Neuronal death after brain injury. Models, mechanisms, and therapeutic strategies in vivo

Cell and Tissue Research

Volumn 298, Issue 3, 1999, Pages 383-395

  Kermer, Pawel ^a   Klöcker, Nikolaj ^a   Bähr, Mathias ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL TÜBINGEN   (Germany)

Author keywords

Axotomy; Ischemia; Mechanisms; Neuronal death; Neuroprotection; Traumatic brain injury

Indexed keywords

4 AMINOBUTYRIC ACID RECEPTOR STIMULATING AGENT; 4 PHOSPHONOMETHYLPIPECOLIC ACID; APTIGANEL; BACLOFEN; CALCIUM CHANNEL BLOCKING AGENT; CALCIUM ION; CALPAIN; CASPASE; CASPASE INHIBITOR; CLOMETHIAZOLE; DEXTROMETHORPHAN; DEXTRORPHAN; DIZOCILPINE; FREE RADICAL; GANGLIOSIDE; LUBELUZOLE; MDL 100453; MUSCIMOL; N METHYL DEXTRO ASPARTIC ACID RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; NEUROPROTECTIVE AGENT; NEUROTROPHIC FACTOR; NIMODIPINE; NITRIC OXIDE SYNTHASE; PROTEIN KINASE; PROTEINASE; SCAVENGER; SIPATRIGINE; TIRILAZAD; TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; UNINDEXED DRUG;

ANIMAL EXPERIMENT; ANIMAL MODEL; BRAIN INJURY; CALCIUM HOMEOSTASIS; CALCIUM TRANSPORT; GENETIC TRANSCRIPTION; HUMAN; IMMEDIATE EARLY GENE; NERVE CELL NECROSIS; NEUROTOXICITY; NONHUMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PSYCHOSIS; REVIEW; SECOND MESSENGER;

ANIMALIA;

EID: 0032749166     PISSN: 0302766X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s004410050061     Document Type: Review

References (191)

1. Akins FT, Liu PK, Hsu CY (1996) Immediate early gene expression in response to cerebral ischemia. Friend or foe? Stroke 27(9):1682-1687
2. Albers GW, Saenz RE, Moses JA Jr, Choi DW (1991) Safety and tolerance of oral dextromethorphan in patients at risk for brain ischemia. Stroke 22(8):1075-1077
3. Albers GW, Atkinson RP, Kelley RE, Rosenbaum DM (1995) Safety, tolerability, and pharmacokinetics of the N-methyl-D-aspartate antagonist dextrorphan in patients with acute stroke. Dextrorphan Study Group. Stroke 26(2):254-258
4. Alnemri ES, Livingston DJ, Nicholson DW, Salvesen G, Thornberry NA, Wong WW, Yuan J (1996) Human ICE/CED-3 protease nomenclature (letter). Cell 87(2):171
5. Alter M (1994) Ganglioside GM1 in acute ischemic stroke: SASS trial. Stroke 25:1141-1148
6. Andrews BT, McIntosh TK, Gonzales MF, Weinstein PR, Faden AI (1988) Levels of endogenous opioids and effects of an opiate antagonist during regional cerebral ischemia in rats. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 247(3):1248-1254
7. Angel P, Karin M (1991) The role of Jun, Fos and the AP-1 complex in cell-proliferation and transformation. Biochim Biophys Acta 1072(2-3):129-157
8. Barde YA (1989) Trophic factors and neuronal survival. Neuron 2(6):1525-1534
9. 2+ accumulation. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 92(20):9328-9332
10. Bartus RT, Hayward NJ, Elliott PJ, Sawyer SD, Baker KL, Dean RL, Akiyama A, Straub JA, Harbeson SL, Li Z, et al. (1994) Calpain inhibitor AK295 protects neurons from focal brain ischemia. Effects of postocclusion intra-arterial administration. Stroke 25(11):2265-2270
11. Bartus RT, Dean RL, Mennerick S, Eveleth D, Lynch G (1998) Temporal ordering of pathogenic events following transient global ischemia. Brain Res 790(1-2):1-13
12. Bassi S, Albizzati MG, Sbacchi M, Frattola L, Massarotti M (1984) Double-blind evaluation of monosialoganglioside (GM1) therapy in stroke. J Neurosci Res 12(2-3):493-498
13. Battistin L, Cesari A, Galligioni F, Marin G, Massarotti M, Paccagnella D, Pellegrini A, Testa G, Tonin P (1985) Effects of GM1 ganglioside in cerebrovascular diseases: a double-blind trial in 40 cases. Eur Neurol 24(5):343-351
14. Beyaert R, Kidd VJ, Cornelis S, Van de Craen M, Denecker G, Lahti JM, Gururajan R, Vandenabeele P, Fiers W (1997) Cleavage of PITSLRE kinases by ICE/CASP-1 and CPP32/CASP-3 during apoptosis induced by tumor necrosis factor. J Biol Chem 272(18):11694-11697
15. Bhat RV, DiRocco R, Marcy VR, Flood DG, Zhu Y, Dobrzanski P, Siman R, Scott R, Contreras PC, Miller M (1996) Increased expression of IL-1beta converting enzyme in hippocampus after ischemia: selective localization in microglia. J Neurosci 16(13):4146-4154
16. Biros MH (1991) Experimental head trauma models: a clinical perspective. Resuscitation 22(3):283-293
17. Boast CA, Gerhardt SC, Pastor G, Lehmann J, Etienne PE, Liebman JM (1988) The N-methyl-D-aspartate antagonists CGS 19755 and CPP reduce ischemic brain damage in gerbils. Brain Res 442(2):345-348
18. Bogousslavsky J for European Ad Hoc Consensus Group (1998) Neuroprotection as initial therapy in acute stroke. Third report of an Ad Hoc Consensus Group meeting. Cerebrovasc Dis 8(1):59-72
19. Bowes MP, Zivin JA, Rothlein R (1993) Monoclonal antibody to the ICAM-1 adhesion site reduces neurological damage in a rabbit cerebral embolism stroke model. Exp Neurol 119(2): 215-219
20. Braughler JM, Hall ED (1989) Central nervous system trauma and stroke. I. Biochemical considerations for oxygen radical formation and lipid peroxidation. Free Radic Biol Med 6(3): 289-301
21. Buchan AM (1990) Do NMDA antagonists protect against cerebral ischemia: are clinical trials warranted? Cerebrovasc Brain Metab Rev 2(1):1-26
22. Buchan AM, Gertler SZ, Huang ZG, Li H, Chaundy KE, Xue D (1994) Failure to prevent selective CA1 neuronal death and reduce cortical infarction following cerebral ischemia with inhibition of nitric oxide synthase. Neuroscience 61(1):1-11
23. Buisson A, Plotkine M, Boulu RG (1992) The neuroprotective effect of a nitric oxide inhibitor in a rat model of focal cerebral ischaemia (Abstract). Br J Pharmacol 106(4):766-767
24. Bullock R, Fujisawa H (1992) The role of glutamate antagonists for the treatment of CNS injury. J Neurotrauma [Suppl 2] 9:5443-462
25. Cahill MA, Peter ME, Kischkel FC, Chinnaiyan AM, Dixit VM, Krammer PH, Nordheim A (1996) CD95 (APO-1/Fas) induces activation of SAP kinases downstream of ICE-like proteases. Oncogene 13(10):2087-2096
26. Cao X, Phillis JW (1994) Alpha-phenyl-tert-butyl-nitrone reduces cortical infarct and edema in rats subjected to focal ischemia. Brain Res 644(2):267-272
27. Cardone MH, Salvesen GS, Widmann C, Johnson G, Frisch SM (1997) The regulation of anoikis: MEKK-1 activation requires cleavage by caspascs. Cell 90(2):315-323
28. Carreau A, Duval D, Poignet H, Scatton B, Vige X, Nowicki JP (1994) Neuroprotective efficacy of N-omega-nitro-L-arginine after focal cerebral ischemia in the mouse and inhibition of cortical nitric oxide synthase. Eur J Pharmacol 256(3):241-249
29. Cerro S del , Larson J, Oliver MW, Lynch G (1990) Development of hippocampal long-term potentiation is reduced by recently introduced calpain inhibitors. Brain Res 530(1):91-95
30. Choi DW (1988) Glutamate neurotoxicity and diseases of the nervous system. Neuron 1(8):623-634
31. Choi DW (1993) Nitric oxide: foe or friend to the injured brain? (comment). Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 90(21):9741-9743
32. Clark WM, Warach SJ, Pettigrew LC, Gammans RE, Sabounjian LA (1997) A randomized dose-response trial of citicoline in acute ischemic stroke patients. Citicoline Stroke Study Group. Neurology 49(3):671-678
33. Cohen GM (1997) Caspases: the executioners of apoptosis. Biochem J 326(1):1-16
34. Cuevas P, Carceller F, Reimers D, Saenz de Tejada I, Gimenez Gallego G (1998) Acidic fibroblast growth factor rescues gerbil hippocampal neurons from ischemic apoptotic death. Neurol Res 20(3):271-274
35. Dawson DA, Kusumoto K, Graham DI, McCulloch J, Macrae IM (1992) Inhibition of nitric oxide synthesis does not reduce infarct volume in a rat model of focal cerebral ischaemia. Neurosci Lett 142(2):151-154
36. De Deyn PP, Orgogozo JM, De Reuck J (1998) Acute treatment of stroke. PASS group. Piracetam Acute Stroke Study (letter). Lancet 352(9124):326
37. De Keyser J, Van de Velde V, Schellens RL, Hantson L, Tritsmans L, Gheuens J, Van Peer A, Woestenborghs R, Franke CL, Gorp J van (1997) Safety and pharmacokinetics of the neuroprotective drug lubeluzole in patients with ischemic stroke. Clin Ther 19(6):1340-1351
38. De Ryck M, Keersmaekers R, Duytschaever H, Claes C, Clincke G, Janssen M, Van Reet G (1996) Lubeluzole protects sensorimotor function and reduces infarct size in a photochemical stroke model in rats. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 279(2):748-758
39. Diener HC (1998) Multinational randomised controlled trial of lubeluzole in acute ischaemic stroke. European and Australian Lubeluzole Ischaemic Stroke Study Group. Cerebrovasc Dis 8(3):172-181
40. Diener HC, Hacke W, Hennerici M, Radberg J, Hantson L, De Keyser J (1996) Lubeluzole in acute ischemic stroke. A double-blind, placebo-controlled phase II trial. Lubeluzole International Study Group. Stroke 27(1):76-81
41. Di Polo A, Aigner LJ, Dunn RJ, Bray GM, Aguayo AJ (1998) Prolonged delivery of brain-derived neurotrophic factor by adenovirus-infected Müller cells temporarily rescues injured retinal ganglion cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 95(7): 3978-3983
42. Doré S, Kar S, Quirion R (1997) Rediscovering an old friend, IGF-I: potential use in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. Trends Neurosci 20(8):326-331
43. Dragunow M, Young D, Hughes P, MacGibbon G, Lawlor P, Singleton K, Sirimanne E, Beilharz E, Gluckman P (1993) Is c-Jun involved in nerve cell death following status epilepticus and hypoxic-ischaemic brain injury? (published erratum appears in Brain Res Mol Brain Res 20(1-2):179). Brain Res Mol Brain Res 18(4):347-352
44. Ellis RE, Yuan JY, Horvitz HR (1991) Mechanisms and functions of cell death. Annu Rev Cell Biol 7:663-698
45. Faden AI, Demediuk P, Panter SS, Vink R (1989) The role of excitatory amino acids and NMDA receptors in traumatic brain injury. Science 244(4906):798-800
46. Fagni L, Olivier M, Lafon Cazal M, Bockaert J (1995) Involvement of divalent ions in the nitric oxide-induced blockade of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors in cerebellar granule cells. Mol Pharmacol 47(6):1239-1247
47. Fernandes-Alnemri T, Litwack G, Alnemri ES (1994) CPP32, a novel human apoptotic protein with homology to Caenorhabditis elegans cell death protein Ced-3 and mammalian interleukin-1 beta-converting enzyme. J Biol Chem 269(49):30761-30764
48. Ferrer I, Lopez E, Pozas E, Ballabriga J, Marti E (1998) Multiple neurotrophic signals converge in surviving CA1 neurons of the gerbil hippocampus following transient forebrain ischemia. J Comp Neurol 394(4):416-430
49. Fisher M (1994) Cerestat (CNS 1102), a noncompetitive NMDA antagonist in ischemic stroke patients: dose escalating safety study (Abstract). Cerebrovasc Dis 4:245
50. Garthwaite J, Charles SL, Chess Williams R (1988) Endothelium-derived relaxing factor release on activation of NMDA receptors suggests role as intercellular messenger in the brain. Nature 336(6197):385-388
51. Gass P, Herdegen T (1995) Neuronal expression of AP-1 proteins in excitotoxic-neurodegenerative disorders and following nerve fiber lesions (Abstract). Prog Neurobiol 47(4-5):257
52. George CP, Goldberg MP, Choi DW, Steinberg GK (1988) Dextromethorphan reduces neocortical ischemic neuronal damage in vivo. Brain Res 440(2):375-379
53. Giancotti FG, Stepp MA, Suzuki S, Engvall E, Ruoslahti E (1992) Proteolytic processing of endogenous and recombinant beta 4 integrin subunit. J Cell Biol 118(4):951-959
54. Gill R, Foster AC, Woodruff GN (1988) MK-801 is neuroprotective in gerbils when administered during the post-ischaemic period. Neuroscience 25(3):847-855
55. Gotti B, Benavides J, MacKenzie ET, Station B (1990) The pharmacotherapy of focal cortical ischaemia in the mouse. Brain Res 522(2):290-307
56. Graham SH, Chen J, Lan J, Leach MJ, Simon RP (1994) Neuroprotective effects of a use-dependent blocker of voltage-dependent sodium channels, BW619C89, in rat middle cerebral artery occlusion. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 269(2):854-859
57. Griffith OW, Stuehr DJ (1995) Nitric oxide synthases: properties and catalytic mechanism. Annu Rev Physiol 57:707-736
58. Grotta J (1997) Lubeluzole treatment of acute ischemic stroke. The US and Canadian Lubeluzole Ischemic Stroke Study Group. Stroke 28(12):2338-2346
59. Hale AJ, Smith CA, Sutherland LC, Stoneman VE, Longthorne VL, Culhane AC, Williams GT (1996) Apoptosis: molecular regulation of cell death (published erratum appears in Eur J Biochem 237(3):884). Eur J Biochem 236(1):1-26
60. Haley EC, Jr., Kassell NF, Alves WM, Weir BK, Hansen CA (1995) Phase II trial of tirilazad in aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. A report of the Cooperative Aneurysm Study. J Neurosurg 82(5):786-790
61. Hamilton AJ, Black PM, Carr DB (1985) Contrasting actions of naloxone in experimental spinal cord trauma and cerebral ischemia: a review. Neurosurgery 17(5):845-849
62. Hara H, Friedlander RM, Gagliardini V, Ayata C, Fink K, Huang Z, Shimizu Sasamata M, Yuan J, Moskowitz MA (1997) Inhibition of interleukin 1beta converting enzyme family proteases reduces ischemic and excitotoxic neuronal damage. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 94(5):2007-2012
63. Hasegawa Y, Fisher M, Baron BM, Metcalf G (1994) The competitive NMDA antagonist MDL-100,453 reduces infarct size after experimental stroke. Stroke 25(6):1241-1244
64. Hayes R, Jenkins LW, Lyeth BG (1992) Neurotransmitter mediated mechanisms of traumatic brain injury: acetylcholine and excitatory amino acids (Abstract). J Neurotrauma 9:173
65. 2+/calmodulin-dependent formation of hydrogen peroxide by brain nitric oxide synthase. Biochem J 281(3):627-630
66. Heiss WD, Ilsen HW, Wagner R, Pawlik G, Weinhard K (1983) Positron emission tomography of the brain. In: Heiss WD, Phelps ME (eds) Remote functional depression of glucose metabolism in stroke and its alteration by activating drugs. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York, pp 162-168
67. Hengartner MO, Horvitz HR (1994) C. elegans cell survival gene ced-9 encodes a functional homolog of the mammalian protooncogene bcl-2. Cell 76(4):665-676
68. Herdegen T, Skene P, Bahr M (1997) The c-Jun transcription factor - bipotential mediator of neuronal death, survival and regeneration. Trends Neurosci 20(5):227-231
69. Hicks D, Heidinger V, Mohand Said S, Sahel J, Dreyfus H (1998) Growth factors and gangliosides as neuroprotective agents in excitotoxicity and ischemia. Gen Pharmacol 30(3):265-273
70. Hirai S, Kawasaki H, Yaniv M, Suzuki K (1991) Degradation of transcription factors, c-Jun and c-Fos, by calpain. FEBS Lett 287(1-2):57-61
71. Holtzman DM, Deshmukh M (1997) Caspases: a treatment target for neurodegenerative disease? (news). Nat Med 3(9):954-955
72. Hu S, Snipas SJ, Vincenz C, Salvesen G, Dixit VM (1998) Caspase-14 is a novel developmentally regulated protease. J Biol Chem 273(45):29648-29653
73. Huang S, Jiang Y, Li Z, Nishida E, Mathias P, Lin S. Ulevitch RJ, Nemerow GR, Han J (1997) Apoptosis signaling pathway in T cells is composed of ICE/Ced-3 family proteases and MAP kinase 6b. Immunity 6(6):739-749
74. Hüll M, Bähr M (1994) Regulation of immediate-early gene expression in rat retinal ganglion cells after axotomy and during regeneration through a peripheral nerve graft. J Neurobiol 25(1):92-105
75. Iadecola C (1997) Bright and dark sides of nitric oxide in ischemic brain injury. Trends Neurosci 20(3):132-139
76. Iadecola C, Pelligrino DA, Moskowitz MA, Lassen NA (1994) Nitric oxide synthase inhibition and cerebrovascular regulation. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 14(2):175-192
77. Isenmann S, Bahr M (1997) Expression of c-Jun protein in degenerating retinal ganglion cells after optic nerve lesion in the rat. Exp Neurol 147(1):28-36
78. Ishimaru H, Takahashi A, Ikarashi Y, Maruyama Y (1998) NGF delays rather than prevents the cholinergic terminal damage and delayed neuronal death in the hippocampus after ischemia. Brain Res 789(2):194-200
79. Ishitani R, Chuang DM (1996) Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase antisense oligodeoxynucleotides protect against cytosine arabinonucleoside-induced apoptosis in cultured cerebellar neurons. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 93(18):9937-9941
80. Kaltschmidt B, Uherek M, Volk B, Baeuerle PA, Kaltschmidt C (1997) Transcription factor NF-kappaB is activated in primary neurons by amyloid beta peptides and in neurons surrounding early plaques from patients with Alzheimer disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 94(6):2642-2647
81. Kampfl A, Posmantur RM, Zhao X, Schmutzhard E, Clifton GL, Hayes RL (1997) Mechanisms of calpain proteolysis following traumatic brain injury: implications for pathology and therapy: implications for pathology and therapy: a review and update. J Neurotrauma 14(3):121-134
82. Katayama Y, Becker DP, Tamura T, Hovda DA (1990) Massive increases in extracellular potassium and the indiscriminate release of glutamate following concussive brain injury. J Neurosurg 73(6):889-900
83. Kermer P, Klocker N, Labes M, Bahr M (1998) Inhibition of CPP32-like proteases rescues axotomized retinal ganglion cells from secondary cell death in vivo. J Neurosci 18(12): 4656-4662
84. Kiessling M, Stumm G, Xie Y, Herdegen T, Aguzzi A, Bravo R, Gass P (1993) Differential transcription and translation of immediate early genes in the gerbil hippocampus after transient global ischemia. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 13(6):914-924
85. Kinoshita M, Tomimoto H, Kinoshita A, Kumar S, Noda M (1997) Up-regulation of the Nedd2 gene encoding an ICE/Ced-3-like cysteine protease in the gerbil brain after transient global ischemia. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 17(5):507-5I4
86. Klöcker N, Braunling F, Isenmann S, Bahr M (1997) In vivo neurotrophic effects of GDNF on axotomized retinal ganglion cells. Neuroreport 8(16):3439-3442
87. Klöcker N, Cellerino A, Bahr M (1998) Free radical scavenging and inhibition of nitric oxide synthase potentiates the neurotrophic effects of brain-derived neurotrophic factor on axotomized retinal ganglion cells in vivo. J Neurosci 18(3): 1038-1046
88. Kochhar A, Zivin JA, Lyden PD, Mazzarella V (1988) Glutamate antagonist therapy reduces neurologic deficits produced by focal central nervous system ischemia. Arch Neurol 45(2): 148-153
89. Koek W, Woods JH, Winger GD (1988) MK-801, a proposed noncompetitive antagonist of excitatory amino acid neurotransmission, produces phencyclidine-like behavioral effects in pigeons, rats and rhesus monkeys. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 245(3):969-974
90. Kuida K, Lippke JA, Ku G, Harding MW, Livingston DJ, Su MS, Flavell RA (1995) Altered cytokine export and apoptosis in mice deficient in interleukin-1 beta converting enzyme. Science 267(5206):2000-2003
91. Kuida K, Zheng TS, Na S, Kuan C, Yang D, Karasuyama H, Rakic P, Flavell RA (1996) Decreased apoptosis in the brain and premature lethality in CPP32-deficient mice. Nature 384(6607): 368-372
92. Kuluz JW, Prado RJ, Dietrich WD, Schleien CL, Watson BD (1993) The effect of nitric oxide synthase inhibition on infarct volume after reversible focal cerebral ischemia in conscious rats. Stroke 24(12):2023-2029
93. Kumar S (1997) The apoptotic cysteine protease CPP32. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 29(3):393-396
94. Kuroda Y, Fujisawa H, Strebel S, Graham DI, Bullock R (1994) Effect of neuroprotective N-methyl-D-aspartate antagonists on increased intracranial pressure: studies in the rat acute subdural hematoma model. Neurosurgery 35(1):106-112
95. Leach MJ, Swan JH, Eisenthal D, Dopson M, Nobbs M (1993) BW619C89, a glutamate release inhibitor, protects against focal cerebral ischemic damage (see comments). Stroke 24(7): 1063-1067
96. Lee FS, Hagler J, Chen ZJ, Maniatis T (1997) Activation of the I-kappaB alpha kinase complex by MEKK1, a kinase of the JNK pathway. Cell 88(2):213-222
97. Lenzi GL, Grigoletto F, Gent M, Roberts RS, Walker MD, Easton JD, Carolei A, Dorsey FC, Rocca WA, Bruno R, et al. (1994) Early treatment of stroke with monosialoganglioside GM-1. Efficacy and safety results of the Early Stroke Trial. Stroke 25(8):1552-1558
98. Leon A, Lipartiti M, Seren MS, Lazzaro A, Mazzari S, Koga T, Toffano G, Skaper SD (1990) Hypoxic-ischemic damage and the neuroprotective effects of GM1 ganglioside. Stroke [Suppl 11] 21:95-97
99. Leung LW, Desborough KA (1988) APV, an N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antagonist, blocks the hippocampal theta rhythm in behaving rats. Brain Res 463(1):148-152
100. Li L, Oppenheim RW, Lei M, Houenou LJ (1994) Neurotrophic agents prevent motoneuron death following sciatic nerve section in the neonatal mouse. J Neurobiol 25(7):759-766
101. Li P, Allen H, Banerjee S, Franklin S, Herzog L, Johnston C, McDowell J, Paskind M, Rodman L, Salfeld J, et al (1995) Mice deficient in IL-1 beta-converting enzyme are defective in production of mature IL-1 beta and resistant to endotoxic shock. Cell 80(3):401-411
102. Limburg M (1996) Very early nimodipine use in stroke - The first 100 patients - cooperation between GPs and neurologists (abstract). Stroke 27:172
103. Linnik MD, Zobrist RH, Hatfield MD (1993) Evidence supporting a role for programmed cell death in focal cerebral ischemia in rats. Stroke 24(12):2002-2008
104. Lipton SA, Choi YB, Pan ZH, Lei SZ, Chen HS, Sucher NJ, Loscalzo J, Singel DJ, Stamler JS (1993) A redox-based mechanism for the neuroprotective and neurodestructive effects of nitric oxide and related nitroso-compounds (see comments). Nature 364(6438):626-632
105. Lucas DR, Newhouse JP (1957) The toxic effect of sodium L-glutamate on the inner layers of the retina. Arch Opthalmol 58193-58201
106. 1 receptor agonist or antagonist in cerebral ischemia. Eur J Pharmacol 256(2):161-167
107. Lyden PD, Hedges B (1992) Protective effect of synaptic inhibition during cerebral ischemia in rats and rabbits. Stroke 23(10):1463-1469
108. Manev H, Costa E, Wroblewski JT, Guidotti A (1990) Abusive stimulation of excitatory amino acid receptors: a strategy to limit neurotoxicity. FASEB J 4(10):2789-2797
109. Mansour-Robaey S, Clarke DB, Wang YC, Bray GM, Aguayo AJ (1994) Effects of ocular injury and administration of brain-derived neurotrophic factor on survival and regrowth of axotomized retinal ganglion cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 91(5):1632-1636
110. Manzoni O, Prezeau L, Marin P, Deshager S, Bockaert J, Fagni L (1992) Nitric oxide-induced blockade of NMDA receptors. Neuron 8(4):653-662
111. Martinou JC, Sadoul R (1996) ICE-like proteases execute the neuronal death program. Curr Opin Neurobiol 6(5):609-614
112. Mattson MP, Scheff SW (1994) Endogenous neuroprotection factors and traumatic brain injury: mechanisms of action and implications for therapy. J Neurotrauma 11(1):3-33
113. Mattson MP, Goodman Y, Luo H, Fu W, Furukawa K (1997) Activation of NF-kappaB protects hippocampal neurons against oxidative stress-induced apoptosis: evidence for induction of manganese Superoxide dismutase and suppression of peroxynitrite production and protein tyrosine nitration. J Neurosci Res 49(6):681-697
114. McIntosh TK, Vink R, Soares H, Hayes R, Simon R (1990) Effect of noncompetitive blockade of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors on the neurochemical sequelae of experimental brain injury. J Neurochem 55(4):1170-1179
115. Meadows MW, Fisher M, Minematsu K (1994) Delayed treatment with a non-competitive NMDA antagonist. CNS 1102, reduces infarct size in rats. Cerebrovasc Dis 4:26-31
116. Meldrum B (1990) Protection against ischaemic neuronal damage by drugs acting on excitatory neurotransmission. Cerebrovasc Brain Metab Rev 2(1):27-57
117. Melloni E, Pontremoli S (1989) The calpains. Trends Neurosci 12(11):438-444
118. Merry DE, Korsmeyer SJ (1997) Bcl-2 gene family in the nervous system. Annu Rev Neurosci 20:1978-1982
119. Mey J, Thanos S (1993) Intravitreal injections of neurotrophic factors support the survival of axotomized retinal ganglion cells in adult rats in vivo. Brain Res 602(2):304-317
120. Milligan CE, Prevette D, Yaginuma H, Homma S, Cardwell C, Fritz LC, Tomaselli KJ, Oppenheim RW, Schwartz, LM (1995) Peptide inhibitors of the ICE protease family arrest programmed cell death of motoneurons in vivo and in vitro. Neuron 15(2):385-393
121. Mohr JP, Orgogozo JM, Harrison MJG, Wahlgren NG, Gelmers JH, Martinez-Vila E, Dycka J, Tettenborn D (1994) Meta-analysis of oral nimodipine trials in acute ischemic stroke. Cerebrovasc Dis 4:197-203
122. Mohr S, Zech B, Lapetina EG, Brune B (1997) Inhibition of caspase-3 by S-nitrosation and oxidation caused by nitric oxide. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 238(2):387-391
123. Muir KW, Hamilton SJ, Lunnon MW, Hobbiger S, Lees KR (1998) Safety and tolerability of 619C89 after acute stroke. Cerebrovasc Dis 8(1):31-37
124. Nagafuji T, Matsui T, Koide T, Asano T (1992) Blockade of nitric oxide formation by N-omega-nitro-L-arginine mitigates ischemic brain edema and subsequent cerebral infarction in rats. Neurosci Lett 147(2):159-162
125. Nakata N, Kato H, Kogure K (1993) Protective effects of basic fibroblast growth factor against hippocampal neuronal damage following cerebral ischemia in the gerbil. Brain Res 605(2): 354-356
126. Namura S, Zhu J, Fink K, Endres M, Srinivasan A, Tomaselli KJ, Yuan J, Moskowitz MA (1998) Activation and cleavage of caspase-3 in apoptosis induced by experimental cerebral ischemia. J Neurosci 18(10):3659-3668
127. Naumann T, Kermer P, Seydewitz V, Ortmann R, D'Amato F, Frotscher M (1994) Is there a long-lasting effect of a short-term nerve growth factor application on axotomized rat septo-hippocampal neurons? Neurosci Lett 173(1-2):213-215
128. Nicholson DW, Thornberry NA (1997) Caspases: killer proteases. Trends Biochem Sci 22(8):299-306
129. Nicholson DW, Ali A, Thornberry NA, Vaillancourt JP, Ding CK, Gallant M, Gareau Y, Griffin PR, Labelle M, Lazebnik YA, et al. (1995) Identification and inhibition of the ICE/CED-3 protease necessary for mammalian apoptosis (see comments). Nature 376(6535):37-43
130. Nowicki JP, Duval D, Poignet H, Scatton B (1991) Nitric oxide mediates neuronal death after focal cerebral ischemia in the mouse. Eur J Pharmacol 204(3):339-340
131. Ochs G, Schrank B, Toyka K, Sendtner M (1997) Neurotrophic factors in the treatment of neurologic diseases. Aktuelle Neurol 24(4):170-174
132. Ogura T, Tatemichi M, Esumi H (1997) Nitric oxide inhibits CPP32-like activity under redox regulation. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 236(2):365-369
133. Olah ME, Stiles GL (1995) Adenosine receptor subtypes: characterization and therapeutic regulation. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 35:581-606
134. Olney JW, Sharpe LG (1969) Brain lesions in an infant rhesus monkey treated with monsodium glutamate. Science 166(903): 386-388
135. Olney JW, Ho OL, Rhee V (1971) Cytotoxic effects of acidic and sulphur containing amino acids on the infant mouse central nervous system. Exp Brain Res 14(1):61-76
136. Olney JW, Labruyere J, Price MT (1989) Pathological changes induced in cerebrocortical neurons by phencyclidine and related drugs (see comments). Science 244(4910):1360-1362
137. O'Neill LA, Kaltschmidt C (1997) NF-kappa B: a crucial transcription factor for glial and neuronal cell function. Trends Neurosci 20(6):252-258
138. Ozyurt E, Graham DI, Woodruff GN, McCulloch J (1988) Protective effect of the glutamate antagonist, MK-801 in focal cerebral ischemia in the cal. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 8(1): 138-143
139. Park CK, Nehls DG, Graham DI, Teasdale GM, McCulloch J (1988a) The glutamate antagonist MK-801 reduces focal ischemic brain damage in the rat. Ann Neurol 24(4):543-551
140. Park CK, Nehls DG, Graham DI, Teasdale GM, McCulloch J (1988b) Focal cerebral ischaemia in the cat: treatment with the glutamate antagonist MK-801 after induction of ischaemia. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 8(5):757-762
141. Park CK, Nehls DG, Teasdale GM, McCulloch J (1989) Effect of the NMDA antagonist MK-801 on local cerebral blood flow in focal cerebral ischaemia in the rat. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 9(5):617-622
142. Peinado-Ramon P, Salvador M, Villegas Perez MP, Vidal Sanz. M (1996) Effects of axotomy and intraocular administration of NT-4, NT-3, and brain-derived neurotrophic factor on the survival of adult rat retinal ganglion cells. A quantitative in vivo study. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 37(4):489-500
143. Pelligrino DA, Koenig HM, Albrecht RF (1993) Nitric oxide synthesis and regional cerebral blood flow responses to hypercapnia and hypoxia in the rat. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 13(1):80-87
144. Posmantur R, Kampfl A, Siman R, Liu J, Zhao X, Clifton GL, Hayes RL (1997) A calpain inhibitor attenuates cortical cytoskeletal protein loss after experimental traumatic brain injury in the rat. Neuroscience 77(3):875-888
145. Reddy NL, Hu LY, Cotter RE, Fischer JB, Wong WJ, McBurney RN, Weber E, Holmes DL, Wong ST, Prasad R, et al. (1994) Synthesis and structure-activity studies of N,N′-diarylguanidine derivatives. N-(1-naphthyl)-N′-(3-ethylphenyl)-N′-methylguanidine: a new, selective noncompetitive NMDA receptor antagonist. J Med Chem 37(2):260-267
146. Russelakis-Carneiro M, Silveira LC, Perry VH (1996) Factors affecting the survival of cat retinal ganglion cells after optic nerve injury. J Neurocytol 25(6):393-402
147. Saido TC, Sorimachi H, Suzuki K (1994) Calpain: new perspectives in molecular diversity and physiological-pathological involvement. FASEB J 8(11):814-822
148. Schabitz WR, Schwab S, Spranger M, Hacke W (1997) Intraventricular brain-derived neurotrophic factor reduces infarct size after focal cerebral ischemia in rats. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 17(5):500-506
149. Schmitt U, Sabel BA (1996) MK-801 reduces retinal ganglion cell survival but improves visual performance after controlled optic nerve crush. J Neurotrauma 13(12):791-800
150. Schulz JB, Beal MF (1995) Neuroprotective effects of free radical scavengers and energy repletion in animal models of neurodegenerative disease. Ann NY Acad Sci 765:100-110
151. Schulz JB, Matthews RT, Jenkins BG, Brar P, Beal MF (1995) Improved therapeutic window for treatment of histoloxic hypoxia with a free radical spin trap. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 15(6):948-952
152. Sen S, Phillis JW (1993) Alpha-phenyl-tert-butyl-nitrone (PBN) attenuates hydroxyl radical production during ischemia-reperfusion injury of rat brain: an EPR study. Free Radic Res Commun 19:255-265
153. Sharkey J, Crawford JH, Butcher SP, Marston HM (1996) Tacrolimus (FK506) ameliorates skilled motor deficits produced by middle cerebral artery occlusion in rats. Stroke 27(12): 2282-2286
154. Shiga Y, Onodera H, Matsuo Y, Kogure K (1992) Cyclosporin A protects against ischemia-reperfusion injury in the brain. Brain Res 595(1):145-148
155. Siliprandi R, Canella R, Carmignoto G (1993) Nerve growth factor promotes functional recovery of retinal ganglion cells after ischemia. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 34(12):3232-3245
156. Simpson RE, O'Regan MH, Perkins LM, Phillis JW (1992) Excitatory transmitter amino acid release from the ischemic rat cerebral cortex: effects of adenosine receptor agonists and antagonists. J Neurochem 58(5):1683-1690
157. Smith SE, Hodges H, Sowinski P, Man CM, Leach MJ, Sinden JD, Gray JA, Meldrum BS (1997) Long-term beneficial effects of BW619C89 on neurological deficit, cognitive deficit and brain damage after middle cerebral artery occlusion in the rat. Neuroscience 77(4):1123-1135
158. So HS, Park RK, Kim MS, Lee SR, Jung BH, Chung SY, Jun CD, Chung HT (1998) Nitric oxide inhibits c-Jun N-terminal kinase 2 (JNK 2) via S-nitrosylation. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 247:809-813
159. Sollevi A (1986) Cardiovascular effects of adenosine in man; possible clinical implications. Prog Neurobiol 27(4):319-349
160. Squier MK, Cohen JJ (1997) Calpain, an upstream regulator of thymocyte apoptosis. J Immunol 158(8):3690-3697
161. Squire IB, Lees KR, Pryse Phillips W, Kertesz A, Bamford J (1995) Efficacy and tolerability of lifarizine in acute ischemic stroke. A pilot study. Lifarizine Study Group. Ann NY Acad Sci 765:317-318
162. Steinberg GK, George CP, DeLaPaz, R, Shibata DK, Gross T (1988a) Dextromethorphan protects against cerebral injury following transient focal ischemia in rabbits. Stroke 19(9):1112-1118
163. Steinberg GK, Saleh J, Kunis D (1988b) Delayed treatment with dextromethorphan and dextrorphan reduces cerebral damage after transient focal ischemia. Neurosci Lett 89(2):193-197
164. Steinberg GK, Saleh J, Kunis D, DeLaPaz R, Zarnegar SR (1989) Protective effect of N-methyl-D-aspartate antagonists after focal cerebral ischemia in rabbits. Stroke 20(9):1247-1252
165. Suzuki K, Sorimachi H, Yoshizawa T, Kinbara K, Ishiura S (1995) Calpain: novel family members, activation, and physiologic function. Biol Chem Hoppe Seyler 376(9):523-529
166. Sweeney MI (1997) Neuroprotective effects of adenosine in cerebral ischemia: window of opportunity. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 21(2):207-217
167. Sydserff SG, Cross AJ, Green AR (1995) The neuroprotective effect of chlormethiazole on ischaemic neuronal damage following permanent middle cerebral artery ischaemia in the rat. Neurodegeneration 4(3):323-328
168. Tazaki Y, Sakai F, Otomo E, Kutsuzawa T, Kameyama M, Omae T, Fujishima M, Sakuma A (1988) Treatment of acute cerebral infarction with a choline precursor in a multicenter double-blind placebo-controlled study. Stroke 19(2):211-216
169. Thornberry NA, Lazebnik Y (1998) Caspases: enemies within. Science 281(5381):1312-1316
170. Tuor UI (1997)Glucocorticoids and the prevention of hypoxic-ischemic brain damage. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 21(2):175-179
171. Turrini R (1996) A pivotal safety and efficacy of Cerestat (Aptiganel HCL/CNS 1102) in acute ischemic stroke patients (abstract). Stroke 27:173
172. Unoki K, LaVail MM (1994) Protection of the rat retina from ischemic injury by brain-derived neurotrophic factor, ciliary neurotrophic factor, and basic fibroblast growth factor. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 35(3):907-915
173. Wahlgren NG (1997) Neuroprotection in acute cerebral ischemia. In: Castillo J, Dávalos A, Toni D (eds) Management of acute ischemic stroke. Springer, Barcelona, pp 207-225
174. Wahlgren NG, MucMahon D, DeKeyser J, Indredavik B, Ryman T (1994) Intravenous Nimodipine West European Stroke Trial (INWEST) of nimodipine in the treatment of acute stroke. Cerebrovasc Dis 4:204-210
175. Wang KK, Villalobo A, Roufogalis BD (1989) Calmodulin-binding proteins as calpain substrates. Biochem J 262(3):693-706
176. Warkins JC, Olverman HJ (1998) Agonists and antagonists for excitatory amino acid receptors. Trends Neurosci 10:265-272
177. Xia Y, Zweier JL (1997) Direct measurement of nitric oxide generation from nitric oxide synthase. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 94(23):12705-12710
178. Xue D, Slivka A, Buchan AM (1992) Tirilazad reduces cortical infarction after transient but not permanent focal cerebral ischemia in rats. Stroke 23(6):894-899
179. Yakovlev AG, Knoblach SM, Fan L, Fox GB, Goodnight R, Faden AI (1997) Activation of CPP32-like caspases contributes to neuronal apoptosis and neurological dysfunction after traumatic brain injury. J Neurosci 17(19):7415-7424
180. Yamaguchi T, Sano K, Takakura K, Saito I, Shinohara Y, Asano T, Yasuhara H (1998) Ebselen in acute ischemic stroke: a place-bo-controlled, double-blind clinical trial. Ebselen Study Group. Stroke 29(1):12-7
181. Yamamoto S, Golanov EV, Berger SB, Reis DJ (1992) Inhibition of nitric oxide synthesis increases focal ischemic infarction in rat. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 12(5):717-726
182. Yuan J, Shaham S, Ledoux S, Ellis HM, Horvitz HR (1993) The C. elegans cell death gene ced-3 encodes a protein similar to mammalian interleukin-1 beta-converting enzyme. Cell 75(4): 641-652
183. Yue TL, Gu JL, Lysko PG, Cheng HY, Barone FC, Feuerstein G (1992) Neuroprotective effects of phenyl-t-butyl-nitrone in gerbil global brain ischemia and in cultured rat cerebellar neurons. Brain Res 574(1-2):193-197
184. Zalewska T (1996) Calpain as proposed target for neuroprotective treatment of brain ischemia. Folia Neuropathol 34(3):121-127
185. Zauner A, Bullock R (1995) The role of excitatory amino acids in severe brain trauma: opportunities for therapy: a review. J Neurotrauma 12(4):547-554
186. Zhang F, Iadecola C (1993) Nitroprusside improves blood flow, and reduces brain damage after focal ischemia. Neuroreport 4(5):559-562
187. Zhang RL, Chopp M, Li Y, Zaloga C, Jiang N, Jones ML, Miyasaka M, Ward PA (1994) Anti-ICAM-1 antibody reduces ischemic cell damage after transient middle cerebral artery occlusion in the rat. Neurology 44(9):1747-1751
188. Zhivotovsky B, Burgess DH, Vanags DM, Orrenius S (1997) Involvement of cellular proteolytic machinery in apoptosis. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 230(3):481-488
189. Zoppo GJ del, Wagner S, Tagaya M (1997) Trends and future developments in the pharmacological treatment of acute ischaemic stroke. Drugs 54(1):9-38
190. Zou H, Henzel WJ, Liu X, Lutschg A, Wang X (1997) Apaf-1, a human protein homologous to C. elegans CED-4, participates in cytochrome c-dependent activation of caspase-3 (see comments). Cell 90(3):405-413
191. Zvviener U, Bauer R, Bergmann R, Eiselt M (1991) Experimental and clinical main forms of hypoxic-ischaemic brain damage and their monitoring. Exp Pathol 42(4): 187-196