The National Front Test', Electoral Studies 12/2 (June 1993) pp.112-27; Wolfgang Rüdig et al., 'Up and Down with the Greens. Ecology and Party Politics in Britain, 1989-1992', Electoral Studies 15/1 (Feb. 1996) pp.1-20.
7. E.g. Cees van der Eijk et al., 'Cleavages, Conflict Resolution and Democracy', in Mark Franklin et al. (eds.) Electoral Change. Responses to Evolving Social and Attitudinal Structures in Western Countries (Cambridge: CUP 1992) pp.406-31; Michael S. Lewis-Beck and Glenn E. Mitchell II, 'French Electoral Theory: The National Front Test', Electoral Studies 12/2 (June 1993) pp.112-27; Wolfgang Rüdig et al., 'Up and Down with the Greens. Ecology and Party Politics in Britain, 1989-1992', Electoral Studies 15/1 (Feb. 1996) pp.1-20.
8. For example, Klaus von Beyme, 'Right-Wing Extremism in Post-War Europe', West European Politics 11/2 (April 1988) pp.1-18; Dietrich Tränhardt, 'The Political Uses of Xenophobia in England, France and Germany', Party Politics 1/3 (July 1995) pp.323-45; Wesley D. Chapin, 'Explaining the Electoral Success of the New Right: The German Case', West European Politics 20/2 (April 1997) pp.53-72.
9. For example, Klaus von Beyme, 'Right-Wing Extremism in Post-War Europe', West European Politics 11/2 (April 1988) pp.1-18; Dietrich Tränhardt, 'The Political Uses of Xenophobia in England, France and Germany', Party Politics 1/3 (July 1995) pp.323-45; Wesley D. Chapin, 'Explaining the Electoral Success of the New Right: The German Case', West European Politics 20/2 (April 1997) pp.53-72.
10. For example, Klaus von Beyme, 'Right-Wing Extremism in Post-War Europe', West European Politics 11/2 (April 1988) pp.1-18; Dietrich Tränhardt, 'The Political Uses of Xenophobia in England, France and Germany', Party Politics 1/3 (July 1995) pp.323-45; Wesley D. Chapin, 'Explaining the Electoral Success of the New Right: The German Case', West European Politics 20/2 (April 1997) pp.53-72.
11. Christopher T. Husbands, 'The Other Face of 1992: The Extreme-Right Explosion in Western Europe', Parliamentary Affairs 45/3 (Winter 1992) p.268 of pp.267-84.
12. E.g. Christopher T. Husbands, 'The Dynamics of Racial Exclusion and Expulsion: Racist Politics in Western Europe', European Journal of Political Research 16/6 (Nov. 1988) pp.701-20. Meindert Fennema, 'Some Conceptual Issues and Problems in the Comparison of Anti-Immigrant Parties in Western Europe', Party Politics 3/4 (Oct. 1997) pp.473-92; idem and Christopher Pollmann, 'Ideology of Anti-Immigrant Parties in the European Parliament', Acta Politica 33/2 (Summer 1998) pp.111-38.
13. E.g. Christopher T. Husbands, 'The Dynamics of Racial Exclusion and Expulsion: Racist Politics in Western Europe', European Journal of Political Research 16/6 (Nov. 1988) pp.701-20. Meindert Fennema, 'Some Conceptual Issues and Problems in the Comparison of Anti-Immigrant Parties in Western Europe', Party Politics 3/4 (Oct. 1997) pp.473-92; idem and Christopher Pollmann, 'Ideology of Anti-Immigrant Parties in the European Parliament', Acta Politica 33/2 (Summer 1998) pp.111-38.
14. E.g. Christopher T. Husbands, 'The Dynamics of Racial Exclusion and Expulsion: Racist Politics in Western Europe', European Journal of Political Research 16/6 (Nov. 1988) pp.701-20. Meindert Fennema, 'Some Conceptual Issues and Problems in the Comparison of Anti-Immigrant Parties in Western Europe', Party Politics 3/4 (Oct. 1997) pp.473-92; idem and Christopher Pollmann, 'Ideology of Anti-Immigrant Parties in the European Parliament', Acta Politica 33/2 (Summer 1998) pp.111-38.
15. Giovanni Sartori, Parties and Party Systems (Cambridge: CUP 1976).
16. Subrata Mitra, 'The National Front - A Single-Issue Movement?', West European Politics 11/2 (April 1988) p.47 of pp.47-64.
17. Seymour Martin Lipset and Stein Rokkan, 'Cleavage Structures, Party Systems, and Voter Alignments', in idem (eds.) Party Systems and Voter Alignments: Cross-National Perspectives (NY: The Free Press 1967) pp.1-64; for a link to the single-issue party, see Mitra (note 8) p.47.
18. Ibid. Incidentally, this requirement is also part of the so-called 'catch-all parties' (and Volksparteien). See Otto Kirchheimer, 'The Transformation of the Western European Party Systems', in Joseph LaPalombara and Meiron Weiner (eds.) Political Parties and Political Development (Princeton UP 1966) pp.177-200.
19. Ibid. Incidentally, this requirement is also part of the so-called 'catch-all parties' (and Volksparteien). See Otto Kirchheimer, 'The Transformation of the Western European Party Systems', in Joseph LaPalombara and Meiron Weiner (eds.) Political Parties and Political Development (Princeton UP 1966) pp.177-200.
20. Kitschelt (note 2) p.26.
21. Betz (note 2) pp.146-8; Marc Swyngedouw, 'The Extreme Right in Belgium: Of a Non-existent Front National and an Omnipresent Vlaams Blok', in Hans-Georg Betz and Stefan Immerfall (eds.) The Neu Politics of the Right. Neo-Populist Parties and Movements in Established Democracies (NY: St Martin's 1998) p.70 of pp.59-75.
22. Betz (note 2) pp.146-8; Lars Svasand, 'Scandinavian Right-Wing Radicalism', in Betz and Immerfall (note 12) pp.77-93.
23. Joachim Hofmann-Göttig, 'Die Neue Rechte: Die Männerparteien', Aus Politik und Zeitgeschichte B 41-42 (6 Oct. 1989) pp.21-31.
24. Betz (note 2) pp.142-3.
25. Ibid. pp.148-50; Kitschelt (note 2). However, certain jobs within the public sector did prove particularly prone to right-wing extremism, most notably those within the security field (police and armed forces).
26. Betz (note 2) p.150; see also Mitra (note 8); Renato Mannheimer, 'The Electorate of the Lega Nord', in Gianfranco Pasquino and Patrick McCarthy (eds.) The End of Post-War Politics in Italy (Boulder, CO: Westview 1993) pp.85-107.
27. Betz (note 2) p.161. Interestingly, the electorate of the Dutch extreme right, though always remaining very small, developed into the opposite direction, making some (very modest) inroads into the 'high working class' and 'low middle class'. Rob Eisinga et al., 'Het electoraat van extreem-rechts partijen: individuele en contextuele kenmerken, 1982-1996', in Joop van Holsteyn and Cas Mudde (eds.) Extreem-reclus in Nederland (The Hague: Sdu 1998) pp.113-26.
28. Nonna Mayer, 'The Front National Vote in the Plural', Patterns of Prejudice 32/1 (Jan. 1998) p.9 of pp.3-24; see also James G. Shield, 'The Challenge of the Front National: Presidential and Municipal Elections in France', ibid. 29/4 (Oct. 1995) pp.19-30.
29. Nonna Mayer, 'The Front National Vote in the Plural', Patterns of Prejudice 32/1 (Jan. 1998) p.9 of pp.3-24; see also James G. Shield, 'The Challenge of the Front National: Presidential and Municipal Elections in France', ibid. 29/4 (Oct. 1995) pp.19-30.
30. Betz (note 2) p.145; Dieter Roth, 'Volksparteien in Crisis? The Electoral Successes of the Extreme Right in Context - The Case of Baden-Württemberg', German Politics 2/1 (April 1993) pp.1-20; A. van der Veen and O. Dicke, CD-stemmers anno 1993 (Amsterdam: Interview 1993); Swyngedouw (note 12) pp.69-70.
31. Betz (note 2) p.145; Dieter Roth, 'Volksparteien in Crisis? The Electoral Successes of the Extreme Right in Context - The Case of Baden-Württemberg', German Politics 2/1 (April 1993) pp.1-20; A. van der Veen and O. Dicke, CD-stemmers anno 1993 (Amsterdam: Interview 1993); Swyngedouw (note 12) pp.69-70.
32. See, among many others, Rob Witte, 'De onbegrepen uitslag voor extreem-rechts', Acta Politica 26/4 (1991) pp.449-70; Christopher T. Husbands, 'Following the "Continental Model"? Implications of the Electoral Performance of the British National Party', New Community 20/4 (1994) pp.563-79; Kitschelt (note 2) esp. pp.60-3; Chapin (note 4); Christopher J. Anderson, 'Economic, Politics, and Foreigners: Populist Party Support in Denmark and Norway', Electoral Studies 15/4 (Nov. 1996) pp.497-511; Radbout Sutorius and Herman van der Wusten, 'De twee kaarten van extreem-rechts, 1982-1994', in Joop van Holsteyn and Mudde (note 18) pp.113-26.
33. See, among many others, Rob Witte, 'De onbegrepen uitslag voor extreem-rechts', Acta Politica 26/4 (1991) pp.449-70; Christopher T. Husbands, 'Following the "Continental Model"? Implications of the Electoral Performance of the British National Party', New Community 20/4 (1994) pp.563-79; Kitschelt (note 2) esp. pp.60-3; Chapin (note 4); Christopher J. Anderson, 'Economic, Politics, and Foreigners: Populist Party Support in Denmark and Norway', Electoral Studies 15/4 (Nov. 1996) pp.497-511; Radbout Sutorius and Herman van der Wusten, 'De twee kaarten van extreem-rechts, 1982-1994', in Joop van Holsteyn and Mudde (note 18) pp.113-26.
34. See, among many others, Rob Witte, 'De onbegrepen uitslag voor extreem-rechts', Acta Politica 26/4 (1991) pp.449-70; Christopher T. Husbands, 'Following the "Continental Model"? Implications of the Electoral Performance of the British National Party', New Community 20/4 (1994) pp.563-79; Kitschelt (note 2) esp. pp.60-3; Chapin (note 4); Christopher J. Anderson, 'Economic, Politics, and Foreigners: Populist Party Support in Denmark and Norway', Electoral Studies 15/4 (Nov. 1996) pp.497-511; Radbout Sutorius and Herman van der Wusten, 'De twee kaarten van extreem-rechts, 1982-1994', in Joop van Holsteyn and Mudde (note 18) pp.113-26.
35. See, among many others, Rob Witte, 'De onbegrepen uitslag voor extreem-rechts', Acta Politica 26/4 (1991) pp.449-70; Christopher T. Husbands, 'Following the "Continental Model"? Implications of the Electoral Performance of the British National Party', New Community 20/4 (1994) pp.563-79; Kitschelt (note 2) esp. pp.60-3; Chapin (note 4); Christopher J. Anderson, 'Economic, Politics, and Foreigners: Populist Party Support in Denmark and Norway', Electoral Studies 15/4 (Nov. 1996) pp.497-511; Radbout Sutorius and Herman van der Wusten, 'De twee kaarten van extreem-rechts, 1982-1994', in Joop van Holsteyn and Mudde (note 18) pp.113-26.
36. This is not the same as the interpretation of Kitschelt (note 2, p.26) that '(v)oters of extreme-rightist parties should stand out from the supporters of all other parties in only one respect, their support of containing and reversing the inflow of foreigners from different races and ethnicities'. It can be the case that a majority of the extreme right electorate supports ERPs on the basis of classic issues like law and order and ethical values, holding values similar to the electorate of mainstream right-wing parties, while standing out in their (politically not translated) anti-immigrant values.
37. See, for example, Nonna Mayer and Pascal Perrineau, 'Why Do They Vote for Le Pen?', European Journal of Political Research 22/1 (July 1992) pp.123-41; Betz (note 2) esp. Ch.3; Jürgen Falter, Wer wählt rechts? (Munich: Beck 1994) esp. 110-5; Fritz Plasser et al. Analyse der Nationalratswahl vom 9. Oktober 1994 (Vienna: Fessel + GFK Inst. für Marktforschung 1994) p.19; Jaak Billiet and Hans de Witte, 'Attitudinal Dispositions to Vote for a "New" Extreme Right-Wing Party: The Case of "Vlaams Blok"', European Journal of Political Research 27/2 (Feb. 1995) pp.181-202.
38. See, for example, Nonna Mayer and Pascal Perrineau, 'Why Do They Vote for Le Pen?', European Journal of Political Research 22/1 (July 1992) pp.123-41; Betz (note 2) esp. Ch.3; Jürgen Falter, Wer wählt rechts? (Munich: Beck 1994) esp. 110-5; Fritz Plasser et al. Analyse der Nationalratswahl vom 9. Oktober 1994 (Vienna: Fessel + GFK Inst. für Marktforschung 1994) p.19; Jaak Billiet and Hans de Witte, 'Attitudinal Dispositions to Vote for a "New" Extreme Right-Wing Party: The Case of "Vlaams Blok"', European Journal of Political Research 27/2 (Feb. 1995) pp.181-202.
39. See, for example, Nonna Mayer and Pascal Perrineau, 'Why Do They Vote for Le Pen?', European Journal of Political Research 22/1 (July 1992) pp.123-41; Betz (note 2) esp. Ch.3; Jürgen Falter, Wer wählt rechts? (Munich: Beck 1994) esp. 110-5; Fritz Plasser et al. Analyse der Nationalratswahl vom 9. Oktober 1994 (Vienna: Fessel + GFK Inst. für Marktforschung 1994) p.19; Jaak Billiet and Hans de Witte, 'Attitudinal Dispositions to Vote for a "New" Extreme Right-Wing Party: The Case of "Vlaams Blok"', European Journal of Political Research 27/2 (Feb. 1995) pp.181-202.
40. See, for example, Nonna Mayer and Pascal Perrineau, 'Why Do They Vote for Le Pen?', European Journal of Political Research 22/1 (July 1992) pp.123-41; Betz (note 2) esp. Ch.3; Jürgen Falter, Wer wählt rechts? (Munich: Beck 1994) esp. 110-5; Fritz Plasser et al. Analyse der Nationalratswahl vom 9. Oktober 1994 (Vienna: Fessel + GFK Inst. für Marktforschung 1994) p.19; Jaak Billiet and Hans de Witte, 'Attitudinal Dispositions to Vote for a "New" Extreme Right-Wing Party: The Case of "Vlaams Blok"', European Journal of Political Research 27/2 (Feb. 1995) pp.181-202.
41. Mitra (note 8) pp.51-2.
42. Marc Swyngedouw, 'Scientific Electoral Studies - A Democratic Asset Announcing and Documenting Political Changes in Belgium', paper presented at the conference on 'Survey Research, Democracy, Democratization', Lincoln, UK, 24-26 April 1997.
43. Svasand (note 13) p.87.
44. Plasser et al. (note 23) pp.18-19.
45. Shield (note 19) p.25. Oddly enough, the FN focused more on welfare issues than on immigration in their 1995 campaign. See, Jonathan Marcus, 'Advance or Consolidation? The French National Front and the 1995 Elections', West European Politics 19/2 (April 1996) pp.303-20.
46. E.g. Billiet and De Witte (note 23); Swyngedouw (note 12).
47. Plasser et al. (note 23) pp.18-9. Mayer (note 19) p.24.
48. Mayer (note 19).
49. Hans-Gerd Jaschke, Die Republikaner. Profile einer Rechtsaußen-Partei, 3rd ed. (Bonn: Dietz 1994) pp.127-8.
50. E.g. Paul Hainsworth, 'Introduction. The Cutting Edge: The Extreme Right in Post-War Western Europe and the USA', in idem (ed.) The Extreme Right in Post-War Western Europe and the USA (London: Pinter 1992) pp.1-28; Richard Stass, 'Forschungs-und Erklärungsansätze - ein Überblick', in Wolfgang Kowalsky and Wolfgang Schroeder (eds.) Rechtsextremismus. Einführung und Forschungsbilanz (Opladen: Westdeutscher 1994) pp.23-66.
51. E.g. Paul Hainsworth, 'Introduction. The Cutting Edge: The Extreme Right in Post-War Western Europe and the USA', in idem (ed.) The Extreme Right in Post-War Western Europe and the USA (London: Pinter 1992) pp.1-28; Richard Stass, 'Forschungs-und Erklärungsansätze - ein Überblick', in Wolfgang Kowalsky and Wolfgang Schroeder (eds.) Rechtsextremismus. Einführung und Forschungsbilanz (Opladen: Westdeutscher 1994) pp.23-66.
52. Shield (note 19) p.25; Swyngedouw (note 12) p.70.
53. Respectively, Georgi Verbeeck, "'Schaduwen uit net verleden". Extremisme van rechts: definitie, ideologie en geschiedenis', De Gids op Maatschappelijk Gebied 85/3 (March 1994) pp.217-42; Meindert Fennema, Some Theoretical Problems and Issues in Comparison on Anti-Immigrant Parties in Western Europe (Barcelona: Inst. de Ciencies Politiques i Socials 1996).
54. Respectively, Georgi Verbeeck, "'Schaduwen uit net verleden". Extremisme van rechts: definitie, ideologie en geschiedenis', De Gids op Maatschappelijk Gebied 85/3 (March 1994) pp.217-42; Meindert Fennema, Some Theoretical Problems and Issues in Comparison on Anti-Immigrant Parties in Western Europe (Barcelona: Inst. de Ciencies Politiques i Socials 1996).
55. An, unfortunately not well-known, exception is Annvi Gardberg, Against the Stranger, the Gangster and the Establishment. A Comparative Study of the Ideologies of the Swedish Ny Demokrati, the German Republikaner, the French Front National, and the Belgian Vlaams Blok (Helsinki: UP 1993).
56. Cas Mudde, The Extreme Right Party Family: An Ideological Approach (U. of Leiden 1998). The study is based on a qualitative textual analysis of party platforms and papers of five ERPs in three West European countries: VB in Belgium, REP and DVU in Germany, CD and CP'86 in the Netherlands.
57. Kitschelt (note 2) pp.vii-viii. One can also find similar views in two other main theoretical works on the contemporary extreme right, i.e. Betz (note 2) and Piero Ignazi, 'The Silent Counter-Revolution. Hypotheses on the Emergence of Extreme Right-Wing Parties in Europe', European Journal of Political Research 22/1 (July 1992) pp.3-34. One of the reasons for this might be their inclusion of, and focus on, contested 'border cases' of the extreme right party family, such as the Scandinavian Progress Parties. At least initially, these parties mainly stressed opposition to (high) taxes, the (elaborated) welfare state, and permissiveness (e.g. drugs, pornography). This combination of economic liberalism and cultural conservatism, however, fits the (Anglo-Saxon) term 'neo-conservatism' better than the term extreme (or radical) right. See Mudde (note 37) p.273.
58. Steve Bastow, 'The Radicalization of Front National Discourse: A Politics of the "Third Way"?', Patterns of Prejudice 32/3 (July 1998) pp.55-68.
59. Kitschelt (note 2) p.23.
60. Respectively of the Nationaldemokratische Partei Deutschlands (NPD) and the Nationaldemokratische Partei (NDP).
61. Harvey G. Simmons, The French National Front. The Extremist Challenge to Democracy (Boulder, CO: Westview 1996) p.159; Marc Spruyt, Grove Borstels, Stel dat het Vlaams Blok morgen zijn programma realiseert, hoe zou Vlaanderen er dan uitzien? (Leuven: Van Halewyck 1995) esp. pp.106-10.
62. Harvey G. Simmons, The French National Front. The Extremist Challenge to Democracy (Boulder, CO: Westview 1996) p.159; Marc Spruyt, Grove Borstels, Stel dat het Vlaams Blok morgen zijn programma realiseert, hoe zou Vlaanderen er dan uitzien? (Leuven: Van Halewyck 1995) esp. pp.106-10.
63. Though this is vehemently denied by VB-leaders, see Filip Dewinter and Karim van Overmeire, Eén tegen allen. Opkomst van het Vlaams Blok (Antwerp: Tyr 1993) p.122.
64. See, for Europe, Betz (note 2) p.69; For individual countries, see, Klaus J. Bade, 'Immigration and Social Peace in United Germany', Daedalus 123/1 (Winter 1994) pp.85-106; John W.P. Veugelers, 'Recent Immigration Politics in Italy: A Short Story', West European Politics 17/2 (April 1994) pp.33-49; Rüdiger Wischenbart, 'National Identity and Immigration in Austria - Historical Framework and Political Dispute', ibid. pp.72-90; Lise Togeby, 'Prejudice and Tolerance in a Period of Increasing Ethnic Diversity and Growing Unemployment: Denmark Since 1970', Ethnic and Racial Studies 21/6 (Nov. 1998) pp.1137-54.
65. See, for Europe, Betz (note 2) p.69; For individual countries, see, Klaus J. Bade, 'Immigration and Social Peace in United Germany', Daedalus 123/1 (Winter 1994) pp.85-106; John W.P. Veugelers, 'Recent Immigration Politics in Italy: A Short Story', West European Politics 17/2 (April 1994) pp.33-49; Rüdiger Wischenbart, 'National Identity and Immigration in Austria - Historical Framework and Political Dispute', ibid. pp.72-90; Lise Togeby, 'Prejudice and Tolerance in a Period of Increasing Ethnic Diversity and Growing Unemployment: Denmark Since 1970', Ethnic and Racial Studies 21/6 (Nov. 1998) pp.1137-54.
66. See, for Europe, Betz (note 2) p.69; For individual countries, see, Klaus J. Bade, 'Immigration and Social Peace in United Germany', Daedalus 123/1 (Winter 1994) pp.85-106; John W.P. Veugelers, 'Recent Immigration Politics in Italy: A Short Story', West European Politics 17/2 (April 1994) pp.33-49; Rüdiger Wischenbart, 'National Identity and Immigration in Austria - Historical Framework and Political Dispute', ibid. pp.72-90; Lise Togeby, 'Prejudice and Tolerance in a Period of Increasing Ethnic Diversity and Growing Unemployment: Denmark Since 1970', Ethnic and Racial Studies 21/6 (Nov. 1998) pp.1137-54.
67. See, for Europe, Betz (note 2) p.69; For individual countries, see, Klaus J. Bade, 'Immigration and Social Peace in United Germany', Daedalus 123/1 (Winter 1994) pp.85-106; John W.P. Veugelers, 'Recent Immigration Politics in Italy: A Short Story', West European Politics 17/2 (April 1994) pp.33-49; Rüdiger Wischenbart, 'National Identity and Immigration in Austria - Historical Framework and Political Dispute', ibid. pp.72-90; Lise Togeby, 'Prejudice and Tolerance in a Period of Increasing Ethnic Diversity and Growing Unemployment: Denmark Since 1970', Ethnic and Racial Studies 21/6 (Nov. 1998) pp.1137-54.
68. Piero Ignazi, 'From Neo-Fascist to Post-Fascist? The Transformation of the MSI into the AN', West European Politics 19/4 (Oct. 1996) pp.693-714; Roger Griffin, 'The "Post-Fascism" of the Alleanza Nazionale: A Case Study in Ideological Morphology', Journal of Political Ideologies (June 1996) pp.123-45.
69. Piero Ignazi, 'From Neo-Fascist to Post-Fascist? The Transformation of the MSI into the AN', West European Politics 19/4 (Oct. 1996) pp.693-714; Roger Griffin, 'The "Post-Fascism" of the Alleanza Nazionale: A Case Study in Ideological Morphology', Journal of Political Ideologies (June 1996) pp.123-45.
70. Wischenbart (note 44): Max Riedlsperger, 'The Freedom Party of Austria: From Protest to Radical Right Populism', in Betz and Immerfall (note 12) pp.27-43.
71. The DVU as a party does not publish that much literature. However, its organisation is almost identical to the broader DVU movement, which includes various weeklies (Deutsche National-Zeitung and Deutsche Wochen-Zeitung) that are mainly concerned with issues involving national history and national pride. See Astrid Lange, Was die Rechte lesen. Fünfzig rechtsextreme Zeitschriften. Ziele, Inhalte, Taktik (Munich: Beck 1993) pp.73-4, 77-8; Mudde (note 37) Ch.3.
72. Spruyt (note 42); Cas Mudde, 'All Against One, One Against All! A Portrait of the Vlaams Blok', Patterns of Prejudice 29/2 (April 1996) pp.5-28.
73. Respectively, Shield (note 19) p.25; Swyngedouw (note 25).
74. Hans de Witte, 'Torenhoge verschillen in de lage landen. Over hei verschil tussen de Centrumstroming en bel Vlaams Blok', in van Holsteyn and Mudde (note 18) pp.157-73; Mayer (note 19).
75. For the role of anti-party sentiments in these parties, see Carlo E. Ruzza and Oliver Schmidtke, 'Roots of Success of the Lega Lombarda: Mobilisation, Dynamics and the Media', West European Politics 16/2 (April 1993) pp.1-23; Tom Gailagher, 'The Regional Dimension in Italy's Political Upheaval: Role of the Northern League 1984-1993', Parliamentary Affairs 47/3 (July 1994) pp.456-68; Jorgan Gronnegaard Christensen, 'Better Than Their Reputation: Danish Politicians and the Absence of Sleaze', Parliamentary Affairs 48/4 (Oct. 1995,) pp.650-62. Gardberg (note 36) section 4.1.
76. For the role of anti-party sentiments in these parties, see Carlo E. Ruzza and Oliver Schmidtke, 'Roots of Success of the Lega Lombarda: Mobilisation, Dynamics and the Media', West European Politics 16/2 (April 1993) pp.1-23; Tom Gailagher, 'The Regional Dimension in Italy's Political Upheaval: Role of the Northern League 1984-1993', Parliamentary Affairs 47/3 (July 1994) pp.456-68; Jorgan Gronnegaard Christensen, 'Better Than Their Reputation: Danish Politicians and the Absence of Sleaze', Parliamentary Affairs 48/4 (Oct. 1995,) pp.650-62. Gardberg (note 36) section 4.1.
77. For the role of anti-party sentiments in these parties, see Carlo E. Ruzza and Oliver Schmidtke, 'Roots of Success of the Lega Lombarda: Mobilisation, Dynamics and the Media', West European Politics 16/2 (April 1993) pp.1-23; Tom Gailagher, 'The Regional Dimension in Italy's Political Upheaval: Role of the Northern League 1984-1993', Parliamentary Affairs 47/3 (July 1994) pp.456-68; Jorgan Gronnegaard Christensen, 'Better Than Their Reputation: Danish Politicians and the Absence of Sleaze', Parliamentary Affairs 48/4 (Oct. 1995,) pp.650-62. Gardberg (note 36) section 4.1.
78. See Cas Mudde, 'The Paradox of the Anti-Party Party. Insights from the Extreme Right', Party Politics 2/2 (April 1996) pp.265-76; also Andreas Schedler, 'Anti-Political Establishment Parties', ibid. 2/3 (July 1996) pp.291-312.
79. See Cas Mudde, 'The Paradox of the Anti-Party Party. Insights from the Extreme Right', Party Politics 2/2 (April 1996) pp.265-76; also Andreas Schedler, 'Anti-Political Establishment Parties', ibid. 2/3 (July 1996) pp.291-312.
80. Peter Pulzer, 'When Parties Fail: Ethnic Protest in Britain in the 1970s', in Kay Lawson and Peter H. Merkl (eds.) When Parties Fail. Emerging Alternative Organisations (Princeton UP 1988) p.357 of pp.338-64.
81. Bart Maddens, 'Directional Theory of Issue Voting: The Case of the 1991 Parliamentary Elections in Flanders', Electoral Studies 15/1 (Feb. 1996) p.64 of pp.53-70.
82. See also Kitschelt (note 2) p.3.
83. Although they might face serious competition from anti-EU parties, like the People's Movement Against the EC-Union in Denmark or Phillipe de Villiers' Alternative Europe in France. See Paul Taggart, 'A Touchstone of Dissent: Euroscepticism in Contemporary Western European Party Systems', European Journal of Political Research 33/3 (April 1998) pp.363-88.
84. Swyngedouw (note 25) p.22.