Environment, production and social difference in the Kalahari Thornveld, c1750-1830

Journal of Southern African Studies

Volumn 25, Issue 3, 1999, Pages 346-373

  Jacobs, Nancy J ^a  

^a BROWN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AGRICULTURAL HISTORY; FOOD PRODUCTION; GENDER ROLE; HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE; PASTORALISM;

AGRICULTURE; ANIMAL; ARTICLE; CATERING SERVICE; CATTLE; COMMERCIAL PHENOMENA; ECONOMICS; EDUCATION; ENVIRONMENT; ETHNOLOGY; HISTORY; POVERTY; PUBLIC HEALTH; SOCIAL CHANGE; SOCIOECONOMICS; SOUTH AFRICA;

AGRICULTURE; ANIMALS; CATTLE; COMMERCE; ENVIRONMENT; ETHNOLOGY; FOOD SUPPLY; HISTORY, 18TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 19TH CENTURY; POVERTY AREAS; PUBLIC HEALTH; SOCIAL CHANGE; SOCIOECONOMIC FACTORS; SOUTH AFRICA;

SOUTH AFRICA;

EID: 0032753880     PISSN: 03057070     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/030570799108560     Document Type: Review

References (310)

1. E. Mandala, Work and Control in a Peasant Economy: a History of the Lower Tchiri Valley in Malawi, 1859-1960 (Madison, University of Wisconsin, 1990), pp. 8-12.
2. This area stretches' from north-east of modern Vryburg over Kuruman to west of Olifantshoek in present-day South Africa's Northern Cape and North-West Provinces. Definitions of environmental zones are inexact. Most of the area discussed in this history is not considered Kalahari proper. See D. Thomas and P. Shaw, The Kalahari Environment (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1991), pp. 1-4. The term 'Kalahari Thornveld' is from Acocks. J.P.H. Acocks, Veld Types of Southern Africa (Pretoria, Botanical Research Institute, 1988), pp. 44-49.
3. This area stretches' from north-east of modern Vryburg over Kuruman to west of Olifantshoek in present-day South Africa's Northern Cape and North-West Provinces. Definitions of environmental zones are inexact. Most of the area discussed in this history is not considered Kalahari proper. See D. Thomas and P. Shaw, The Kalahari Environment (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1991), pp. 1-4. The term 'Kalahari Thornveld' is from Acocks. J.P.H. Acocks, Veld Types of Southern Africa (Pretoria, Botanical Research Institute, 1988), pp. 44-49.
4. Because of its greater size and better documentation, this essay makes more frequent reference to the Tlhaping than the Tlharo chiefdom.
5. E. Boserup, The Conditions of Agricultural Growth (Chicago, Aldin, 1965).
6. Boserup points out that in Europe people understood the techniques of intensification and delayed using them because of the extra labour involved. Boserup, The Conditions, p. 38.
7. The relationship between foraging, stock keeping and cultivation varied throughout southern Africa. In some forested areas of southern Africa, cultivation preceded stock keeping, and the creation of tseise-free areas through shifting cultivation allowed people to keep animals. M. Hall, The Changing Past: Farmers, Kings and Traders in Southern Africa, 200-1800 (Cape Town, David Philip, 1987), p. 43.
8. J. Vansina, 'New Linguistic Evidence and "The Bantu Expansion"', Journal of African History, 36, 2 (1995), pp. 173-195.
9. Vansina, 'New Linguistic Evidence', p. 193.
10. Regarding archeological research into agro-pastoralist sites near Kuruman, see T. Maggs, Bilabial Dwellings: a Persistent Feature of Southern Tswana Settlements, Goodwin Series, 1 (South African Archaeological Society, 1972), pp. 54-64; A.J.B. Humphreys, 'Note on the Southern Limits of Iron Age Settlement in the Northern Cape', South African Archaeological Bulletin, 31, 121-122 (1976). pp. 54-57; A.I. Thackeray, J.F. Thackeray and P. Beaumont, 'Excavations at the Blinkklipkop Specularite Mine Near Postmasburg, Northern Cape', South African Archaeological Bulletin, 38, 137 (1983), pp. 17-24.
11. Regarding archeological research into agro-pastoralist sites near Kuruman, see T. Maggs, Bilabial Dwellings: a Persistent Feature of Southern Tswana Settlements, Goodwin Series, 1 (South African Archaeological Society, 1972), pp. 54-64; A.J.B. Humphreys, 'Note on the Southern Limits of Iron Age Settlement in the Northern Cape', South African Archaeological Bulletin, 31, 121-122 (1976). pp. 54-57; A.I. Thackeray, J.F. Thackeray and P. Beaumont, 'Excavations at the Blinkklipkop Specularite Mine Near Postmasburg, Northern Cape', South African Archaeological Bulletin, 38, 137 (1983), pp. 17-24.
12. Regarding archeological research into agro-pastoralist sites near Kuruman, see T. Maggs, Bilabial Dwellings: a Persistent Feature of Southern Tswana Settlements, Goodwin Series, 1 (South African Archaeological Society, 1972), pp. 54-64; A.J.B. Humphreys, 'Note on the Southern Limits of Iron Age Settlement in the Northern Cape', South African Archaeological Bulletin, 31, 121-122 (1976). pp. 54-57; A.I. Thackeray, J.F. Thackeray and P. Beaumont, 'Excavations at the Blinkklipkop Specularite Mine Near Postmasburg, Northern Cape', South African Archaeological Bulletin, 38, 137 (1983), pp. 17-24.
13. D.F. Ellenberger and J.C. MacGregor, History of the Basotho Ancient and Modern (London, Caxton, 1912), pp. 52-53. J.T. Brown, Among the Bantu Nomads (London, Sceley, Service), pp. 204-205. There are kraal ruins at old Dithakong, which were built before settlement by the Tlhaping. D. Morris, 'Dithakong: "The Place of Ruins", Guide to Archaeological Sites in the Northern Cape (Kimberley, MacGregor Museum, 1990), pp. 148-154.
14. D.F. Ellenberger and J.C. MacGregor, History of the Basotho Ancient and Modern (London, Caxton, 1912), pp. 52-53. J.T. Brown, Among the Bantu Nomads (London, Sceley, Service), pp. 204-205. There are kraal ruins at old Dithakong, which were built before settlement by the Tlhaping. D. Morris, 'Dithakong: "The Place of Ruins", Guide to Archaeological Sites in the Northern Cape (Kimberley, MacGregor Museum, 1990), pp. 148-154.
15. D.F. Ellenberger and J.C. MacGregor, History of the Basotho Ancient and Modern (London, Caxton, 1912), pp. 52-53. J.T. Brown, Among the Bantu Nomads (London, Sceley, Service), pp. 204-205. There are kraal ruins at old Dithakong, which were built before settlement by the Tlhaping. D. Morris, 'Dithakong: "The Place of Ruins", Guide to Archaeological Sites in the Northern Cape (Kimberley, MacGregor Museum, 1990), pp. 148-154.
16. T. Maggs and G. Whitelaw, 'A Review of Recent Archaeological Research on Food-producing communities in Southern Africa', Journal of African History, 32,1 (1991), p. 5. This fluidity is a strong theme in archaeological findings throughout the region. See also J. Denbow, 'Patterns and Processes: a New Look at the Later Pre-history of the Kalahari', Journal of African History, 27, 1 (1986), pp. 3-28. J. Parkington and M. Hall, 'Patterning in Recent Radiocarbon Dates from Southern Africa as a Reflection of Prehistoric Settlement and Interaction', Journal of African History; 28, 1 (1987), pp. 1-25.
17. T. Maggs and G. Whitelaw, 'A Review of Recent Archaeological Research on Food-producing communities in Southern Africa', Journal of African History, 32,1 (1991), p. 5. This fluidity is a strong theme in archaeological findings throughout the region. See also J. Denbow, 'Patterns and Processes: a New Look at the Later Pre-history of the Kalahari', Journal of African History, 27, 1 (1986), pp. 3-28. J. Parkington and M. Hall, 'Patterning in Recent Radiocarbon Dates from Southern Africa as a Reflection of Prehistoric Settlement and Interaction', Journal of African History; 28, 1 (1987), pp. 1-25.
18. T. Maggs and G. Whitelaw, 'A Review of Recent Archaeological Research on Food-producing communities in Southern Africa', Journal of African History, 32,1 (1991), p. 5. This fluidity is a strong theme in archaeological findings throughout the region. See also J. Denbow, 'Patterns and Processes: a New Look at the Later Pre-history of the Kalahari', Journal of African History, 27, 1 (1986), pp. 3-28. J. Parkington and M. Hall, 'Patterning in Recent Radiocarbon Dates from Southern Africa as a Reflection of Prehistoric Settlement and Interaction', Journal of African History; 28, 1 (1987), pp. 1-25.
19. A. Morris, Skeletons of Contact (Johannesburg, University of the Witwatersrand, 1991).
20. C. Saunders, 'Early Knowledge of the Sotho: Seventeenth and Eighteenth Century Accounts of the Tswana', Quarterly Bulletin of the South African Library, 20, 3 (1966), pp. 60-70.
21. A. Morris has compared these accounts. See his Skeletons of Contact, pp. 47-54.
22. H.J. Wikar, in A. W. van der Horst, trans., E. E. Mossop (ed), The Journal of Hendrick Jacob Wikar (1779) (Cape Town, Van Riebeeck Society, 1935), pp. 141-167.
23. R.J. Gordon, in P.E. Raper and M. Boucher (eds), Cape Travels 1777 to 1786, vol. 2 (Bremhurst. Houghton, 1988) pp. 300-354.
24. L.F. Maingard, 'The Brikwa and the Ethnic Origins of the Batlhapina', South African Journal of Science, 30 (October 1933). pp. 597-602.
25. 'Nokaneng' means 'at the river' and was a common name. For statements by Tlhaping and Koranna about their early connections, including the settlement at Nokaneng in the Langeberg, see testimony in 'The Bloemhof Blue Book', Evidence Taken at Bloemhof Before the Commission Appointed Io Investigate the Claims of the South African Republic, Captain N. Waterboer, Chief of West Griqualand, and Certain other Native Chiefs to Portions of the Territory on the Vaal River now Known as the Diamondfiehls (Cape Town, Saul Solomon, 1871 ), pp. 187, 281,289,292.
26. Humphreys, 'Note on the Southern Limits of Iron Age Settlement', p. 54.
27. J. Barrow, A Voyage to Cochinchina (London, Cadell and Davies, 1806; reprint edn, Kuala Lumpur, Oxford University Press, 1975), p. 387. This is from 'An Account of a Journey to the Booshuanas', by P.J. Truter, Barrow's father-in-law, which Barrow edited for a book on his own travels in Asia. P. Borcherds, An AutoBiographical Memoir (Cape Town, A.A. Roberts, 1861 ; reprint edn, Cape Town, Africana Connoisseurs, 1963),p. 123. W. Somerville, in F. Bradlowand E. Bradlow(eds), William Somerville's Narrative of his Journeys to the Eastern Cape Frontier and to Lattakoe 1799-1802 (Cape Town, Van Riebeeck Society, 1979), p. 123.
28. J. Barrow, A Voyage to Cochinchina (London, Cadell and Davies, 1806; reprint edn, Kuala Lumpur, Oxford University Press, 1975), p. 387. This is from 'An Account of a Journey to the Booshuanas', by P.J. Truter, Barrow's father-in-law, which Barrow edited for a book on his own travels in Asia. P. Borcherds, An AutoBiographical Memoir (Cape Town, A.A. Roberts, 1861 ; reprint edn, Cape Town, Africana Connoisseurs, 1963),p. 123. W. Somerville, in F. Bradlowand E. Bradlow(eds), William Somerville's Narrative of his Journeys to the Eastern Cape Frontier and to Lattakoe 1799-1802 (Cape Town, Van Riebeeck Society, 1979), p. 123.
29. J. Barrow, A Voyage to Cochinchina (London, Cadell and Davies, 1806; reprint edn, Kuala Lumpur, Oxford University Press, 1975), p. 387. This is from 'An Account of a Journey to the Booshuanas', by P.J. Truter, Barrow's father-in-law, which Barrow edited for a book on his own travels in Asia. P. Borcherds, An AutoBiographical Memoir (Cape Town, A.A. Roberts, 1861 ; reprint edn, Cape Town, Africana Connoisseurs, 1963),p. 123. W. Somerville, in F. Bradlowand E. Bradlow(eds), William Somerville's Narrative of his Journeys to the Eastern Cape Frontier and to Lattakoe 1799-1802 (Cape Town, Van Riebeeck Society, 1979), p. 123.
30. Barrow differentiated between the 'Booshuanas' at Dithakong and the 'Baaroloos' (Barolong) further north, A Voyage, pp. 403-404.
31. H. Lichtenstein, in O.H. Spohr (ed and trans), Foundations of the Cape and About the Bechuanas (Cape Town, Balkema, 1973), pp. 63-64
32. Lichtenstein, About the Bechuanas, p. 66. See note 150 below for further reference to Kok.
33. A. Smith, in P.R. Kirby (ed), The Diary of Dr. Andrew Smith. Director of the 'Expedition for Exploring Central Africa. 1834-36', vol. I (Cape Town, Van Riebeeck Society, 1939), p. 359.
34. W. Burchell, Travels in the Interior of South Africa, vol. 2 (London, Robert MacLehose, 1822-1824; reprint edn, London, Butterworth, 1953), p. 545.
35. Campbell, Travels in South Africa Undertaken at the Request of the Missionary Society (London, Black, Perry, 1815; reprint edn, Cape Town, C. Struik, 1974), pp. 206-207. A differing genealogy often cited in the Tlhaping tradition is J. Mackenzie, Austral Africa: Ruling It or Losing It, vol. 1 (London, Sampson, Low, Martin, Searle and Rivington, 1887), p. 43.
36. Campbell, Travels in South Africa Undertaken at the Request of the Missionary Society (London, Black, Perry, 1815; reprint edn, Cape Town, C. Struik, 1974), pp. 206-207. A differing genealogy often cited in the Tlhaping tradition is J. Mackenzie, Austral Africa: Ruling It or Losing It, vol. 1 (London, Sampson, Low, Martin, Searle and Rivington, 1887), p. 43.
37. G. Stow, The Native Races of South Africa (London, Swan Sonnenschein, 1902; reprint edn, Cape Town. C. Struik, 1964), pp. 432-459; G. Theal, The Yellow and Dark-Skinned People of Africa South of the Zambezi (London, Swan Sonnenschein, 1910; reprint edn, New York, Negro Universities, 1969), pp. 152-153; S. Molema, The Bantu Past and Present (Edinburgh W. Green and Son, 1920), pp. 38-40.
38. G. Stow, The Native Races of South Africa (London, Swan Sonnenschein, 1902; reprint edn, Cape Town. C. Struik, 1964), pp. 432-459; G. Theal, The Yellow and Dark-Skinned People of Africa South of the Zambezi (London, Swan Sonnenschein, 1910; reprint edn, New York, Negro Universities, 1969), pp. 152-153; S. Molema, The Bantu Past and Present (Edinburgh W. Green and Son, 1920), pp. 38-40.
39. G. Stow, The Native Races of South Africa (London, Swan Sonnenschein, 1902; reprint edn, Cape Town. C. Struik, 1964), pp. 432-459; G. Theal, The Yellow and Dark-Skinned People of Africa South of the Zambezi (London, Swan Sonnenschein, 1910; reprint edn, New York, Negro Universities, 1969), pp. 152-153; S. Molema, The Bantu Past and Present (Edinburgh W. Green and Son, 1920), pp. 38-40.
40. Brown, Among the Bantu, pp. 205-208. Brown had long experience among the Tlhaping, but he does not record where he heard this story.
41. Language constructed and dated genealogies for Tlhaping chiefs. F.J. Language, 'Herkoms and Geskiedcnis van die Tlhaping', African Studies, 1 (1942), p. 117.
42. P.L. Breutz, The Tribes of the Kuruman and Postmasburg District, Republic of South Africa, Department of Bantu Administration and Development Ethnological Publications, no. 49 (Pretoria, Government Printer, 1963), pp. 38, 154.
43. M. Legassick, 'The Griqua, the Sotho-Tswana and the Missionaries, 1700-1840: the Polities of a Frontier Zone', PhD dissertation, UCLA, 1969. pp. 60-71. He does not address the Briqua tradition, but it fits into his explanation for multi-centred origins.
44. Legassick, 'The Griqua, the Sotho-Tswana', p. 66. His emphasis.
45. On the Thamaga, see R. Moffat, in I. Schapera (ed). Apprenticeship at Kuruman: Journals and tetters of Robert and Mary Moffat, 1820-1828 (London, Chatto and Windus, 1951 ) note 36 by editor, p. 102; Campbell, Travels, p. 214, Campbell, Travels in South Africa Undertaken at the Request of The London Missionary Society; Being a Narrative of a Second Journey into the Interior of That Country, vol. 2 (London, London Missionary Society, 1822; reprint edn, New York, Johnson Reprints, 1967), pp. 6-8; S. Kay, Travels and Researches in Caffraria (New York, B. Waugh and T. Mason, 1834), p. 190.
46. On the Thamaga, see R. Moffat, in I. Schapera (ed). Apprenticeship at Kuruman: Journals and tetters of Robert and Mary Moffat, 1820-1828 (London, Chatto and Windus, 1951 ) note 36 by editor, p. 102; Campbell, Travels, p. 214, Campbell, Travels in South Africa Undertaken at the Request of The London Missionary Society; Being a Narrative of a Second Journey into the Interior of That Country, vol. 2 (London, London Missionary Society, 1822; reprint edn, New York, Johnson Reprints, 1967), pp. 6-8; S. Kay, Travels and Researches in Caffraria (New York, B. Waugh and T. Mason, 1834), p. 190.
47. On the Thamaga, see R. Moffat, in I. Schapera (ed). Apprenticeship at Kuruman: Journals and tetters of Robert and Mary Moffat, 1820-1828 (London, Chatto and Windus, 1951 ) note 36 by editor, p. 102; Campbell, Travels, p. 214, Campbell, Travels in South Africa Undertaken at the Request of The London Missionary Society; Being a Narrative of a Second Journey into the Interior of That Country, vol. 2 (London, London Missionary Society, 1822; reprint edn, New York, Johnson Reprints, 1967), pp. 6-8; S. Kay, Travels and Researches in Caffraria (New York, B. Waugh and T. Mason, 1834), p. 190.
48. On the Thamaga, see R. Moffat, in I. Schapera (ed). Apprenticeship at Kuruman: Journals and tetters of Robert and Mary Moffat, 1820-1828 (London, Chatto and Windus, 1951 ) note 36 by editor, p. 102; Campbell, Travels, p. 214, Campbell, Travels in South Africa Undertaken at the Request of The London Missionary Society; Being a Narrative of a Second Journey into the Interior of That Country, vol. 2 (London, London Missionary Society, 1822; reprint edn, New York, Johnson Reprints, 1967), pp. 6-8; S. Kay, Travels and Researches in Caffraria (New York, B. Waugh and T. Mason, 1834), p. 190.
49. The Tlharo tradition is not as well developed, so no similar treatment is possible. They hold that they are an offshoot of the Hurutsche. Their more proper name is 'Batho baga Motlhware', or 'people of the wild olive', for the original group took shelter under a tree. See Campbell, Second Journey, 2, pp. 107-108; Brown, Among the Bantu Nomads, pp. 223-225; Breulz, The Tribes, pp. 38, 92. Despite this tradition, they also lived in communities with Korana. Campbell, Second Journey, 2, pp. 73 -130, esp. p. 376. Korana presence is also evident in a map by Lichtenstein, About the Bechuanas, p. 83. It refers to them as 'Matsamqua'. 'Ma' is an incorrect prefix for a plural form in the Tswana language and 'qua' is a Khoisan suffix for group names.
50. The Tlharo tradition is not as well developed, so no similar treatment is possible. They hold that they are an offshoot of the Hurutsche. Their more proper name is 'Batho baga Motlhware', or 'people of the wild olive', for the original group took shelter under a tree. See Campbell, Second Journey, 2, pp. 107-108; Brown, Among the Bantu Nomads, pp. 223-225; Breulz, The Tribes, pp. 38, 92. Despite this tradition, they also lived in communities with Korana. Campbell, Second Journey, 2, pp. 73 -130, esp. p. 376. Korana presence is also evident in a map by Lichtenstein, About the Bechuanas, p. 83. It refers to them as 'Matsamqua'. 'Ma' is an incorrect prefix for a plural form in the Tswana language and 'qua' is a Khoisan suffix for group names.
51. The Tlharo tradition is not as well developed, so no similar treatment is possible. They hold that they are an offshoot of the Hurutsche. Their more proper name is 'Batho baga Motlhware', or 'people of the wild olive', for the original group took shelter under a tree. See Campbell, Second Journey, 2, pp. 107-108; Brown, Among the Bantu Nomads, pp. 223-225; Breulz, The Tribes, pp. 38, 92. Despite this tradition, they also lived in communities with Korana. Campbell, Second Journey, 2, pp. 73 -130, esp. p. 376. Korana presence is also evident in a map by Lichtenstein, About the Bechuanas, p. 83. It refers to them as 'Matsamqua'. 'Ma' is an incorrect prefix for a plural form in the Tswana language and 'qua' is a Khoisan suffix for group names.
52. The Tlharo tradition is not as well developed, so no similar treatment is possible. They hold that they are an offshoot of the Hurutsche. Their more proper name is 'Batho baga Motlhware', or 'people of the wild olive', for the original group took shelter under a tree. See Campbell, Second Journey, 2, pp. 107-108; Brown, Among the Bantu Nomads, pp. 223-225; Breulz, The Tribes, pp. 38, 92. Despite this tradition, they also lived in communities with Korana. Campbell, Second Journey, 2, pp. 73 -130, esp. p. 376. Korana presence is also evident in a map by Lichtenstein, About the Bechuanas, p. 83. It refers to them as 'Matsamqua'. 'Ma' is an incorrect prefix for a plural form in the Tswana language and 'qua' is a Khoisan suffix for group names.
53. The Tlharo tradition is not as well developed, so no similar treatment is possible. They hold that they are an offshoot of the Hurutsche. Their more proper name is 'Batho baga Motlhware', or 'people of the wild olive', for the original group took shelter under a tree. See Campbell, Second Journey, 2, pp. 107-108; Brown, Among the Bantu Nomads, pp. 223-225; Breulz, The Tribes, pp. 38, 92. Despite this tradition, they also lived in communities with Korana. Campbell, Second Journey, 2, pp. 73 -130, esp. p. 376. Korana presence is also evident in a map by Lichtenstein, About the Bechuanas, p. 83. It refers to them as 'Matsamqua'. 'Ma' is an incorrect prefix for a plural form in the Tswana language and 'qua' is a Khoisan suffix for group names.
54. H. Lichtenstein, in A. Pumptre (trans) Travels in Southern Africa in the Years 1803, 1804,1805, and 1806, vol. 2 (London, Henry Colburn, 1812; reprint edn, Cape Town, Van Riebeeck Society, 1930), p. 371.
55. Legassick, 'The Griqua, the Sotho-Tswana', pp. 70-71.
56. J. Engelbrecht, The Korona: An Account of their Customs and Their History with Texts (Cape Town, Maskew Miller, 1936), pp. 76-79.
57. Legassick, 'The Griqua, the Sotho', p. 48, described it as a period of amalgamation. N. Parsons wrote of Tswana wars between 1770 and 1820 in A New History of Southern Africa (London, Macmillan, 1982), pp. 48-50.
58. Legassick, 'The Griqua, the Sotho', p. 48, described it as a period of amalgamation. N. Parsons wrote of Tswana wars between 1770 and 1820 in A New History of Southern Africa (London, Macmillan, 1982), pp. 48-50.
59. N. Parsons, in 'Prelude to Difiqane in the Interior of Southern Africa c. 1600-c. 1822', in C. Hamilton (ed), The Mfecane Aftermath: Reconstructive Debates in Southern African History (Johannesburg, Witwatersrand University Press, 1995), pp. 323-349; A. Manson, 'Conflict in the Western Highveld/Southern Kalahari C1750-1820', in Hamilton (ed), The Mfecane Aflennath, pp. 351-361.
60. N. Parsons, in 'Prelude to Difiqane in the Interior of Southern Africa c. 1600-c. 1822', in C. Hamilton (ed), The Mfecane Aftermath: Reconstructive Debates in Southern African History (Johannesburg, Witwatersrand University Press, 1995), pp. 323-349; A. Manson, 'Conflict in the Western Highveld/Southern Kalahari C1750-1820', in Hamilton (ed), The Mfecane Aflennath, pp. 351-361.
61. See Borcherds, An AutoBiographical Memoir, p. 114 and Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 2, p. 378, for reports of theft by 'bushmen' near Tlhaping territory.
62. See Borcherds, An AutoBiographical Memoir, p. 114 and Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 2, p. 378, for reports of theft by 'bushmen' near Tlhaping territory.
63. Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 1, p. 337.
64. Campbell, Second Journey, 2, pp. 117-119.
65. I. Schapera, 'A Short History of the Bangwaketse', African Studies, 1 (1947), p. 3; E. Wilmsen, A Land Filled With Flies: a Political Economy of the Kalahari (Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1989), pp. 84-85.
66. I. Schapera, 'A Short History of the Bangwaketse', African Studies, 1 (1947), p. 3; E. Wilmsen, A Land Filled With Flies: a Political Economy of the Kalahari (Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1989), pp. 84-85.
67. R. Moffat, Missionary Labours and Scenes in Southern Africa (London, Snow, 1842), p. 12.
68. Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 2, pp. 336, 352-353.
69. Campbell, Travels, p. 186. He apparently missed the humour behind this circular reasoning.
70. Maingard, 'The Brikwa and the Ethnic Origins', p. 599.
71. E. Eldredge, 'Slave Raiding Across the Cape Frontier', in E. Eldredge and F. Morton (eds), Slavery in South Africa: Captive Labor on the Dutch Frontier (Boulder, Westview Press, 1994), pp. 101-114.
72. Manson, 'Conflict in the Western Highveld', p. 357; Parsons, 'Prelude to Difiqane ', pp. 338-341; See also E. Eldredge, 'Sources of Conflict in Southern Africa, c. 1800-1830: the "Mfecane" Reconsidered', in C. Hamilton (ed), The Mfecane Aftermath, pp. 157-160.
73. Manson, 'Conflict in the Western Highveld', p. 357; Parsons, 'Prelude to Difiqane ', pp. 338-341; See also E. Eldredge, 'Sources of Conflict in Southern Africa, c. 1800-1830: the "Mfecane" Reconsidered', in C. Hamilton (ed), The Mfecane Aftermath, pp. 157-160.
74. Manson, 'Conflict in the Western Highveld', p. 357; Parsons, 'Prelude to Difiqane ', pp. 338-341; See also E. Eldredge, 'Sources of Conflict in Southern Africa, c. 1800-1830: the "Mfecane" Reconsidered', in C. Hamilton (ed), The Mfecane Aftermath, pp. 157-160.
75. Humphreys, 'Note on the Southern Limits', p. 55.
76. Saunders, 'Early Knowledge of the Sotho', pp. 66-69.
77. Legassick, 'The Griqua, the Sotho-Tswana', pp. 141, 225-241.
78. Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 2, p. 377.
79. Eldredge, 'Slave Raiding', pp. 101-103.
80. Manson, 'Conflict in the Western Highveld', pp. 227-228; Parsons, 'Prelude to Difiqane', pp. 336-337.
81. Manson, 'Conflict in the Western Highveld', pp. 227-228; Parsons, 'Prelude to Difiqane', pp. 336-337.
82. Moffat, Missionary Labours, p. 390.
83. Wikar, The Journal, p. 155.
84. Lichtenstein. About the Bechuanas, pp. 80-81. On caille types, see M. Hall and A.B. Smith (eds), Prehistoric Pastoralism in Southern Africa, Goodwin Series, 5 (South African Archaeological Society, 1986), pp. 16-17; H.H. Curson and R.W. Thornton, 'A Contribution to the Study of African Native Cattle', Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Science and Animal Industry, 7 (1936), pp. 646, 661-663; H. Epstein, 'Animal Husbandry of the Hottentots', Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Science and Animal Industry, 9 (1937), pp. 640-641.
85. Lichtenstein. About the Bechuanas, pp. 80-81. On caille types, see M. Hall and A.B. Smith (eds), Prehistoric Pastoralism in Southern Africa, Goodwin Series, 5 (South African Archaeological Society, 1986), pp. 16-17; H.H. Curson and R.W. Thornton, 'A Contribution to the Study of African Native Cattle', Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Science and Animal Industry, 7 (1936), pp. 646, 661-663; H. Epstein, 'Animal Husbandry of the Hottentots', Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Science and Animal Industry, 9 (1937), pp. 640-641.
86. Lichtenstein. About the Bechuanas, pp. 80-81. On caille types, see M. Hall and A.B. Smith (eds), Prehistoric Pastoralism in Southern Africa, Goodwin Series, 5 (South African Archaeological Society, 1986), pp. 16-17; H.H. Curson and R.W. Thornton, 'A Contribution to the Study of African Native Cattle', Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Science and Animal Industry, 7 (1936), pp. 646, 661-663; H. Epstein, 'Animal Husbandry of the Hottentots', Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Science and Animal Industry, 9 (1937), pp. 640-641.
87. Lichtenstein. About the Bechuanas, pp. 80-81. On caille types, see M. Hall and A.B. Smith (eds), Prehistoric Pastoralism in Southern Africa, Goodwin Series, 5 (South African Archaeological Society, 1986), pp. 16-17; H.H. Curson and R.W. Thornton, 'A Contribution to the Study of African Native Cattle', Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Science and Animal Industry, 7 (1936), pp. 646, 661-663; H. Epstein, 'Animal Husbandry of the Hottentots', Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Science and Animal Industry, 9 (1937), pp. 640-641.
88. School of Oriental and African Studies, London. Council for World Mission Archive, London Missionary Society, Africa South, Incoming Letters [hereafter LMS] Box 15, Moffat, 25 November 1836.
89. For such examples see C. Murray and W. Lye, Transformation on the Highveld: the Tswana and Southern Sotho (Cape Town, David Philip, 1980).
90. M. Kinsman, 'Notes on the Southern Tswana Social Formation', in K. Gottschalk and C. Saunders (eds), Africa Seminar Collected Papers, vol. 2 (Cape Town, Centre for African Studies, University of Cape Town, 1981), p. 189.
91. Comaroff and Comaroff have characterised the lower classes in this period as 'non-Tswana serfs'. Their discussion of poverty among the Tswana explains how it resulted from the capitalist agrarian transformation. Sec J. Comaroff and J. L. Comaroff, Of Revelation and Revolution: Christianity, Colonialism and Consciousness in South Africa, vol. 1 (Chicago, University of Chicago, 1991), pp. 144, note 12, p. 268. J. L. Comaroff and J. Comaroff, Of Revelation and Revolution: the Dialectics of Modernity on a South African Frontier, vol. 2 (Chicago, University of Chicago, 1997), pp. 119-165. Eldredge sees class among the Tlhaping after the model of Moshoeshoe's kingdom, resulting from the incorporation of outsiders, 'Slave Raiding', p. 104. Also see P. Kallaway, 'Tribesman, Trader, Peasant and Proletarian: the Process of Transition from a Prc-Capitalist to a Capitalist Mode of Production in the Immediate Hinterland of the Kimberley Diamond Fields during the Nineteenth Century: a Case Study of the BaTlhaping', in P. Bonner (ed), Working Papers in Southern African Studies, vol. 2 (Johannesburg, Ravan Press, 1981), p. 12.
92. Comaroff and Comaroff have characterised the lower classes in this period as 'non-Tswana serfs'. Their discussion of poverty among the Tswana explains how it resulted from the capitalist agrarian transformation. Sec J. Comaroff and J. L. Comaroff, Of Revelation and Revolution: Christianity, Colonialism and Consciousness in South Africa, vol. 1 (Chicago, University of Chicago, 1991), pp. 144, note 12, p. 268. J. L. Comaroff and J. Comaroff, Of Revelation and Revolution: the Dialectics of Modernity on a South African Frontier, vol. 2 (Chicago, University of Chicago, 1997), pp. 119-165. Eldredge sees class among the Tlhaping after the model of Moshoeshoe's kingdom, resulting from the incorporation of outsiders, 'Slave Raiding', p. 104. Also see P. Kallaway, 'Tribesman, Trader, Peasant and Proletarian: the Process of Transition from a Prc-Capitalist to a Capitalist Mode of Production in the Immediate Hinterland of the Kimberley Diamond Fields during the Nineteenth Century: a Case Study of the BaTlhaping', in P. Bonner (ed), Working Papers in Southern African Studies, vol. 2 (Johannesburg, Ravan Press, 1981), p. 12.
93. Comaroff and Comaroff have characterised the lower classes in this period as 'non-Tswana serfs'. Their discussion of poverty among the Tswana explains how it resulted from the capitalist agrarian transformation. Sec J. Comaroff and J. L. Comaroff, Of Revelation and Revolution: Christianity, Colonialism and Consciousness in South Africa, vol. 1 (Chicago, University of Chicago, 1991), pp. 144, note 12, p. 268. J. L. Comaroff and J. Comaroff, Of Revelation and Revolution: the Dialectics of Modernity on a South African Frontier, vol. 2 (Chicago, University of Chicago, 1997), pp. 119-165. Eldredge sees class among the Tlhaping after the model of Moshoeshoe's kingdom, resulting from the incorporation of outsiders, 'Slave Raiding', p. 104. Also see P. Kallaway, 'Tribesman, Trader, Peasant and Proletarian: the Process of Transition from a Prc-Capitalist to a Capitalist Mode of Production in the Immediate Hinterland of the Kimberley Diamond Fields during the Nineteenth Century: a Case Study of the BaTlhaping', in P. Bonner (ed), Working Papers in Southern African Studies, vol. 2 (Johannesburg, Ravan Press, 1981), p. 12.
94. Comaroff and Comaroff have characterised the lower classes in this period as 'non-Tswana serfs'. Their discussion of poverty among the Tswana explains how it resulted from the capitalist agrarian transformation. Sec J. Comaroff and J. L. Comaroff, Of Revelation and Revolution: Christianity, Colonialism and Consciousness in South Africa, vol. 1 (Chicago, University of Chicago, 1991), pp. 144, note 12, p. 268. J. L. Comaroff and J. Comaroff, Of Revelation and Revolution: the Dialectics of Modernity on a South African Frontier, vol. 2 (Chicago, University of Chicago, 1997), pp. 119-165. Eldredge sees class among the Tlhaping after the model of Moshoeshoe's kingdom, resulting from the incorporation of outsiders, 'Slave Raiding', p. 104. Also see P. Kallaway, 'Tribesman, Trader, Peasant and Proletarian: the Process of Transition from a Prc-Capitalist to a Capitalist Mode of Production in the Immediate Hinterland of the Kimberley Diamond Fields during the Nineteenth Century: a Case Study of the BaTlhaping', in P. Bonner (ed), Working Papers in Southern African Studies, vol. 2 (Johannesburg, Ravan Press, 1981), p. 12.
95. G. Okihiro, 'Precolonial Economic Change Among the BaTlhaping, c, 1795-1817', International Journal of African Historical Studies, 17, 1 (1984), pp. 72-78; Kallaway, Tribesman, Trader', p. 13; Wilmsen, A Land Filled with Flies, but see especially pp. 52-53.
96. G. Okihiro, 'Precolonial Economic Change Among the BaTlhaping, c, 1795-1817', International Journal of African Historical Studies, 17, 1 (1984), pp. 72-78; Kallaway, Tribesman, Trader', p. 13; Wilmsen, A Land Filled with Flies, but see especially pp. 52-53.
97. G. Okihiro, 'Precolonial Economic Change Among the BaTlhaping, c, 1795-1817', International Journal of African Historical Studies, 17, 1 (1984), pp. 72-78; Kallaway, Tribesman, Trader', p. 13; Wilmsen, A Land Filled with Flies, but see especially pp. 52-53.
98. J. Iliffe, The African Poor (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1987), p. 78.
99. R. Elphick, Kraal and Castle: Kholkhoi and the Founding of While South Africa (New Haven, Yale University Press, 1977; new edn, Johannesburg, Ravan Press, 1985), pp. 23-42.
100. Elphick, Khoikhoi and the Founding, pp. 38-39.
101. E. Eldredge, 'Drought, Famine and Disease in Lesotho', African Economic History, 16 (1987), pp. 69-71; D. Wylie, The Changing Face of Hunger in Southern African History', Past and Present, 122 (1989), pp. 159-199.
102. E. Eldredge, 'Drought, Famine and Disease in Lesotho', African Economic History, 16 (1987), pp. 69-71; D. Wylie, The Changing Face of Hunger in Southern African History', Past and Present, 122 (1989), pp. 159-199.
103. On wild foods, see Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 2, p. 415; Campbell, Second Journey, 2, p. 217; G. Fritsch, Drei Jahren Süd-Afrika: Reiseskizzen nach Notizen des Tagebuchs Zusammengestellt (Brcslau, Ferdinand Hirt, 1868), p. 254.
104. On wild foods, see Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 2, p. 415; Campbell, Second Journey, 2, p. 217; G. Fritsch, Drei Jahren Süd-Afrika: Reiseskizzen nach Notizen des Tagebuchs Zusammengestellt (Brcslau, Ferdinand Hirt, 1868), p. 254.
105. On wild foods, see Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 2, p. 415; Campbell, Second Journey, 2, p. 217; G. Fritsch, Drei Jahren Süd-Afrika: Reiseskizzen nach Notizen des Tagebuchs Zusammengestellt (Brcslau, Ferdinand Hirt, 1868), p. 254.
106. T. Anderson, 'Edible Veld Plants: a Food Source for the Future?', MacGregor Miscellany, 3 (1991). For a comprehensive account of wild foods throughout southern Africa, see F.W. Fox and M. E. Norwood Young, Food from the Veld: Edible Wild Plants of Southern Africa (Johannesburg, Delta, 1982).
107. T. Anderson, 'Edible Veld Plants: a Food Source for the Future?', MacGregor Miscellany, 3 (1991). For a comprehensive account of wild foods throughout southern Africa, see F.W. Fox and M. E. Norwood Young, Food from the Veld: Edible Wild Plants of Southern Africa (Johannesburg, Delta, 1982).
108. Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 2, p. 298; Borchcrds, An AutoBiographical Memoir, p. 125; Barrow, A Voyage, p. 386; R. Gordon Cumming, A Hunter's Life in South Africa (London, John Murray, 1850; reprint edn, Bulawago, Books of Zimbabwe, 1980), p. 235; W. Cotton Oswell, 'South Africa Fifty Years Ago', in C. Phillipps-Wolley (ed), Big Game Shooting, vol. 1, (London, Longmans, Green, 1894), pp. 36-37.
109. Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 2, p. 298; Borchcrds, An AutoBiographical Memoir, p. 125; Barrow, A Voyage, p. 386; R. Gordon Cumming, A Hunter's Life in South Africa (London, John Murray, 1850; reprint edn, Bulawago, Books of Zimbabwe, 1980), p. 235; W. Cotton Oswell, 'South Africa Fifty Years Ago', in C. Phillipps-Wolley (ed), Big Game Shooting, vol. 1, (London, Longmans, Green, 1894), pp. 36-37.
110. Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 2, p. 298; Borchcrds, An AutoBiographical Memoir, p. 125; Barrow, A Voyage, p. 386; R. Gordon Cumming, A Hunter's Life in South Africa (London, John Murray, 1850; reprint edn, Bulawago, Books of Zimbabwe, 1980), p. 235; W. Cotton Oswell, 'South Africa Fifty Years Ago', in C. Phillipps-Wolley (ed), Big Game Shooting, vol. 1, (London, Longmans, Green, 1894), pp. 36-37.
111. Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 2, p. 298; Borchcrds, An AutoBiographical Memoir, p. 125; Barrow, A Voyage, p. 386; R. Gordon Cumming, A Hunter's Life in South Africa (London, John Murray, 1850; reprint edn, Bulawago, Books of Zimbabwe, 1980), p. 235; W. Cotton Oswell, 'South Africa Fifty Years Ago', in C. Phillipps-Wolley (ed), Big Game Shooting, vol. 1, (London, Longmans, Green, 1894), pp. 36-37.
112. Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 2, p. 298; Borchcrds, An AutoBiographical Memoir, p. 125; Barrow, A Voyage, p. 386; R. Gordon Cumming, A Hunter's Life in South Africa (London, John Murray, 1850; reprint edn, Bulawago, Books of Zimbabwe, 1980), p. 235; W. Cotton Oswell, 'South Africa Fifty Years Ago', in C. Phillipps-Wolley (ed), Big Game Shooting, vol. 1, (London, Longmans, Green, 1894), pp. 36-37.
113. E. Solomon, Two Lectures on the Native Tribes of the Interior (Cape Town, Saul Solomon, 1855), p. 51; J. Comaroff and J.L. Comaroff, Of Revelation, 1, p. 153. These people were also called 'poor Bechuana', Campbell, Travels, p. 218.
114. E. Solomon, Two Lectures on the Native Tribes of the Interior (Cape Town, Saul Solomon, 1855), p. 51; J. Comaroff and J.L. Comaroff, Of Revelation, 1, p. 153. These people were also called 'poor Bechuana', Campbell, Travels, p. 218.
115. E. Solomon, Two Lectures on the Native Tribes of the Interior (Cape Town, Saul Solomon, 1855), p. 51; J. Comaroff and J.L. Comaroff, Of Revelation, 1, p. 153. These people were also called 'poor Bechuana', Campbell, Travels, p. 218.
116. On the use of term 'lala' in Nguni languages and its ethnic meaning, see C. Hamilton and J. Wright, 'The Making of the Amalala: Ethnicity, Ideology and Relations of Subordination in a Precolonial Context', South African Historical Journal, 22 (1990), pp. 3-23.
117. Moffat, Missionary Labours, p. 9.
118. Lichtenstein, About the Bechuanas, p. 66.
119. Campbell, Second Journey, 2, p. 186. For evidence on smallpox epidemics, see Gordon, Cape Travels, 2, pp. 338, 250, 254; Somerville, William Somerville's Narrative, p. 128; Smith, Diary, 1, pp. 390-391.
120. Campbell, Second Journey, 2, p. 186. For evidence on smallpox epidemics, see Gordon, Cape Travels, 2, pp. 338, 250, 254; Somerville, William Somerville's Narrative, p. 128; Smith, Diary, 1, pp. 390-391.
121. Campbell, Second Journey, 2, p. 186. For evidence on smallpox epidemics, see Gordon, Cape Travels, 2, pp. 338, 250, 254; Somerville, William Somerville's Narrative, p. 128; Smith, Diary, 1, pp. 390-391.
122. Campbell, Second Journey, 2, p. 186. For evidence on smallpox epidemics, see Gordon, Cape Travels, 2, pp. 338, 250, 254; Somerville, William Somerville's Narrative, p. 128; Smith, Diary, 1, pp. 390-391.
123. Campbell, Second Journey, 2, p. 189.
124. Campbell, Travels, p. 194.
125. Burchell, 2, Travels in the Interior, p. 249.
126. Burchell, 2, Travels in the Interior, p. 216.
127. Moffat, Missionary Labours, p. 8 .
128. For an example, see Campbell, Second Journey, 1, pp. 288-289.
129. Lichtenstein was first to use a form of the term batlhanka, but he did not mention the balala. About the Bechuanas, p. 76; Travels, 2, p. 416.
130. Lichtenstein was first to use a form of the term batlhanka, but he did not mention the balala. About the Bechuanas, p. 76; Travels, 2, p. 416.
131. Burchell, 2, p. 267. Burchell is explaining the name of his assistant, Muchunka, which is his orthography for 'motlhanka', singular of batlhanka. Earlier Burchell appears to have confused the two translations. See 2, p. 248, cited in note 134 below.
132. Lichtenstein, Travels, 2, pp. 396-397, About the Bechuanas, p. 75; Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 2, p. 334.
133. Lichtenstein, Travels, 2, pp. 396-397, About the Bechuanas, p. 75; Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 2, p. 334.
134. Lichtenstein, Travels, 2, pp. 396-397, About the Bechuanas, p. 75; Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 2, p. 334.
135. Eldredge, 'Slave Raiding', p. 105.
136. Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 2, pp. 377-378.
137. LMS Box 8, Moffat at Griquatown, nd, 1829.
138. Smith, Diary, 1, p. 369.
139. J. Philip, Researches in South Africa, vol. 2 (London, James Duncan, 1828), p. 141.
140. Lichtenstein, Travels, 2, p. 365; D. Livingstone, in I. Schapera (ed). Family Letters, 1841-1856, vol. 1 (London, Chatto and Windus, 1959), p. 39; Fritsch, Drei Jahre, pp. 262-263, 266; A.A. Anderson, Twenty Five Years in a Wagon (London, Chapman and Hall, 1888), p. 80; Campbell, Second Journey, 1, pp. 101, 194-195; 2, p. 136; Moffat, Missionary Labours, pp. 382-383; Zimbabwe National Archives, SE 1/4 Frederick Courtenay Selous Journal, 2 November 1871.
141. Lichtenstein, Travels, 2, p. 365; D. Livingstone, in I. Schapera (ed). Family Letters, 1841-1856, vol. 1 (London, Chatto and Windus, 1959), p. 39; Fritsch, Drei Jahre, pp. 262-263, 266; A.A. Anderson, Twenty Five Years in a Wagon (London, Chapman and Hall, 1888), p. 80; Campbell, Second Journey, 1, pp. 101, 194-195; 2, p. 136; Moffat, Missionary Labours, pp. 382-383; Zimbabwe National Archives, SE 1/4 Frederick Courtenay Selous Journal, 2 November 1871.
142. Lichtenstein, Travels, 2, p. 365; D. Livingstone, in I. Schapera (ed). Family Letters, 1841-1856, vol. 1 (London, Chatto and Windus, 1959), p. 39; Fritsch, Drei Jahre, pp. 262-263, 266; A.A. Anderson, Twenty Five Years in a Wagon (London, Chapman and Hall, 1888), p. 80; Campbell, Second Journey, 1, pp. 101, 194-195; 2, p. 136; Moffat, Missionary Labours, pp. 382-383; Zimbabwe National Archives, SE 1/4 Frederick Courtenay Selous Journal, 2 November 1871.
143. Lichtenstein, Travels, 2, p. 365; D. Livingstone, in I. Schapera (ed). Family Letters, 1841-1856, vol. 1 (London, Chatto and Windus, 1959), p. 39; Fritsch, Drei Jahre, pp. 262-263, 266; A.A. Anderson, Twenty Five Years in a Wagon (London, Chapman and Hall, 1888), p. 80; Campbell, Second Journey, 1, pp. 101, 194-195; 2, p. 136; Moffat, Missionary Labours, pp. 382-383; Zimbabwe National Archives, SE 1/4 Frederick Courtenay Selous Journal, 2 November 1871.
144. Lichtenstein, Travels, 2, p. 365; D. Livingstone, in I. Schapera (ed). Family Letters, 1841-1856, vol. 1 (London, Chatto and Windus, 1959), p. 39; Fritsch, Drei Jahre, pp. 262-263, 266; A.A. Anderson, Twenty Five Years in a Wagon (London, Chapman and Hall, 1888), p. 80; Campbell, Second Journey, 1, pp. 101, 194-195; 2, p. 136; Moffat, Missionary Labours, pp. 382-383; Zimbabwe National Archives, SE 1/4 Frederick Courtenay Selous Journal, 2 November 1871.
145. Lichtenstein, Travels, 2, p. 365; D. Livingstone, in I. Schapera (ed). Family Letters, 1841-1856, vol. 1 (London, Chatto and Windus, 1959), p. 39; Fritsch, Drei Jahre, pp. 262-263, 266; A.A. Anderson, Twenty Five Years in a Wagon (London, Chapman and Hall, 1888), p. 80; Campbell, Second Journey, 1, pp. 101, 194-195; 2, p. 136; Moffat, Missionary Labours, pp. 382-383; Zimbabwe National Archives, SE 1/4 Frederick Courtenay Selous Journal, 2 November 1871.
146. Lichtenstein, Travels, 2, p. 365; D. Livingstone, in I. Schapera (ed). Family Letters, 1841-1856, vol. 1 (London, Chatto and Windus, 1959), p. 39; Fritsch, Drei Jahre, pp. 262-263, 266; A.A. Anderson, Twenty Five Years in a Wagon (London, Chapman and Hall, 1888), p. 80; Campbell, Second Journey, 1, pp. 101, 194-195; 2, p. 136; Moffat, Missionary Labours, pp. 382-383; Zimbabwe National Archives, SE 1/4 Frederick Courtenay Selous Journal, 2 November 1871.
147. Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 2, p. 383.
148. Borcherds, An AntoBiographical Memoir, pp. 125, 130; Somerville, William Somerville's Narrative, p. 127; Barrow, A Voyage, p. 393; Lichtenstein, About the Bechuanas, p. 80; Travels, 2, p. 409; Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 2, p. 413; Campbell, Second Journey, 2, p. 218.
149. Borcherds, An AntoBiographical Memoir, pp. 125, 130; Somerville, William Somerville's Narrative, p. 127; Barrow, A Voyage, p. 393; Lichtenstein, About the Bechuanas, p. 80; Travels, 2, p. 409; Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 2, p. 413; Campbell, Second Journey, 2, p. 218.
150. Borcherds, An AntoBiographical Memoir, pp. 125, 130; Somerville, William Somerville's Narrative, p. 127; Barrow, A Voyage, p. 393; Lichtenstein, About the Bechuanas, p. 80; Travels, 2, p. 409; Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 2, p. 413; Campbell, Second Journey, 2, p. 218.
151. Borcherds, An AntoBiographical Memoir, pp. 125, 130; Somerville, William Somerville's Narrative, p. 127; Barrow, A Voyage, p. 393; Lichtenstein, About the Bechuanas, p. 80; Travels, 2, p. 409; Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 2, p. 413; Campbell, Second Journey, 2, p. 218.
152. Borcherds, An AntoBiographical Memoir, pp. 125, 130; Somerville, William Somerville's Narrative, p. 127; Barrow, A Voyage, p. 393; Lichtenstein, About the Bechuanas, p. 80; Travels, 2, p. 409; Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 2, p. 413; Campbell, Second Journey, 2, p. 218.
153. Borcherds, An AntoBiographical Memoir, pp. 125, 130; Somerville, William Somerville's Narrative, p. 127; Barrow, A Voyage, p. 393; Lichtenstein, About the Bechuanas, p. 80; Travels, 2, p. 409; Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 2, p. 413; Campbell, Second Journey, 2, p. 218.
154. Borcherds, An AntoBiographical Memoir, pp. 125, 130; Somerville, William Somerville's Narrative, p. 127; Barrow, A Voyage, p. 393; Lichtenstein, About the Bechuanas, p. 80; Travels, 2, p. 409; Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 2, p. 413; Campbell, Second Journey, 2, p. 218.
155. J. Comaroff, Body of Power: Spirit of Resistance (Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1985), pp. 62, 67-68.
156. Saunders, 'Early Knowledge of the Sotho', pp. 66-69; A. Morris, Skeletons of Contact, pp. 48-50; Maingard, 'The Brikwa' p. 597. On sheep, see Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 2, p. 368; Lichtenstein, About the Bechuanas, p. 81.
157. Saunders, 'Early Knowledge of the Sotho', pp. 66-69; A. Morris, Skeletons of Contact, pp. 48-50; Maingard, 'The Brikwa' p. 597. On sheep, see Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 2, p. 368; Lichtenstein, About the Bechuanas, p. 81.
158. Saunders, 'Early Knowledge of the Sotho', pp. 66-69; A. Morris, Skeletons of Contact, pp. 48-50; Maingard, 'The Brikwa' p. 597. On sheep, see Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 2, p. 368; Lichtenstein, About the Bechuanas, p. 81.
159. Saunders, 'Early Knowledge of the Sotho', pp. 66-69; A. Morris, Skeletons of Contact, pp. 48-50; Maingard, 'The Brikwa' p. 597. On sheep, see Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 2, p. 368; Lichtenstein, About the Bechuanas, p. 81.
160. Saunders, 'Early Knowledge of the Sotho', pp. 66-69; A. Morris, Skeletons of Contact, pp. 48-50; Maingard, 'The Brikwa' p. 597. On sheep, see Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 2, p. 368; Lichtenstein, About the Bechuanas, p. 81.
161. Borcherds, An AutoBiographical Memoir, p. 126. See also Somerville, William Somerville's Narrative, pp. 125, 134.
162. Borcherds, An AutoBiographical Memoir, p. 126. See also Somerville, William Somerville's Narrative, pp. 125, 134.
163. Somerville, William Somerville's Narrative, p. 112.
164. J. Comaroff and J.L. Comaroff, Of Revelation, 1, pp. 145-146; J. Comaroff, Body of Power, pp. 67-74.
165. J. Comaroff and J.L. Comaroff, Of Revelation, 1, pp. 145-146; J. Comaroff, Body of Power, pp. 67-74.
166. Barrow, A Voyage, pp. 390, 393; Somerville, William Somerville's Narrative, p. 110; Lichtenstein, About the Bechuanas, p. 66; Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 1, p. 319; Campbell, Travels, pp. 202-203.
167. Barrow, A Voyage, pp. 390, 393; Somerville, William Somerville's Narrative, p. 110; Lichtenstein, About the Bechuanas, p. 66; Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 1, p. 319; Campbell, Travels, pp. 202-203.
168. Barrow, A Voyage, pp. 390, 393; Somerville, William Somerville's Narrative, p. 110; Lichtenstein, About the Bechuanas, p. 66; Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 1, p. 319; Campbell, Travels, pp. 202-203.
169. Barrow, A Voyage, pp. 390, 393; Somerville, William Somerville's Narrative, p. 110; Lichtenstein, About the Bechuanas, p. 66; Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 1, p. 319; Campbell, Travels, pp. 202-203.
170. Barrow, A Voyage, pp. 390, 393; Somerville, William Somerville's Narrative, p. 110; Lichtenstein, About the Bechuanas, p. 66; Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 1, p. 319; Campbell, Travels, pp. 202-203.
171. Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 2, p. 358.
172. Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 2, p. 368; Campbell, Second Journey, 1, pp. 63-64.
173. Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 2, p. 368; Campbell, Second Journey, 1, pp. 63-64.
174. Lichtenstein, Travels, 2, p. 365. Somerville, William Somerville's Narrative, p. 138.
175. Lichtenstein, Travels, 2, p. 365. Somerville, William Somerville's Narrative, p. 138.
176. Somerville, William Somerville's Narrative, p. 125.
177. Somerville, William Somerville's Narrative, p. 141.
178. Campbell, Travels, p. 203.
179. Somerville, William Somerville's Narrative, p. 149.
180. The Kalahari thornveld is notorious for stock disease. There is only one historical analysis of stock disease in the region, however. P.H.R. Snyman, 'Die Bydrae van Droogtes en Veesiektes tot die Verarming van die Landboubevolking in Noord-Kaapland', Tydskrif vir Geestewetenskappe, 29 (1989), pp. 32-49.
181. Somerville, William Somerville's Narrative, p. 139.
182. Testimony of Mahura's son Masse, Evidence Taken at Bloemhof, pp. 61-62.
183. Testimony of Mahura's son Masse, Evidence Taken at Bloemhof, pp. 61-62. See also Smith, Diary, 1, pp. 241, 247-248, 390; R. Moffat, Apprenticeship, pp. 43, 161, 211, 212; Missionary Labours, pp. 436-437; David Livingstone, in I. Schapera (ed), Livingstone's Missionary Correspondence (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1961), p. 35; J. Mackenzie, Ten Years North of the Orange River (Edinburgh, Edmonston and Douglas, 1871; reprint edn, London, Frank Cass, 1971), p. 70.
184. Testimony of Mahura's son Masse, Evidence Taken at Bloemhof, pp. 61-62. See also Smith, Diary, 1, pp. 241, 247-248, 390; R. Moffat, Apprenticeship, pp. 43, 161, 211, 212; Missionary Labours, pp. 436-437; David Livingstone, in I. Schapera (ed), Livingstone's Missionary Correspondence (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1961), p. 35; J. Mackenzie, Ten Years North of the Orange River (Edinburgh, Edmonston and Douglas, 1871; reprint edn, London, Frank Cass, 1971), p. 70.
185. Testimony of Mahura's son Masse, Evidence Taken at Bloemhof, pp. 61-62. See also Smith, Diary, 1, pp. 241, 247-248, 390; R. Moffat, Apprenticeship, pp. 43, 161, 211, 212; Missionary Labours, pp. 436-437; David Livingstone, in I. Schapera (ed), Livingstone's Missionary Correspondence (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1961), p. 35; J. Mackenzie, Ten Years North of the Orange River (Edinburgh, Edmonston and Douglas, 1871; reprint edn, London, Frank Cass, 1971), p. 70.
186. Testimony of Mahura's son Masse, Evidence Taken at Bloemhof, pp. 61-62. See also Smith, Diary, 1, pp. 241, 247-248, 390; R. Moffat, Apprenticeship, pp. 43, 161, 211, 212; Missionary Labours, pp. 436-437; David Livingstone, in I. Schapera (ed), Livingstone's Missionary Correspondence (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1961), p. 35; J. Mackenzie, Ten Years North of the Orange River (Edinburgh, Edmonston and Douglas, 1871; reprint edn, London, Frank Cass, 1971), p. 70.
187. Testimony of Mahura's son Masse, Evidence Taken at Bloemhof, pp. 61-62. See also Smith, Diary, 1, pp. 241, 247-248, 390; R. Moffat, Apprenticeship, pp. 43, 161, 211, 212; Missionary Labours, pp. 436-437; David Livingstone, in I. Schapera (ed), Livingstone's Missionary Correspondence (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1961), p. 35; J. Mackenzie, Ten Years North of the Orange River (Edinburgh, Edmonston and Douglas, 1871; reprint edn, London, Frank Cass, 1971), p. 70.
188. Lichtenstein, Travels, 2, p. 394.
189. Somerville, William Somerville's Narraive, p. 142.
190. Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 1, p. 242. See note 143 below.
191. Borcherds, An AutoBiographical Memoir, p. 130; Barrow, p. 390.
192. J. Comaroff and J.L. Comaroff, Of Revelation, 1, p. 151.
193. J. Comaroff and J. L. Comaroff, Of Revelation, 1, pp. 146-148. Not all these rights are documented in records for the Tlhaping in this period. For some examples, see Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 2, pp. 377, 384; Lichtenstein, Travels, 2, p. 414; R. Moffat, Apprenticeship, p. 126 and Missionary Labours, p. 382; Smith, Diary, 1, p. 296.
194. J. Comaroff and J. L. Comaroff, Of Revelation, 1, pp. 146-148. Not all these rights are documented in records for the Tlhaping in this period. For some examples, see Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 2, pp. 377, 384; Lichtenstein, Travels, 2, p. 414; R. Moffat, Apprenticeship, p. 126 and Missionary Labours, p. 382; Smith, Diary, 1, p. 296.
195. J. Comaroff and J. L. Comaroff, Of Revelation, 1, pp. 146-148. Not all these rights are documented in records for the Tlhaping in this period. For some examples, see Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 2, pp. 377, 384; Lichtenstein, Travels, 2, p. 414; R. Moffat, Apprenticeship, p. 126 and Missionary Labours, p. 382; Smith, Diary, 1, p. 296.
196. J. Comaroff and J. L. Comaroff, Of Revelation, 1, pp. 146-148. Not all these rights are documented in records for the Tlhaping in this period. For some examples, see Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 2, pp. 377, 384; Lichtenstein, Travels, 2, p. 414; R. Moffat, Apprenticeship, p. 126 and Missionary Labours, p. 382; Smith, Diary, 1, p. 296.
197. J. Comaroff and J. L. Comaroff, Of Revelation, 1, pp. 146-148. Not all these rights are documented in records for the Tlhaping in this period. For some examples, see Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 2, pp. 377, 384; Lichtenstein, Travels, 2, p. 414; R. Moffat, Apprenticeship, p. 126 and Missionary Labours, p. 382; Smith, Diary, 1, p. 296.
198. J. Comaroff and J. L. Comaroff, Of Revelation, 1, pp. 146-148. Not all these rights are documented in records for the Tlhaping in this period. For some examples, see Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 2, pp. 377, 384; Lichtenstein, Travels, 2, p. 414; R. Moffat, Apprenticeship, p. 126 and Missionary Labours, p. 382; Smith, Diary, 1, p. 296.
199. J. Comaroff and J.L. Comaroff, Of Revelation, 1, pp. 147-152.
200. Campbell, Second Journey, 2, p. 154.
201. J. Comaroff, Body of Power, pp. 66-67.
202. W.C. Willoughby, Soul of the Bantu (Garden City, NY, Doubleday, Doran, 1928), pp. 179, 224, 258-259.
203. Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 2, p. 362.
204. A. Smith, in W. Lye (ed), Andrew Smith's Journal (Cape Town, A.A. Balkema, 1975), pp. 173.
205. Campbell, Second Journey, 2, p. 214.
206. Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 2, p. 383.
207. Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 2, p. 362.
208. Campbell, Travels, pp. 187, 202.
209. Campbell, Second Journey, 2, p. 82.
210. Lichtenstein, Travels, 2, p. 409.
211. Lichtenstein, About the Bechuanas, p. 66, 78.
212. On mafisa relationships in Botswana, see I. Schapera, A Handbook of Tswana Law and Custom, 2nd edn (London, Oxford University Press for the International African Institute, 1955), pp. 246-247.
213. Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 2, p. 248. His emphasis.
214. I. Schapera, Tribal Innovators: Tswana Chiefs and Social Change (London, Athlone, 1970), pp. 79-81.
215. Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 2, p. 248. His emphasis.
216. R. Moffat, Apprenticeship, p. 125.
217. Cape Town Archives Repository [CTAR] Bechuanaland Crown Colony [BCC] 118 R. Price, 28 September 1887.
218. Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 2, pp. 248, 383.
219. Lichtenstein, About the Bechuanas, p. 77
220. Campbell, Second Journey, 2, pp. 210-211.
221. R. Moffat, Apprenticeship, p. 125.
222. Moffat, Missionary Labours, p. 8. Campbell, Second Journey, 2, p. 167.
223. Moffat, Missionary Labours, p. 8. Campbell, Second Journey, 2, p. 167.
224. Boserup, The Conditions, pp. 15-16, 28-31, 44-48.
225. Somerville, William Somerville's Narrative, p. 142.
226. Campbell, Second Journey, 1, pp. 148-149.
227. Somerville, William Somerville's Narrative, p. 129. However, Lichtenstein, an insightful observer, reported that fields were commonly fenced round. See Travels, 2, p. 409.
228. Somerville, William Somerville's Narrative, p. 129. However, Lichtenstein, an insightful observer, reported that fields were commonly fenced round. See Travels, 2, p. 409.
229. Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 1, p. 242. Here he is generalising about various 'wandering African nations' encountered in his travels, including the Tlhaping. See also Travels in the Interior, 2, p. 362.
230. Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 1, p. 242. Here he is generalising about various 'wandering African nations' encountered in his travels, including the Tlhaping. See also Travels in the Interior, 2, p. 362.
231. Fritsch, Drei Jahre, pp. 262,266; Smith, Journal, pp. 183-184. Not all settlements were near water. Campbell, Travels, p. 203; R. Moffat, Apprenticeship, p. 12.
232. Fritsch, Drei Jahre, pp. 262,266; Smith, Journal, pp. 183-184. Not all settlements were near water. Campbell, Travels, p. 203; R. Moffat, Apprenticeship, p. 12.
233. Fritsch, Drei Jahre, pp. 262,266; Smith, Journal, pp. 183-184. Not all settlements were near water. Campbell, Travels, p. 203; R. Moffat, Apprenticeship, p. 12.
234. Fritsch, Drei Jahre, pp. 262,266; Smith, Journal, pp. 183-184. Not all settlements were near water. Campbell, Travels, p. 203; R. Moffat, Apprenticeship, p. 12.
235. Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 1, p. 414. His emphasis
236. Somerville, William Somerville's Narrative, pp. 135-136; Campbell, Second Journey, 1, p. 248.
237. Somerville, William Somerville's Narrative, pp. 135-136; Campbell, Second Journey, 1, p. 248.
238. LMS Box 14, Moffat, 3 February 1834. A missionary to the Griqua concurred, contrasting 'squandering' among the Griqua with Tswana prudence and successful adaptation to the dry environment. LMS Box 14, Wright at Griquatown, 25 January 1834, 19 June 1834, 25 September 1835.
239. Somerville, William Somerville's Narrative, p. 143.
240. Lichtenstein, Travels, 2, p. 375; About the Bechuanas, p. 80.
241. Lichtenstein, Travels, 2, p. 375; About the Bechuanas, p. 80.
242. J. Du Bruyn, 'Die Tlhaping en die Eerste Sendelinge, 1801-1806', South African Historical Journal, 14 (1982), pp. 9-34.
243. Campbell, Second Journey, 1, p. 64.
244. Somerville, William Somerville's Narrative, p. 129.
245. Somerville, William Somerville's Narrative, p. 141. See note 103 above.
246. Barrow, A Voyage, p. 394. Somerville, William Somerville's Narrative, p. 129.
247. Barrow, A Voyage, p. 394. Somerville, William Somerville's Narrative, p. 129.
248. Somerville, William Somerville's Narrative, pp. 129, 139; M. Moffat, Apprenticeship, p. 108; Philip, Missionary Labours, p. 117.
249. Somerville, William Somerville's Narrative, pp. 129, 139; M. Moffat, Apprenticeship, p. 108; Philip, Missionary Labours, p. 117.
250. Somerville, William Somerville's Narrative, pp. 129, 139; M. Moffat, Apprenticeship, p. 108; Philip, Missionary Labours, p. 117.
251. Somerville, William Somerville's Narrative, p. 129.
252. Moffat, Missionary Labours, pp. 330-331. See also Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 2, pp. 218, 361. On Moffat's environmental thought, see R. Grove, 'Scottish Missionaries, Evangelical Discourses and the Origins of Conservation Thinking in Southern Africa 1820-1900', Journal of Southern African Studies, 15, 2 (1989), pp. 163-187.
253. Moffat, Missionary Labours, pp. 330-331. See also Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 2, pp. 218, 361. On Moffat's environmental thought, see R. Grove, 'Scottish Missionaries, Evangelical Discourses and the Origins of Conservation Thinking in Southern Africa 1820-1900', Journal of Southern African Studies, 15, 2 (1989), pp. 163-187.
254. Moffat, Missionary Labours, pp. 330-331. See also Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 2, pp. 218, 361. On Moffat's environmental thought, see R. Grove, 'Scottish Missionaries, Evangelical Discourses and the Origins of Conservation Thinking in Southern Africa 1820-1900', Journal of Southern African Studies, 15, 2 (1989), pp. 163-187.
255. Somerville, William Somerville's Narrative, p. 139.
256. K. Shillington, The Colonisation of the Southern Tswana (Johannesburg, Raven, 1985), pp. 14-16.
257. Campbell, Second Journey, 2, pp. 206-207.
258. Somerville, William Somerville's Narrative, p. 139. Descriptions of African cultivators 'scratching' at the surface have been interpreted as European prejudices about Africans' use of, and place in, their environment. M. L. Pratt, 'Scratches on the Face of the Country; or what Mr. Barrow Saw in the Land of the Bushmen', Critical Inquiry, 12 (Autumn 1985), pp. 119-143. However, they also yield evidence of how people actually used the land.
259. Somerville, William Somerville's Narrative, p. 139. Descriptions of African cultivators 'scratching' at the surface have been interpreted as European prejudices about Africans' use of, and place in, their environment. M. L. Pratt, 'Scratches on the Face of the Country; or what Mr. Barrow Saw in the Land of the Bushmen', Critical Inquiry, 12 (Autumn 1985), pp. 119-143. However, they also yield evidence of how people actually used the land.
260. Barrow, A Voyage, p. 394; Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 2, p. 413; Campbell, Second Journey, 2, pp. 215-216.
261. Barrow, A Voyage, p. 394; Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 2, p. 413; Campbell, Second Journey, 2, pp. 215-216.
262. Barrow, A Voyage, p. 394; Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 2, p. 413; Campbell, Second Journey, 2, pp. 215-216.
263. Somerville, William Somerville's Narrative, p. 129.
264. G. Fritsch, Die Eingeborenen Süd-Afrikas (Breslau, Ferdinand Hirt, 1872), p. 188; H. Methuen, Life in the Wilderness; or Wanderings in South Africa (London, Richard Bentler, 1846), p. 107; LMS Box 11, Moffat, 12 September 1828.
265. G. Fritsch, Die Eingeborenen Süd-Afrikas (Breslau, Ferdinand Hirt, 1872), p. 188; H. Methuen, Life in the Wilderness; or Wanderings in South Africa (London, Richard Bentler, 1846), p. 107; LMS Box 11, Moffat, 12 September 1828.
266. Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 2, p. 366; Barrow, A Voyage, pp. 392, 394.
267. Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 2, p. 366; Barrow, A Voyage, pp. 392, 394.
268. M. Kinsman, "'Beasts of Burden": The Subordination of Southern Tswana Women, c1800-1840', Journal of Southern African Studies, 10, 1 (1983), p. 53. On communal ownership, see I. Schapera, Native Land Tenure in the Bechuanaland Protectorate (Alice, Lovedale, 1943), p. 57. However, evidence from the Tlhaping does not suggest strong communalism. See Borcherds, An AutoBiographical Memoir, p. 130; Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 2, p. 366; A.A. Anderson, Twenty Five Years in a Waggon, p. 81.
269. M. Kinsman, "'Beasts of Burden": The Subordination of Southern Tswana Women, c1800-1840', Journal of Southern African Studies, 10, 1 (1983), p. 53. On communal ownership, see I. Schapera, Native Land Tenure in the Bechuanaland Protectorate (Alice, Lovedale, 1943), p. 57. However, evidence from the Tlhaping does not suggest strong communalism. See Borcherds, An AutoBiographical Memoir, p. 130; Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 2, p. 366; A.A. Anderson, Twenty Five Years in a Waggon, p. 81.
270. M. Kinsman, "'Beasts of Burden": The Subordination of Southern Tswana Women, c1800-1840', Journal of Southern African Studies, 10, 1 (1983), p. 53. On communal ownership, see I. Schapera, Native Land Tenure in the Bechuanaland Protectorate (Alice, Lovedale, 1943), p. 57. However, evidence from the Tlhaping does not suggest strong communalism. See Borcherds, An AutoBiographical Memoir, p. 130; Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 2, p. 366; A.A. Anderson, Twenty Five Years in a Waggon, p. 81.
271. M. Kinsman, "'Beasts of Burden": The Subordination of Southern Tswana Women, c1800-1840', Journal of Southern African Studies, 10, 1 (1983), p. 53. On communal ownership, see I. Schapera, Native Land Tenure in the Bechuanaland Protectorate (Alice, Lovedale, 1943), p. 57. However, evidence from the Tlhaping does not suggest strong communalism. See Borcherds, An AutoBiographical Memoir, p. 130; Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 2, p. 366; A.A. Anderson, Twenty Five Years in a Waggon, p. 81.
272. M. Kinsman, "'Beasts of Burden": The Subordination of Southern Tswana Women, c1800-1840', Journal of Southern African Studies, 10, 1 (1983), p. 53. On communal ownership, see I. Schapera, Native Land Tenure in the Bechuanaland Protectorate (Alice, Lovedale, 1943), p. 57. However, evidence from the Tlhaping does not suggest strong communalism. See Borcherds, An AutoBiographical Memoir, p. 130; Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 2, p. 366; A.A. Anderson, Twenty Five Years in a Waggon, p. 81.
273. J. Comaroff and J. L. Comaroff, Of Revelation, 1, pp. 126-152. J. Comaroff, Body of Power, pp. 46-49.
274. J. Comaroff and J. L. Comaroff, Of Revelation, 1, pp. 126-152. J. Comaroff, Body of Power, pp. 46-49.
275. I. Berger, "'Beasts of Burden" Revisited: Interpretations of Women and Gender in Southern African Societies', in R.W. Harms, J.C. Miller, D.S. Newbury and M.D. Wagner (eds), Paths Toward the Past: African Historical Essays in Honor of Jan Vansina (Atlanta, African Studies Association, 1994), pp. 123-141.
276. G. Okihiro, 'Hunters, Herders, Cultivators, and Traders: Interactions and Change in the Kgalagadi in the Nineteenth Century', PhD dissertation, UCLA, 1976, pp. 79-80.
277. Borcherds, An AutoBiographical Memoir, p. 128; Somerville, William Somerville's Narrative, p. 129. 171 Somerville, William Somerville's Narrative, p. 126.
278. Borcherds, An AutoBiographical Memoir, p. 128; Somerville, William Somerville's Narrative, p. 129. 171 Somerville, William Somerville's Narrative, p. 126.
279. Borcherds, An AutoBiographical Memoir, p. 128; Somerville, William Somerville's Narrative, p. 129. 171 Somerville, William Somerville's Narrative, p. 126.
280. Campbell, Travels, p. 201.
281. Anon. 1831, 'Mission to the Bechuanas', South African Christian Recorder, (March 1831), p. 23.
282. Iliffe, The African Poor, p. 71.
283. Barrow, A Voyage, p. 400.
284. Moffat, Missionary Labours, pp. 8-9; Smith, Diary, 1, p. 296.
285. Moffat, Missionary Labours, pp. 8-9; Smith, Diary, 1, p. 296.
286. J. Guy, 'Analysing Pre-Capitalist Societies in Southern Africa', Journal of Southern African Studies, 14, 1 (1987), p. 21.
287. Guy, 'Analysing Pre-Capitalist Societies', p. 22.
288. Guy, 'Analysing Pre-Capitalist Societies', pp. 23-24.
289. Guy, 'Analysing Pre-Capitalist Societies', p. 24.
290. Guy, 'Analysing Pre-Capitalist Societies', p. 29. His emphasis.
291. Berger, "'Beasts of Burden'", pp. 124-126.
292. Solomon, Two Lectures, p. 44.
293. Campbell, Travels, p. 190.
294. Campbell, Second Journey, 2, p. 63.
295. Lichtenstein, About the Bechuanas, p. 77. See also Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 2, p. 357.
296. Lichtenstein, About the Bechuanas, p. 77. See also Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 2, p. 357.
297. Berger, "'Beasts of Burden'", pp. 125-126, J.L. Comaroff and J. Comaroff, Of Revelation, 2, pp. 129-131.
298. Berger, "'Beasts of Burden'", pp. 125-126, J.L. Comaroff and J. Comaroff, Of Revelation, 2, pp. 129-131.
299. Campbell, Travels, p. 200.
300. Somerville, William Somerville's Narrative, p. 122; Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 2, p. 398.
301. Somerville, William Somerville's Narrative, p. 122; Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 2, p. 398.
302. On different approaches to the significance of bridewealth, see J.L. Comaroff, 'Introduction', in J.L. Comaroff (ed), The Meaning of Marriage Payments (London, Academic, 1980), pp. 1-47.
303. Engelbrecht, The Korana, pp. 135-136. I. Schapera, The Khoisan Peoples of South Africa (London, Routledge and Sons, 1930), pp. 247-248. Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 2, p. 258. On continuing intermarriage between Korana and Tlhaping after 1800, see Legassick, 'The Griqua, the Sotho-Tswana', pp. 68-69.
304. Engelbrecht, The Korana, pp. 135-136. I. Schapera, The Khoisan Peoples of South Africa (London, Routledge and Sons, 1930), pp. 247-248. Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 2, p. 258. On continuing intermarriage between Korana and Tlhaping after 1800, see Legassick, 'The Griqua, the Sotho-Tswana', pp. 68-69.
305. Engelbrecht, The Korana, pp. 135-136. I. Schapera, The Khoisan Peoples of South Africa (London, Routledge and Sons, 1930), pp. 247-248. Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 2, p. 258. On continuing intermarriage between Korana and Tlhaping after 1800, see Legassick, 'The Griqua, the Sotho-Tswana', pp. 68-69.
306. Engelbrecht, The Korana, pp. 135-136. I. Schapera, The Khoisan Peoples of South Africa (London, Routledge and Sons, 1930), pp. 247-248. Burchell, Travels in the Interior, 2, p. 258. On continuing intermarriage between Korana and Tlhaping after 1800, see Legassick, 'The Griqua, the Sotho-Tswana', pp. 68-69.
307. J. Comaroff, Body of Power, pp. 54-62, 65, 67-68, 84-120. See also J. Comaroff and J.L. Comaroff, Of Revelation, 1, pp. 152-160.
308. J. Comaroff, Body of Power, pp. 54-62, 65, 67-68, 84-120. See also J. Comaroff and J.L. Comaroff, Of Revelation, 1, pp. 152-160.
309. E. Herbert, Iron, Gender, and Power: Rituals of Transformation in African Societies (Bloomington, Indiana University Press, 1993), p. 220.
310. R. Harms, Games Against Nature: an Eco-Cultural History of the Nunu of Equatorial Africa (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1987).