Textbook citizens: Education for democracy and political culture in El Salvador

Democratization

Volumn 6, Issue 3, 1999, Pages 62-83

  Taylor, Lucy ^a  

^a ABERYSTWYTH UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

DEMOCRATIZATION; NATIONAL POLITICS; POLITICAL PARTICIPATION; POLITICAL SYSTEM;

EL SALVADOR;

EID: 0032747068     PISSN: 13510347     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/13510349908403621     Document Type: Article

References (84)

1. These debates have been covered by, among many others, Norberto Bobbio, Liberalism and Democracy (London: Verso Press, 1990); Robert Dahl, Democracy and its Critics New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1989); David Held, Models of Democracy, First Edition (Oxford: Polity Press, 1987); Philippe C. Schmitter and Terry Lynn Karl, 'What democracy is ... and is not' Journal of Democracy, Vol.2, No.3 (1991), pp.75-88.
2. These debates have been covered by, among many others, Norberto Bobbio, Liberalism and Democracy (London: Verso Press, 1990); Robert Dahl, Democracy and its Critics New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1989); David Held, Models of Democracy, First Edition (Oxford: Polity Press, 1987); Philippe C. Schmitter and Terry Lynn Karl, 'What democracy is ... and is not' Journal of Democracy, Vol.2, No.3 (1991), pp.75-88.
3. These debates have been covered by, among many others, Norberto Bobbio, Liberalism and Democracy (London: Verso Press, 1990); Robert Dahl, Democracy and its Critics New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1989); David Held, Models of Democracy, First Edition (Oxford: Polity Press, 1987); Philippe C. Schmitter and Terry Lynn Karl, 'What democracy is ... and is not' Journal of Democracy, Vol.2, No.3 (1991), pp.75-88.
4. These debates have been covered by, among many others, Norberto Bobbio, Liberalism and Democracy (London: Verso Press, 1990); Robert Dahl, Democracy and its Critics New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1989); David Held, Models of Democracy, First Edition (Oxford: Polity Press, 1987); Philippe C. Schmitter and Terry Lynn Karl, 'What democracy is ... and is not' Journal of Democracy, Vol.2, No.3 (1991), pp.75-88.
5. Lucy Taylor, Citizenship, Participation and Democracy: changing dynamics in Chile and Argentina (Basingstoke: Macmillan Press, 1998).
6. Terry Lynn Karl, 'The Hybrid Regimes of Central America', Journal of Democracy, Vol.6, No.3 (1995), pp.72-86; Alvaro de Soto and Graciano del Castillo, 'Obstacles to Peacebuilding', Foreign Policy, No.94 (1994), pp.69-83; Richard Stahler-Sholk, 'El Salvador's Negotiated Transition: from Low Intensity Conflict to Low Intensity Democracy', Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs, Vol.36, No.4 (1989), pp.1-57.
7. Terry Lynn Karl, 'The Hybrid Regimes of Central America', Journal of Democracy, Vol.6, No.3 (1995), pp.72-86; Alvaro de Soto and Graciano del Castillo, 'Obstacles to Peacebuilding', Foreign Policy, No.94 (1994), pp.69-83; Richard Stahler-Sholk, 'El Salvador's Negotiated Transition: from Low Intensity Conflict to Low Intensity Democracy', Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs, Vol.36, No.4 (1989), pp.1-57.
8. Terry Lynn Karl, 'The Hybrid Regimes of Central America', Journal of Democracy, Vol.6, No.3 (1995), pp.72-86; Alvaro de Soto and Graciano del Castillo, 'Obstacles to Peacebuilding', Foreign Policy, No.94 (1994), pp.69-83; Richard Stahler-Sholk, 'El Salvador's Negotiated Transition: from Low Intensity Conflict to Low Intensity Democracy', Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs, Vol.36, No.4 (1989), pp.1-57.
9. G.A. Almond and S. Verba, The Civic Culture (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1963); L.W. Pye and S. Verba, Political Culture and Political Development (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1965).
10. G.A. Almond and S. Verba, The Civic Culture (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1963); L.W. Pye and S. Verba, Political Culture and Political Development (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1965).
11. Samuel P. Huntington, The Third Wave: Democratization in the late Twentieth Century (Norman, OK and London: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991); Samuel P. Huntington 'Democracy for the Long Haul', in Larry Diamond, Marc F. Plattner, Yun-han Chu and Hung-mao Tien (eds.), Consolidating the Third Wave Democracies (Baltimore, MD and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), pp.3-13; Seymour Martin Lipset, Political Man, Second Edition (London: Heinemann, 1983).
12. Samuel P. Huntington, The Third Wave: Democratization in the late Twentieth Century (Norman, OK and London: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991); Samuel P. Huntington 'Democracy for the Long Haul', in Larry Diamond, Marc F. Plattner, Yun-han Chu and Hung-mao Tien (eds.), Consolidating the Third Wave Democracies (Baltimore, MD and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), pp.3-13; Seymour Martin Lipset, Political Man, Second Edition (London: Heinemann, 1983).
13. Samuel P. Huntington, The Third Wave: Democratization in the late Twentieth Century (Norman, OK and London: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991); Samuel P. Huntington 'Democracy for the Long Haul', in Larry Diamond, Marc F. Plattner, Yun-han Chu and Hung-mao Tien (eds.), Consolidating the Third Wave Democracies (Baltimore, MD and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), pp.3-13; Seymour Martin Lipset, Political Man, Second Edition (London: Heinemann, 1983).
14. See, for example, contributions to the following edited volumes: Ken Booth and Russell Trood (eds.), Strategic Cultures in the Asia-Pacific Region (Basingstoke, Macmillan, 1998); Peter J. Katzenstein (ed.), Culture of National Security: Norms and Identity in World Politics (Columbia, NY: Columbia University Press, 1996).
15. See, for example, contributions to the following edited volumes: Ken Booth and Russell Trood (eds.), Strategic Cultures in the Asia-Pacific Region (Basingstoke, Macmillan, 1998); Peter J. Katzenstein (ed.), Culture of National Security: Norms and Identity in World Politics (Columbia, NY: Columbia University Press, 1996).
16. Theo Farrell, 'Figuring out Fighting Organisations: the New Organisational Analysis in Strategic Studies', The Journal of Strategic Studies, Vol.19, No.1 (1996), pp.122-35.
17. Larry Diamond (ed.), Political Culture and Democracy in Developing Countries (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1994), p.244.
18. Lucy Taylor, 'Citizenship and Political Culture: Building Democracies from the Inside Out', paper presented at Society of Latin American Studies annual conference, 9-11 April 1999, Centre of Latin American Studies, University of Cambridge.
19. Liisa North, Bitter Grounds: Roots of Revolt in El Salvador (Toronto: Between the Lines Press, 1981); Jeffrey Paige, 'Coffee and Power in El Salvador', Latin American Research Review, Vol.28, No.3 (1993), pp.7-40.
20. Liisa North, Bitter Grounds: Roots of Revolt in El Salvador (Toronto: Between the Lines Press, 1981); Jeffrey Paige, 'Coffee and Power in El Salvador', Latin American Research Review, Vol.28, No.3 (1993), pp.7-40.
21. Victor Bulmer-Thomas, A Political Economy of Central America since 1920 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987); James Dunkerley, The Long War: Dictatorship and Revolution in El Salvador (London: Junction Books, 1982), pp.7-31; Tommie Sue Montgomery, Revolution in El Salvador: from Civil Strife to Civil Peace, Second Edition (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1994), pp.23-50.
22. Victor Bulmer-Thomas, A Political Economy of Central America since 1920 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987); James Dunkerley, The Long War: Dictatorship and Revolution in El Salvador (London: Junction Books, 1982), pp.7-31; Tommie Sue Montgomery, Revolution in El Salvador: from Civil Strife to Civil Peace, Second Edition (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1994), pp.23-50.
23. Victor Bulmer-Thomas, A Political Economy of Central America since 1920 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987); James Dunkerley, The Long War: Dictatorship and Revolution in El Salvador (London: Junction Books, 1982), pp.7-31; Tommie Sue Montgomery, Revolution in El Salvador: from Civil Strife to Civil Peace, Second Edition (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1994), pp.23-50.
24. Jenny Pearce, Under the Eagle: US Intervention in Central America and the Caribbean (London: South End Press, 1981); Thomas M. Leonard, Central America and the United States: the Search for Stability (Athens, GA and London: University of Georgia Press, 1991), pp.146-90.
25. Jenny Pearce, Under the Eagle: US Intervention in Central America and the Caribbean (London: South End Press, 1981); Thomas M. Leonard, Central America and the United States: the Search for Stability (Athens, GA and London: University of Georgia Press, 1991), pp.146-90.
26. T. David Mason, 'Land Reform and the Breakdown of Clientelist Politics in El Salvador', Comparative Political Studies, Vol.18 No.4 (1986), pp.487-516.
27. Joe Fish and Cristina Sganga, El Salvador: Testament of Terror (London: Zed Books, 1988); Montgomery, op. cit., pp.127-54.
28. Joe Fish and Cristina Sganga, El Salvador: Testament of Terror (London: Zed Books, 1988); Montgomery, op. cit., pp.127-54.
29. Mason, op cit.; Héctor Pérez Brignoli, 'Indians, Communists and Peasants: the 1932 Rebellion in El Salvador', in William Roseberry, Lowell Gudmundson and Mario Samper Kutschbach (eds.), Coffee, Society and Power in Latin America (Baltimore, MD and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), pp.232-61.
30. Mason, op cit.; Héctor Pérez Brignoli, 'Indians, Communists and Peasants: the 1932 Rebellion in El Salvador', in William Roseberry, Lowell Gudmundson and Mario Samper Kutschbach (eds.), Coffee, Society and Power in Latin America (Baltimore, MD and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), pp.232-61.
31. Jose Z. Garcia, 'El Salvador: Recent Elections in Historical Perspective', in John A. Booth and Mitchell A. Seligson, Elections and Democracy in Central America (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1989); Montgomery, op. cit., pp.155-84.
32. Jose Z. Garcia, 'El Salvador: Recent Elections in Historical Perspective', in John A. Booth and Mitchell A. Seligson, Elections and Democracy in Central America (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1989); Montgomery, op. cit., pp.155-84.
33. Dunkerley, op. cit., pp.87-102; Robert S. Leiken, The Salvadoran Left', in Robert S. Leiken (ed.), Central America: Anatomy of a Conflict (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1984), pp.111-30.
34. Dunkerley, op. cit., pp.87-102; Robert S. Leiken, The Salvadoran Left', in Robert S. Leiken (ed.), Central America: Anatomy of a Conflict (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1984), pp.111-30.
35. Garcia, op. cit.; George C. Herring, 'The Consequences of Excluding Reformists from Power', in Kenneth M. Coleman and George C. Herring (eds.), The Central American Crisis: Sources of Conflict and the Failure of U.S. Policy (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources Inc., 1985), pp.73-96; Alastair White, El Salvador (London and Tonbridge: Ernest Benn, 1973), pp.192-258.
36. Garcia, op. cit.; George C. Herring, 'The Consequences of Excluding Reformists from Power', in Kenneth M. Coleman and George C. Herring (eds.), The Central American Crisis: Sources of Conflict and the Failure of U.S. Policy (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources Inc., 1985), pp.73-96; Alastair White, El Salvador (London and Tonbridge: Ernest Benn, 1973), pp.192-258.
37. Garcia, op. cit.; George C. Herring, 'The Consequences of Excluding Reformists from Power', in Kenneth M. Coleman and George C. Herring (eds.), The Central American Crisis: Sources of Conflict and the Failure of U.S. Policy (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources Inc., 1985), pp.73-96; Alastair White, El Salvador (London and Tonbridge: Ernest Benn, 1973), pp.192-258.
38. R. Cardenal, 'The Collapse of the Salvadoran State (Analysis of the Truth Commission Findings)', Journal of Third World Studies, Vol.11 (Spring 1994), pp.114-53; Human Rights Watch El Salvador, Accountability and Human Rights: the Report of the United Nations Commission on the Truth for El Salvador, Vol.V, Issue 7, 10 Aug. 1993.
39. R. Cardenal, 'The Collapse of the Salvadoran State (Analysis of the Truth Commission Findings)', Journal of Third World Studies, Vol.11 (Spring 1994), pp.114-53; Human Rights Watch El Salvador, Accountability and Human Rights: the Report of the United Nations Commission on the Truth for El Salvador, Vol.V, Issue 7, 10 Aug. 1993.
40. Dunkerley, op. cit.; Mason, op. cit.; Brignoli, op. cit.
41. Dunkerley, op. cit.; Mason, op. cit.; Brignoli, op. cit.
42. Dunkerley, op. cit.; Mason, op. cit.; Brignoli, op. cit.
43. Primarily the FMLN, an FMLN breakaway faction called the Partido Demócrata and a coalition emerging from the FDR (Frente Democrático Revolucionario), named Convergencia Democrática. See Montgomery, op. cit., pp.101-26; Joaquín Villalobos, 'A Democratic Revolution for El Salvador', Foreign Policy, No.74 (Spring 1989), pp.103-22; Rubén Zamora and Shafik Handal, 'Proposal for the FMLN/FDR', Latin American Perspectives, Vol.14 (Fall 1987), pp.481-6.
44. Primarily the FMLN, an FMLN breakaway faction called the Partido Demócrata and a coalition emerging from the FDR (Frente Democrático Revolucionario), named Convergencia Democrática. See Montgomery, op. cit., pp.101-26; Joaquín Villalobos, 'A Democratic Revolution for El Salvador', Foreign Policy, No.74 (Spring 1989), pp.103-22; Rubén Zamora and Shafik Handal, 'Proposal for the FMLN/FDR', Latin American Perspectives, Vol.14 (Fall 1987), pp.481-6.
45. Primarily the FMLN, an FMLN breakaway faction called the Partido Demócrata and a coalition emerging from the FDR (Frente Democrático Revolucionario), named Convergencia Democrática. See Montgomery, op. cit., pp.101-26; Joaquín Villalobos, 'A Democratic Revolution for El Salvador', Foreign Policy, No.74 (Spring 1989), pp.103-22; Rubén Zamora and Shafik Handal, 'Proposal for the FMLN/FDR', Latin American Perspectives, Vol.14 (Fall 1987), pp.481-6.
46. Ian Johnstone, Rights and Reconciliation: UN Strategies in El Salvador (Boulder, CO and London: Lynne Rienner, 1995); Terry Lynn Karl, 'El Salvador's Negotiated Revolution', Foreign Affairs, Vol.71, No.2 (1992), pp.147-64; United Nations, The United Nations and El Salvador 1990-1995 (New York: United Nations Department of Public Information, 1995).
47. Ian Johnstone, Rights and Reconciliation: UN Strategies in El Salvador (Boulder, CO and London: Lynne Rienner, 1995); Terry Lynn Karl, 'El Salvador's Negotiated Revolution', Foreign Affairs, Vol.71, No.2 (1992), pp.147-64; United Nations, The United Nations and El Salvador 1990-1995 (New York: United Nations Department of Public Information, 1995).
48. Ian Johnstone, Rights and Reconciliation: UN Strategies in El Salvador (Boulder, CO and London: Lynne Rienner, 1995); Terry Lynn Karl, 'El Salvador's Negotiated Revolution', Foreign Affairs, Vol.71, No.2 (1992), pp.147-64; United Nations, The United Nations and El Salvador 1990-1995 (New York: United Nations Department of Public Information, 1995).
49. NGO Coordinator, ISD (Iniciativa Social por 1a Democracia), San Salvador, 13 May 1998.
50. Director, CODEFAM (Comité de Familiares de Victimas de las Violaciones de los Derechos Humanos), San Salvador, 8 May 1998.
51. FESPAD, '¡Anótate un buen puntaje! Certamen Nacional de Derechos Humanos' (leaflet) San Salvador: FESPAD (1996).
52. Interview, ISD, 13 May 1998.
53. Ministerio de Educacín, Guía Metodológica para la Educación en Civismo Ministerio de Educación, Gobierno de El Salvador (1998), pp.4-14.
54. Interview, Information Coordinator, FESPAD (Fundación de Estudios para la Aplicación del Derecho), San Salvador, 11 May 1998; interview, National Coordinator of Curriculum Design, San Salvador, 8 May 1998.
55. National Coordinator of Curriculum Design 8/5/98.
56. Ministerio de Educación, 'Aprendizaje Interactivo y Cooperative' and 'Autoritarismo Cambiando a Participación', in Clase: Revista Informativa del Ministerio de Educación Ministerio de Educación, Gobierno de El Salvador, Jan. 1998.
57. For example, La Prensa Gráfica, 'Practiquemos valores morales y civicos!', 7 May 1998, pp.58-9. These were for students in grades four, five and six, and the pull-out included dot-to-dot, a maze, a picture to colour and ludo.
58. Ministerio de Educación Guía ... , 1997, p.17.
59. Interview, Information Coordinator, FESPAD (Fundación de Estudios para 1a Aplicación del Derecho), San Salvador, 11 May 1998.
60. FESPAD, 1996.
61. Interview, Director, FUNSALPRODESE (Fundación Salvadoreña en Pro de los Derechos Socio-Economicos), San Salvador, 1 May 1998.
62. Interview, Co-director CPDH (Comisión Permanente por los Derechos Humanos), San Salvador, 20 May 1998. Also, CDHES (Comision de Derechos Humanos de El Salvador) utilizes a system of promoters, in collaboration with the Procuraduria de Derechos Humanos (the Human Rights Ombudsman's Office). Interview, President CDHES, San Salvador, 20 May 1998.
63. Interview ISD, 13 May 1998.
64. Ibid.
65. All political parties interviewed concurred that this was a serious problem. Interviews: Ana Guadelupe Martínez (Partido Demócrata), San Salvador, 11 May 1998; Maria Marta Valladares (FMLN), San Salvador, 11 May 1998; Juan Villacorta (Convergencia Democrática) San Salvador, 18 May 1998; Ricardo Vega (Partido Demócrata Cristiana) San Salvador, 18 May 1998; René Figueroa (Arena) San Salvador, 19 May 1998; Kirio Waldo Salgado (Partido Liberal Democrático) San Salvador, 20 May 1998.
66. Interview, Projects Director, IDHUCA (Instituto de Derechos Humanos de la Universidad de Centro America), San Salvador, 15 May 1998.
67. Interview, Co-director CPDH (Comisión Permanente de Derechos Humanos) San Salvador, 20 May 1998.
68. Ibid.
69. Interview, IDHUCA, 15 May 1998.
70. Interview, ISD, 13 May 1998.
71. Juan Villacorta (Deputy) Convergencia Democratica: San Salvador, 18 May 1998.
72. Interviews: IDHUCA, 15 May 1998; CDHES, 20 May 1998; CIPHES, 20 May 1998; CODEFAM, 8 May 1998.
73. Activist, Comadres (Comité Permanente de las Madres), San Salvador, 21 May 1998.
74. Comisión Nacional de Desarollo Bases para el Plan de Natión San Salvador: Gobierno de El Salvador, 1998; La Prensa Gráfica, 'Comisión satisfecha con consultas ciudadanas' 19 May 1998, p.9.
75. Comisión Nacional de Desarollo Bases para el Plan de Natión San Salvador: Gobierno de El Salvador, 1998; La Prensa Gráfica, 'Comisión satisfecha con consultas ciudadanas' 19 May 1998, p.9.
76. La Prensa Gráfica, 'Reaparece Flores: visita a municipios', 16 May 1998, p.8; ibid., 'Flores, un candidato casi desconocido', 22 May 1998, p.13.
77. La Prensa Gráfica, 'Reaparece Flores: visita a municipios', 16 May 1998, p.8; ibid., 'Flores, un candidato casi desconocido', 22 May 1998, p.13.
78. René Figueroa (Deputy) Arena, San Salvador, 19 May 1998.
79. FMLN, Plataforma Municipal para el Cambio: Gobiernos Locales Democraticos, Transparentes y Eficaces San Salvador, n.d. (1994); FMLN, 'Concertación: una Actitud Estratégica para Gobernar', Cambio: boletín mensual del frente farabundo martí de la libération nacional, Oct.-Nov. 1997, pp.2-3.
80. FMLN, Plataforma Municipal para el Cambio: Gobiernos Locales Democraticos, Transparentes y Eficaces San Salvador, n.d. (1994); FMLN, 'Concertación: una Actitud Estratégica para Gobernar', Cambio: boletín mensual del frente farabundo martí de la libération nacional, Oct.-Nov. 1997, pp.2-3.
81. Interview, ISD, 13 May 1998
82. Interviews: CPDH, 20 May 1998; ISD, 13 May 1998.
83. Interview, ISD, 13 May 1998.
84. Ibid.