"Going about and Doing Good": The Politics of Benevolence, Welfare, and Gender in San Francisco, 1850-1880

Pacific Historical Review

Volumn 68, Issue 3, 1999, Pages 365-396

  Irwin, Mary Ann ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^b SAN FRANCISCO STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

GENDER ROLE; HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY; NINETEENTH CENTURY; POLITICAL PROCESS; WELFARE PROVISION;

UNITED STATES;

EID: 0032742798     PISSN: 00308684     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/4492335     Document Type: Article

References (219)

1. Charles K. Jenness, The Charities of San Francisco: A Directory of the Benevolent and Correctional Agencies, Together with a Digest of Those Laws Most Directly Affecting Their Work (San Francisco, 1894), iv. This includes sums expended by private charities and public entities (the City and County of San Francisco, which were consolidated in 1855, the State of California, and the federal government).
2. Ibid.
3. See, e.g., Lori D. Ginzberg, Women and the Work of Benevolence: Morality, Politics, and Class in the Nineteenth-Century United States (New Haven, Conn., 1990); Kathleen D. McCarthy, Noblesse Oblige: Charity and Cultural Philanthropy in Chicago, 1849-1929 (Chicago, 1982); Suzanne Lebsock, The Free Women of Petersburg: Status and Culture in a Southern Town, 1784-1860 (New York, 1984); Sarah Deutsch, "Learning to Talk More Like a Man: Boston Women's Class-Bridging Organizations, 1870-1940," American Historical Review, 90 (1992), 379-404; Anne Firor Scott, Natural Allies: Women's Associations in American History (Chicago, 1991); Paula Baker, Moral Frameworks of Public Life: Gender, Politics, and the State in Rural New York, 1870-1930 (New York, 1991); Mary P. Ryan, The Cradle of the Middle Class: The Family in Oneida County, New York, 1790-1865 (Cambridge, Eng., 1981); Karen J. Blair, The Clubwoman as Feminist: True Womanhood Redefined, 1868-1914 (New York, 1980).
4. See, e.g., Lori D. Ginzberg, Women and the Work of Benevolence: Morality, Politics, and Class in the Nineteenth-Century United States (New Haven, Conn., 1990); Kathleen D. McCarthy, Noblesse Oblige: Charity and Cultural Philanthropy in Chicago, 1849-1929 (Chicago, 1982); Suzanne Lebsock, The Free Women of Petersburg: Status and Culture in a Southern Town, 1784-1860 (New York, 1984); Sarah Deutsch, "Learning to Talk More Like a Man: Boston Women's Class-Bridging Organizations, 1870-1940," American Historical Review, 90 (1992), 379-404; Anne Firor Scott, Natural Allies: Women's Associations in American History (Chicago, 1991); Paula Baker, Moral Frameworks of Public Life: Gender, Politics, and the State in Rural New York, 1870-1930 (New York, 1991); Mary P. Ryan, The Cradle of the Middle Class: The Family in Oneida County, New York, 1790-1865 (Cambridge, Eng., 1981); Karen J. Blair, The Clubwoman as Feminist: True Womanhood Redefined, 1868-1914 (New York, 1980).
5. See, e.g., Lori D. Ginzberg, Women and the Work of Benevolence: Morality, Politics, and Class in the Nineteenth-Century United States (New Haven, Conn., 1990); Kathleen D. McCarthy, Noblesse Oblige: Charity and Cultural Philanthropy in Chicago, 1849-1929 (Chicago, 1982); Suzanne Lebsock, The Free Women of Petersburg: Status and Culture in a Southern Town, 1784-1860 (New York, 1984); Sarah Deutsch, "Learning to Talk More Like a Man: Boston Women's Class-Bridging Organizations, 1870-1940," American Historical Review, 90 (1992), 379-404; Anne Firor Scott, Natural Allies: Women's Associations in American History (Chicago, 1991); Paula Baker, Moral Frameworks of Public Life: Gender, Politics, and the State in Rural New York, 1870-1930 (New York, 1991); Mary P. Ryan, The Cradle of the Middle Class: The Family in Oneida County, New York, 1790-1865 (Cambridge, Eng., 1981); Karen J. Blair, The Clubwoman as Feminist: True Womanhood Redefined, 1868-1914 (New York, 1980).
6. See, e.g., Lori D. Ginzberg, Women and the Work of Benevolence: Morality, Politics, and Class in the Nineteenth-Century United States (New Haven, Conn., 1990); Kathleen D. McCarthy, Noblesse Oblige: Charity and Cultural Philanthropy in Chicago, 1849-1929 (Chicago, 1982); Suzanne Lebsock, The Free Women of Petersburg: Status and Culture in a Southern Town, 1784-1860 (New York, 1984); Sarah Deutsch, "Learning to Talk More Like a Man: Boston Women's Class-Bridging Organizations, 1870-1940," American Historical Review, 90 (1992), 379-404; Anne Firor Scott, Natural Allies: Women's Associations in American History (Chicago, 1991); Paula Baker, Moral Frameworks of Public Life: Gender, Politics, and the State in Rural New York, 1870-1930 (New York, 1991); Mary P. Ryan, The Cradle of the Middle Class: The Family in Oneida County, New York, 1790-1865 (Cambridge, Eng., 1981); Karen J. Blair, The Clubwoman as Feminist: True Womanhood Redefined, 1868-1914 (New York, 1980).
7. See, e.g., Lori D. Ginzberg, Women and the Work of Benevolence: Morality, Politics, and Class in the Nineteenth-Century United States (New Haven, Conn., 1990); Kathleen D. McCarthy, Noblesse Oblige: Charity and Cultural Philanthropy in Chicago, 1849-1929 (Chicago, 1982); Suzanne Lebsock, The Free Women of Petersburg: Status and Culture in a Southern Town, 1784-1860 (New York, 1984); Sarah Deutsch, "Learning to Talk More Like a Man: Boston Women's Class-Bridging Organizations, 1870-1940," American Historical Review, 90 (1992), 379-404; Anne Firor Scott, Natural Allies: Women's Associations in American History (Chicago, 1991); Paula Baker, Moral Frameworks of Public Life: Gender, Politics, and the State in Rural New York, 1870-1930 (New York, 1991); Mary P. Ryan, The Cradle of the Middle Class: The Family in Oneida County, New York, 1790-1865 (Cambridge, Eng., 1981); Karen J. Blair, The Clubwoman as Feminist: True Womanhood Redefined, 1868-1914 (New York, 1980).
8. See, e.g., Lori D. Ginzberg, Women and the Work of Benevolence: Morality, Politics, and Class in the Nineteenth-Century United States (New Haven, Conn., 1990); Kathleen D. McCarthy, Noblesse Oblige: Charity and Cultural Philanthropy in Chicago, 1849-1929 (Chicago, 1982); Suzanne Lebsock, The Free Women of Petersburg: Status and Culture in a Southern Town, 1784-1860 (New York, 1984); Sarah Deutsch, "Learning to Talk More Like a Man: Boston Women's Class-Bridging Organizations, 1870-1940," American Historical Review, 90 (1992), 379-404; Anne Firor Scott, Natural Allies: Women's Associations in American History (Chicago, 1991); Paula Baker, Moral Frameworks of Public Life: Gender, Politics, and the State in Rural New York, 1870-1930 (New York, 1991); Mary P. Ryan, The Cradle of the Middle Class: The Family in Oneida County, New York, 1790-1865 (Cambridge, Eng., 1981); Karen J. Blair, The Clubwoman as Feminist: True Womanhood Redefined, 1868-1914 (New York, 1980).
9. See, e.g., Lori D. Ginzberg, Women and the Work of Benevolence: Morality, Politics, and Class in the Nineteenth-Century United States (New Haven, Conn., 1990); Kathleen D. McCarthy, Noblesse Oblige: Charity and Cultural Philanthropy in Chicago, 1849-1929 (Chicago, 1982); Suzanne Lebsock, The Free Women of Petersburg: Status and Culture in a Southern Town, 1784-1860 (New York, 1984); Sarah Deutsch, "Learning to Talk More Like a Man: Boston Women's Class-Bridging Organizations, 1870-1940," American Historical Review, 90 (1992), 379-404; Anne Firor Scott, Natural Allies: Women's Associations in American History (Chicago, 1991); Paula Baker, Moral Frameworks of Public Life: Gender, Politics, and the State in Rural New York, 1870-1930 (New York, 1991); Mary P. Ryan, The Cradle of the Middle Class: The Family in Oneida County, New York, 1790-1865 (Cambridge, Eng., 1981); Karen J. Blair, The Clubwoman as Feminist: True Womanhood Redefined, 1868-1914 (New York, 1980).
10. See, e.g., Lori D. Ginzberg, Women and the Work of Benevolence: Morality, Politics, and Class in the Nineteenth-Century United States (New Haven, Conn., 1990); Kathleen D. McCarthy, Noblesse Oblige: Charity and Cultural Philanthropy in Chicago, 1849-1929 (Chicago, 1982); Suzanne Lebsock, The Free Women of Petersburg: Status and Culture in a Southern Town, 1784-1860 (New York, 1984); Sarah Deutsch, "Learning to Talk More Like a Man: Boston Women's Class-Bridging Organizations, 1870-1940," American Historical Review, 90 (1992), 379-404; Anne Firor Scott, Natural Allies: Women's Associations in American History (Chicago, 1991); Paula Baker, Moral Frameworks of Public Life: Gender, Politics, and the State in Rural New York, 1870-1930 (New York, 1991); Mary P. Ryan, The Cradle of the Middle Class: The Family in Oneida County, New York, 1790-1865 (Cambridge, Eng., 1981); Karen J. Blair, The Clubwoman as Feminist: True Womanhood Redefined, 1868-1914 (New York, 1980).
11. Seth Koven and Sonya Michel, Mothers of a New World: Maternalist Politics and the Origins of Welfare States (New York, 1993); Theda Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States (Cambridge, Mass., 1992); Kathryn Kish Sklar, Florence Kellet & The Nation's Work: The Rise of Women's Political Culture, 1830-1900 (New Haven, Conn., 1995); Nancy A. Hewitt and Suzanne Lebsock, Visible Women: New Essays on American Activism (Chicago, 1993); Suzanne Lebsock, "Women and American Politics, 1880-1920," in Louise Tilley and Patricia Gurin, eds., Women, Politics, and Change (New York, 1990). Kathleen D. McCarthy acknowledges the significance of nineteenth-century benevolent women in "Parallel Power Structures: Women and the Voluntary Sphere," in McCarthy, ed., Lady Bountiful Revisited: Women, Philanthropy, and Power (New Brunswick, N.J., 1990). On Progressive-era reform, see also Louise C. Wade, Graham Taylor: Pioneer for Social Justice, 1851-1938 (Chicago, 1964); Allen F. Davis, American Heroine: The Life and Legend of Jane Addams (New York, 1973).
12. Seth Koven and Sonya Michel, Mothers of a New World: Maternalist Politics and the Origins of Welfare States (New York, 1993); Theda Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States (Cambridge, Mass., 1992); Kathryn Kish Sklar, Florence Kellet & The Nation's Work: The Rise of Women's Political Culture, 1830-1900 (New Haven, Conn., 1995); Nancy A. Hewitt and Suzanne Lebsock, Visible Women: New Essays on American Activism (Chicago, 1993); Suzanne Lebsock, "Women and American Politics, 1880-1920," in Louise Tilley and Patricia Gurin, eds., Women, Politics, and Change (New York, 1990). Kathleen D. McCarthy acknowledges the significance of nineteenth-century benevolent women in "Parallel Power Structures: Women and the Voluntary Sphere," in McCarthy, ed., Lady Bountiful Revisited: Women, Philanthropy, and Power (New Brunswick, N.J., 1990). On Progressive-era reform, see also Louise C. Wade, Graham Taylor: Pioneer for Social Justice, 1851-1938 (Chicago, 1964); Allen F. Davis, American Heroine: The Life and Legend of Jane Addams (New York, 1973).
13. Seth Koven and Sonya Michel, Mothers of a New World: Maternalist Politics and the Origins of Welfare States (New York, 1993); Theda Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States (Cambridge, Mass., 1992); Kathryn Kish Sklar, Florence Kellet & The Nation's Work: The Rise of Women's Political Culture, 1830-1900 (New Haven, Conn., 1995); Nancy A. Hewitt and Suzanne Lebsock, Visible Women: New Essays on American Activism (Chicago, 1993); Suzanne Lebsock, "Women and American Politics, 1880-1920," in Louise Tilley and Patricia Gurin, eds., Women, Politics, and Change (New York, 1990). Kathleen D. McCarthy acknowledges the significance of nineteenth-century benevolent women in "Parallel Power Structures: Women and the Voluntary Sphere," in McCarthy, ed., Lady Bountiful Revisited: Women, Philanthropy, and Power (New Brunswick, N.J., 1990). On Progressive-era reform, see also Louise C. Wade, Graham Taylor: Pioneer for Social Justice, 1851-1938 (Chicago, 1964); Allen F. Davis, American Heroine: The Life and Legend of Jane Addams (New York, 1973).
14. Seth Koven and Sonya Michel, Mothers of a New World: Maternalist Politics and the Origins of Welfare States (New York, 1993); Theda Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States (Cambridge, Mass., 1992); Kathryn Kish Sklar, Florence Kellet & The Nation's Work: The Rise of Women's Political Culture, 1830-1900 (New Haven, Conn., 1995); Nancy A. Hewitt and Suzanne Lebsock, Visible Women: New Essays on American Activism (Chicago, 1993); Suzanne Lebsock, "Women and American Politics, 1880-1920," in Louise Tilley and Patricia Gurin, eds., Women, Politics, and Change (New York, 1990). Kathleen D. McCarthy acknowledges the significance of nineteenth-century benevolent women in "Parallel Power Structures: Women and the Voluntary Sphere," in McCarthy, ed., Lady Bountiful Revisited: Women, Philanthropy, and Power (New Brunswick, N.J., 1990). On Progressive-era reform, see also Louise C. Wade, Graham Taylor: Pioneer for Social Justice, 1851-1938 (Chicago, 1964); Allen F. Davis, American Heroine: The Life and Legend of Jane Addams (New York, 1973).
15. Seth Koven and Sonya Michel, Mothers of a New World: Maternalist Politics and the Origins of Welfare States (New York, 1993); Theda Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States (Cambridge, Mass., 1992); Kathryn Kish Sklar, Florence Kellet & The Nation's Work: The Rise of Women's Political Culture, 1830-1900 (New Haven, Conn., 1995); Nancy A. Hewitt and Suzanne Lebsock, Visible Women: New Essays on American Activism (Chicago, 1993); Suzanne Lebsock, "Women and American Politics, 1880-1920," in Louise Tilley and Patricia Gurin, eds., Women, Politics, and Change (New York, 1990). Kathleen D. McCarthy acknowledges the significance of nineteenth-century benevolent women in "Parallel Power Structures: Women and the Voluntary Sphere," in McCarthy, ed., Lady Bountiful Revisited: Women, Philanthropy, and Power (New Brunswick, N.J., 1990). On Progressive-era reform, see also Louise C. Wade, Graham Taylor: Pioneer for Social Justice, 1851-1938 (Chicago, 1964); Allen F. Davis, American Heroine: The Life and Legend of Jane Addams (New York, 1973).
16. Seth Koven and Sonya Michel, Mothers of a New World: Maternalist Politics and the Origins of Welfare States (New York, 1993); Theda Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States (Cambridge, Mass., 1992); Kathryn Kish Sklar, Florence Kellet & The Nation's Work: The Rise of Women's Political Culture, 1830-1900 (New Haven, Conn., 1995); Nancy A. Hewitt and Suzanne Lebsock, Visible Women: New Essays on American Activism (Chicago, 1993); Suzanne Lebsock, "Women and American Politics, 1880-1920," in Louise Tilley and Patricia Gurin, eds., Women, Politics, and Change (New York, 1990). Kathleen D. McCarthy acknowledges the significance of nineteenth-century benevolent women in "Parallel Power Structures: Women and the Voluntary Sphere," in McCarthy, ed., Lady Bountiful Revisited: Women, Philanthropy, and Power (New Brunswick, N.J., 1990). On Progressive-era reform, see also Louise C. Wade, Graham Taylor: Pioneer for Social Justice, 1851-1938 (Chicago, 1964); Allen F. Davis, American Heroine: The Life and Legend of Jane Addams (New York, 1973).
17. Seth Koven and Sonya Michel, Mothers of a New World: Maternalist Politics and the Origins of Welfare States (New York, 1993); Theda Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States (Cambridge, Mass., 1992); Kathryn Kish Sklar, Florence Kellet & The Nation's Work: The Rise of Women's Political Culture, 1830-1900 (New Haven, Conn., 1995); Nancy A. Hewitt and Suzanne Lebsock, Visible Women: New Essays on American Activism (Chicago, 1993); Suzanne Lebsock, "Women and American Politics, 1880-1920," in Louise Tilley and Patricia Gurin, eds., Women, Politics, and Change (New York, 1990). Kathleen D. McCarthy acknowledges the significance of nineteenth-century benevolent women in "Parallel Power Structures: Women and the Voluntary Sphere," in McCarthy, ed., Lady Bountiful Revisited: Women, Philanthropy, and Power (New Brunswick, N.J., 1990). On Progressive-era reform, see also Louise C. Wade, Graham Taylor: Pioneer for Social Justice, 1851-1938 (Chicago, 1964); Allen F. Davis, American Heroine: The Life and Legend of Jane Addams (New York, 1973).
18. Seth Koven and Sonya Michel, Mothers of a New World: Maternalist Politics and the Origins of Welfare States (New York, 1993); Theda Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States (Cambridge, Mass., 1992); Kathryn Kish Sklar, Florence Kellet & The Nation's Work: The Rise of Women's Political Culture, 1830-1900 (New Haven, Conn., 1995); Nancy A. Hewitt and Suzanne Lebsock, Visible Women: New Essays on American Activism (Chicago, 1993); Suzanne Lebsock, "Women and American Politics, 1880-1920," in Louise Tilley and Patricia Gurin, eds., Women, Politics, and Change (New York, 1990). Kathleen D. McCarthy acknowledges the significance of nineteenth-century benevolent women in "Parallel Power Structures: Women and the Voluntary Sphere," in McCarthy, ed., Lady Bountiful Revisited: Women, Philanthropy, and Power (New Brunswick, N.J., 1990). On Progressive-era reform, see also Louise C. Wade, Graham Taylor: Pioneer for Social Justice, 1851-1938 (Chicago, 1964); Allen F. Davis, American Heroine: The Life and Legend of Jane Addams (New York, 1973).
19. Joan M. Jensen and Darlis A. Miller, "The Gentle Tamers Revisited: New-Approaches to the History of Women in the American West," Pacific Historical Review, 49 (1980), 173-213; Susan H. Armitage, "Revisiting 'The Gentle Tamers Revisited': The Problems and Possibilities of Western Women's History - An Introduction," Pacific Historical Review, 61 (1992), 459-499. There are notable exceptions, several of which deal with San Francisco: Peggy Pascoe, Relations of Rescue: The Search for Female Moral Authority in the American West, 1874-1939 (New York, 1990); Mary P. Ryan, Women in Public: Between Banners and Ballots, 1825-1880 (Baltimore, 1990); Julie Roy Jeffrey, Frontier Women: The Trans-Mississippi West, 1840-1880 (New York, 1979); Bradford F. Luckingham, "Associational Life on the Urban Frontier: San Francisco, 1848-1856" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Davis, 1968).
20. Joan M. Jensen and Darlis A. Miller, "The Gentle Tamers Revisited: New-Approaches to the History of Women in the American West," Pacific Historical Review, 49 (1980), 173-213; Susan H. Armitage, "Revisiting 'The Gentle Tamers Revisited': The Problems and Possibilities of Western Women's History - An Introduction," Pacific Historical Review, 61 (1992), 459-499. There are notable exceptions, several of which deal with San Francisco: Peggy Pascoe, Relations of Rescue: The Search for Female Moral Authority in the American West, 1874-1939 (New York, 1990); Mary P. Ryan, Women in Public: Between Banners and Ballots, 1825-1880 (Baltimore, 1990); Julie Roy Jeffrey, Frontier Women: The Trans-Mississippi West, 1840-1880 (New York, 1979); Bradford F. Luckingham, "Associational Life on the Urban Frontier: San Francisco, 1848-1856" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Davis, 1968).
21. Joan M. Jensen and Darlis A. Miller, "The Gentle Tamers Revisited: New-Approaches to the History of Women in the American West," Pacific Historical Review, 49 (1980), 173-213; Susan H. Armitage, "Revisiting 'The Gentle Tamers Revisited': The Problems and Possibilities of Western Women's History - An Introduction," Pacific Historical Review, 61 (1992), 459-499. There are notable exceptions, several of which deal with San Francisco: Peggy Pascoe, Relations of Rescue: The Search for Female Moral Authority in the American West, 1874-1939 (New York, 1990); Mary P. Ryan, Women in Public: Between Banners and Ballots, 1825-1880 (Baltimore, 1990); Julie Roy Jeffrey, Frontier Women: The Trans-Mississippi West, 1840-1880 (New York, 1979); Bradford F. Luckingham, "Associational Life on the Urban Frontier: San Francisco, 1848-1856" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Davis, 1968).
22. Joan M. Jensen and Darlis A. Miller, "The Gentle Tamers Revisited: New-Approaches to the History of Women in the American West," Pacific Historical Review, 49 (1980), 173-213; Susan H. Armitage, "Revisiting 'The Gentle Tamers Revisited': The Problems and Possibilities of Western Women's History - An Introduction," Pacific Historical Review, 61 (1992), 459-499. There are notable exceptions, several of which deal with San Francisco: Peggy Pascoe, Relations of Rescue: The Search for Female Moral Authority in the American West, 1874-1939 (New York, 1990); Mary P. Ryan, Women in Public: Between Banners and Ballots, 1825-1880 (Baltimore, 1990); Julie Roy Jeffrey, Frontier Women: The Trans-Mississippi West, 1840-1880 (New York, 1979); Bradford F. Luckingham, "Associational Life on the Urban Frontier: San Francisco, 1848-1856" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Davis, 1968).
23. Joan M. Jensen and Darlis A. Miller, "The Gentle Tamers Revisited: New-Approaches to the History of Women in the American West," Pacific Historical Review, 49 (1980), 173-213; Susan H. Armitage, "Revisiting 'The Gentle Tamers Revisited': The Problems and Possibilities of Western Women's History - An Introduction," Pacific Historical Review, 61 (1992), 459-499. There are notable exceptions, several of which deal with San Francisco: Peggy Pascoe, Relations of Rescue: The Search for Female Moral Authority in the American West, 1874-1939 (New York, 1990); Mary P. Ryan, Women in Public: Between Banners and Ballots, 1825-1880 (Baltimore, 1990); Julie Roy Jeffrey, Frontier Women: The Trans-Mississippi West, 1840-1880 (New York, 1979); Bradford F. Luckingham, "Associational Life on the Urban Frontier: San Francisco, 1848-1856" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Davis, 1968).
24. Joan M. Jensen and Darlis A. Miller, "The Gentle Tamers Revisited: New-Approaches to the History of Women in the American West," Pacific Historical Review, 49 (1980), 173-213; Susan H. Armitage, "Revisiting 'The Gentle Tamers Revisited': The Problems and Possibilities of Western Women's History - An Introduction," Pacific Historical Review, 61 (1992), 459-499. There are notable exceptions, several of which deal with San Francisco: Peggy Pascoe, Relations of Rescue: The Search for Female Moral Authority in the American West, 1874-1939 (New York, 1990); Mary P. Ryan, Women in Public: Between Banners and Ballots, 1825-1880 (Baltimore, 1990); Julie Roy Jeffrey, Frontier Women: The Trans-Mississippi West, 1840-1880 (New York, 1979); Bradford F. Luckingham, "Associational Life on the Urban Frontier: San Francisco, 1848-1856" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Davis, 1968).
25. See, for instance, William Issel and Robert W. Cherny, San Francisco, 1865-1932: Politics, Power, and Urban Development (Berkeley, 1986); Roger W. Lotchin, San Francisco, 1846-1856: From Hamlet to City (Urbana, Ill., 1997); Peter R. Decker, Fortunes and Failures: White-Collar Mobility in Nineteenth-Century San Francisco (Cambridge, Mass., 1978); Terrence J. McDonald, The Parameters of Urban Fiscal Policy: Socioeconomic Change and Political Culture in San Francisco, 1860-1906 (Berkeley, 1986); Philip J. Ethington, "The Structures of Urban Political Life: Political Culture in San Francisco, 1850-1880" (Ph.D. dissertation, Stanford University, 1988). Ethington mentions local woman-led charities in Philip J. Ethington, The Public City: The Political Construction of Urban Life in San Francisco, 1850-1900 (Cambridge, Eng., 1994), 331-332.
26. See, for instance, William Issel and Robert W. Cherny, San Francisco, 1865-1932: Politics, Power, and Urban Development (Berkeley, 1986); Roger W. Lotchin, San Francisco, 1846-1856: From Hamlet to City (Urbana, Ill., 1997); Peter R. Decker, Fortunes and Failures: White-Collar Mobility in Nineteenth-Century San Francisco (Cambridge, Mass., 1978); Terrence J. McDonald, The Parameters of Urban Fiscal Policy: Socioeconomic Change and Political Culture in San Francisco, 1860-1906 (Berkeley, 1986); Philip J. Ethington, "The Structures of Urban Political Life: Political Culture in San Francisco, 1850-1880" (Ph.D. dissertation, Stanford University, 1988). Ethington mentions local woman-led charities in Philip J. Ethington, The Public City: The Political Construction of Urban Life in San Francisco, 1850-1900 (Cambridge, Eng., 1994), 331-332.
27. See, for instance, William Issel and Robert W. Cherny, San Francisco, 1865-1932: Politics, Power, and Urban Development (Berkeley, 1986); Roger W. Lotchin, San Francisco, 1846-1856: From Hamlet to City (Urbana, Ill., 1997); Peter R. Decker, Fortunes and Failures: White-Collar Mobility in Nineteenth-Century San Francisco (Cambridge, Mass., 1978); Terrence J. McDonald, The Parameters of Urban Fiscal Policy: Socioeconomic Change and Political Culture in San Francisco, 1860-1906 (Berkeley, 1986); Philip J. Ethington, "The Structures of Urban Political Life: Political Culture in San Francisco, 1850-1880" (Ph.D. dissertation, Stanford University, 1988). Ethington mentions local woman-led charities in Philip J. Ethington, The Public City: The Political Construction of Urban Life in San Francisco, 1850-1900 (Cambridge, Eng., 1994), 331-332.
28. See, for instance, William Issel and Robert W. Cherny, San Francisco, 1865-1932: Politics, Power, and Urban Development (Berkeley, 1986); Roger W. Lotchin, San Francisco, 1846-1856: From Hamlet to City (Urbana, Ill., 1997); Peter R. Decker, Fortunes and Failures: White-Collar Mobility in Nineteenth-Century San Francisco (Cambridge, Mass., 1978); Terrence J. McDonald, The Parameters of Urban Fiscal Policy: Socioeconomic Change and Political Culture in San Francisco, 1860-1906 (Berkeley, 1986); Philip J. Ethington, "The Structures of Urban Political Life: Political Culture in San Francisco, 1850-1880" (Ph.D. dissertation, Stanford University, 1988). Ethington mentions local woman-led charities in Philip J. Ethington, The Public City: The Political Construction of Urban Life in San Francisco, 1850-1900 (Cambridge, Eng., 1994), 331-332.
29. See, for instance, William Issel and Robert W. Cherny, San Francisco, 1865-1932: Politics, Power, and Urban Development (Berkeley, 1986); Roger W. Lotchin, San Francisco, 1846-1856: From Hamlet to City (Urbana, Ill., 1997); Peter R. Decker, Fortunes and Failures: White-Collar Mobility in Nineteenth-Century San Francisco (Cambridge, Mass., 1978); Terrence J. McDonald, The Parameters of Urban Fiscal Policy: Socioeconomic Change and Political Culture in San Francisco, 1860-1906 (Berkeley, 1986); Philip J. Ethington, "The Structures of Urban Political Life: Political Culture in San Francisco, 1850-1880" (Ph.D. dissertation, Stanford University, 1988). Ethington mentions local woman-led charities in Philip J. Ethington, The Public City: The Political Construction of Urban Life in San Francisco, 1850-1900 (Cambridge, Eng., 1994), 331-332.
30. See, for instance, William Issel and Robert W. Cherny, San Francisco, 1865-1932: Politics, Power, and Urban Development (Berkeley, 1986); Roger W. Lotchin, San Francisco, 1846-1856: From Hamlet to City (Urbana, Ill., 1997); Peter R. Decker, Fortunes and Failures: White-Collar Mobility in Nineteenth-Century San Francisco (Cambridge, Mass., 1978); Terrence J. McDonald, The Parameters of Urban Fiscal Policy: Socioeconomic Change and Political Culture in San Francisco, 1860-1906 (Berkeley, 1986); Philip J. Ethington, "The Structures of Urban Political Life: Political Culture in San Francisco, 1850-1880" (Ph.D. dissertation, Stanford University, 1988). Ethington mentions local woman-led charities in Philip J. Ethington, The Public City: The Political Construction of Urban Life in San Francisco, 1850-1900 (Cambridge, Eng., 1994), 331-332.
31. Ruth Shackelford, "To Shield Them from Temptation: 'Child-Saving' Institutions and the Children of the Underclass in San Francisco 1850-1910" (Ph.D. dissertation, Harvard University, 1991), 289; Mary P. Ryan, Civic Wars: Democracy and Public Life in the American City During the Nineteenth Century (Berkeley, 1997), 185; Issel and Cherny, San Francisco, 24.
32. Ruth Shackelford, "To Shield Them from Temptation: 'Child-Saving' Institutions and the Children of the Underclass in San Francisco 1850-1910" (Ph.D. dissertation, Harvard University, 1991), 289; Mary P. Ryan, Civic Wars: Democracy and Public Life in the American City During the Nineteenth Century (Berkeley, 1997), 185; Issel and Cherny, San Francisco, 24.
33. Ruth Shackelford, "To Shield Them from Temptation: 'Child-Saving' Institutions and the Children of the Underclass in San Francisco 1850-1910" (Ph.D. dissertation, Harvard University, 1991), 289; Mary P. Ryan, Civic Wars: Democracy and Public Life in the American City During the Nineteenth Century (Berkeley, 1997), 185; Issel and Cherny, San Francisco, 24.
34. Luckingham, "Associational Life," 28, 79, 31; Merle Stewart Jaque, "The Origins of Private Benevolence in California, 1769-1869" (Master's thesis, San Diego State College, 1966), 21-22; Mitchel Roth, "Cholera, Community, and Public Health in Gold Rush Sacramento and San Francisco," Pacific Historical Review, 66 (1997), 527-551.
35. Luckingham, "Associational Life," 28, 79, 31; Merle Stewart Jaque, "The Origins of Private Benevolence in California, 1769-1869" (Master's thesis, San Diego State College, 1966), 21-22; Mitchel Roth, "Cholera, Community, and Public Health in Gold Rush Sacramento and San Francisco," Pacific Historical Review, 66 (1997), 527-551.
36. Luckingham, "Associational Life," 28, 79, 31; Merle Stewart Jaque, "The Origins of Private Benevolence in California, 1769-1869" (Master's thesis, San Diego State College, 1966), 21-22; Mitchel Roth, "Cholera, Community, and Public Health in Gold Rush Sacramento and San Francisco," Pacific Historical Review, 66 (1997), 527-551.
37. Lotchin, San Francisco, 45-82; Decker, Fortunes and Failures, 34, 125, 160, 182; Shackelford, "To Shield Them from Temptation," 386; Ira B. Cross, A History of the Labor Movement in California (Berkeley, 1935), 68-69.
38. Lotchin, San Francisco, 45-82; Decker, Fortunes and Failures, 34, 125, 160, 182; Shackelford, "To Shield Them from Temptation," 386; Ira B. Cross, A History of the Labor Movement in California (Berkeley, 1935), 68-69.
39. Lotchin, San Francisco, 45-82; Decker, Fortunes and Failures, 34, 125, 160, 182; Shackelford, "To Shield Them from Temptation," 386; Ira B. Cross, A History of the Labor Movement in California (Berkeley, 1935), 68-69.
40. Lotchin, San Francisco, 45-82; Decker, Fortunes and Failures, 34, 125, 160, 182; Shackelford, "To Shield Them from Temptation," 386; Ira B. Cross, A History of the Labor Movement in California (Berkeley, 1935), 68-69.
41. Hubert Howe Bancroft, History of California (7 vols., Berkeley, 1884-1890) 7: 352; San Francisco Benevolent Association, Directory of the San Francisco Benevolent Association (San Francisco, 1865), held in Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley; Frances Cahn and Valeska Bary, Welfare Activities of Federal, State and Local Governments in California, 1850-1934 (Berkeley, 1936), 199.
42. Hubert Howe Bancroft, History of California (7 vols., Berkeley, 1884-1890) 7: 352; San Francisco Benevolent Association, Directory of the San Francisco Benevolent Association (San Francisco, 1865), held in Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley; Frances Cahn and Valeska Bary, Welfare Activities of Federal, State and Local Governments in California, 1850-1934 (Berkeley, 1936), 199.
43. Hubert Howe Bancroft, History of California (7 vols., Berkeley, 1884-1890) 7: 352; San Francisco Benevolent Association, Directory of the San Francisco Benevolent Association (San Francisco, 1865), held in Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley; Frances Cahn and Valeska Bary, Welfare Activities of Federal, State and Local Governments in California, 1850-1934 (Berkeley, 1936), 199.
44. Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers, 318; Shackelford, "To Shield Them from Temptation," 289; McCarthy, Noblesse Oblige, 54; Ryan, Civic Wars, 104.
45. Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers, 318; Shackelford, "To Shield Them from Temptation," 289; McCarthy, Noblesse Oblige, 54; Ryan, Civic Wars, 104.
46. Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers, 318; Shackelford, "To Shield Them from Temptation," 289; McCarthy, Noblesse Oblige, 54; Ryan, Civic Wars, 104.
47. Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers, 318; Shackelford, "To Shield Them from Temptation," 289; McCarthy, Noblesse Oblige, 54; Ryan, Civic Wars, 104.
48. Shackelford, "To Shield Them from Temptation," 306; Sophia Eastman to "Sister," July 18, 1850, Sophia Eastman Papers, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley. San Francisco had two other medical facilities, neither of much use to the general public. The State Marine Hospital opened in 1850 and closed in 1855; it accepted non-mariners if they were wealthy enough to post bond. The U.S. Marine Hospital opened in 1854 and was abandoned in 1868; it served only seamen. Cahn and Bary, Welfare Activities, 139; Lotchin, San Francisco, 87, 185, 221; Shackelford, "To Shield Them from Temptation," 361.
49. Shackelford, "To Shield Them from Temptation," 306; Sophia Eastman to "Sister," July 18, 1850, Sophia Eastman Papers, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley. San Francisco had two other medical facilities, neither of much use to the general public. The State Marine Hospital opened in 1850 and closed in 1855; it accepted non-mariners if they were wealthy enough to post bond. The U.S. Marine Hospital opened in 1854 and was abandoned in 1868; it served only seamen. Cahn and Bary, Welfare Activities, 139; Lotchin, San Francisco, 87, 185, 221; Shackelford, "To Shield Them from Temptation," 361.
50. Shackelford, "To Shield Them from Temptation," 306; Sophia Eastman to "Sister," July 18, 1850, Sophia Eastman Papers, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley. San Francisco had two other medical facilities, neither of much use to the general public. The State Marine Hospital opened in 1850 and closed in 1855; it accepted non-mariners if they were wealthy enough to post bond. The U.S. Marine Hospital opened in 1854 and was abandoned in 1868; it served only seamen. Cahn and Bary, Welfare Activities, 139; Lotchin, San Francisco, 87, 185, 221; Shackelford, "To Shield Them from Temptation," 361.
51. Shackelford, "To Shield Them from Temptation," 306; Sophia Eastman to "Sister," July 18, 1850, Sophia Eastman Papers, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley. San Francisco had two other medical facilities, neither of much use to the general public. The State Marine Hospital opened in 1850 and closed in 1855; it accepted non-mariners if they were wealthy enough to post bond. The U.S. Marine Hospital opened in 1854 and was abandoned in 1868; it served only seamen. Cahn and Bary, Welfare Activities, 139; Lotchin, San Francisco, 87, 185, 221; Shackelford, "To Shield Them from Temptation," 361.
52. Shackelford, "To Shield Them from Temptation," 306; Sophia Eastman to "Sister," July 18, 1850, Sophia Eastman Papers, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley. San Francisco had two other medical facilities, neither of much use to the general public. The State Marine Hospital opened in 1850 and closed in 1855; it accepted non-mariners if they were wealthy enough to post bond. The U.S. Marine Hospital opened in 1854 and was abandoned in 1868; it served only seamen. Cahn and Bary, Welfare Activities, 139; Lotchin, San Francisco, 87, 185, 221; Shackelford, "To Shield Them from Temptation," 361.
53. Sam Bass Warner, Jr., The Private City: Philadelphia in Three Periods of its Growth (Philadelphia, 1987), 175-176; Ryan, Civic Wars, 163-164; Maureen A. Flanagan. Charter Reform in Chicago (Carbondale, Ill., 1987), 35.
54. Sam Bass Warner, Jr., The Private City: Philadelphia in Three Periods of its Growth (Philadelphia, 1987), 175-176; Ryan, Civic Wars, 163-164; Maureen A. Flanagan. Charter Reform in Chicago (Carbondale, Ill., 1987), 35.
55. Sam Bass Warner, Jr., The Private City: Philadelphia in Three Periods of its Growth (Philadelphia, 1987), 175-176; Ryan, Civic Wars, 163-164; Maureen A. Flanagan. Charter Reform in Chicago (Carbondale, Ill., 1987), 35.
56. San Francisco Bulletin, Oct. 15, 1861, Oct. 13, 1860, in McDonald, Parameters of Urban Fiscal Policy, 122.
57. San Francisco Bulletin, Oct. 15, 1861, Oct. 13, 1860, in McDonald, Parameters of Urban Fiscal Policy, 122.
58. Social welfare services were the Alms House, City Hospital, Industrial School, and Health Department. Ibid., 49.
59. Ibid., 18.
60. Ryan, Civic Wars, 99.
61. Ibid., 98-99, 104; Warner, Private City, 81-82.
62. Ibid., 98-99, 104; Warner, Private City, 81-82.
63. Scott, Natural Allies, 8.
64. Nathan Irvin Huggins, Protestants Against Poverty: Boston's Charities, 1870-1900 (Westport, Conn., 1971); Pascoe, Relations of Rescue, 150-151; Scott, Natural Allies, 8; McCarthy, Noblesse Oblige, 4, 59; Wendy Kaminer, Women Volunteering: The Pleasure, Pain, and Politics of Unpaid Work from 1830 to the Present (Garden City, N.Y., 1984), 25-26.
65. Nathan Irvin Huggins, Protestants Against Poverty: Boston's Charities, 1870-1900 (Westport, Conn., 1971); Pascoe, Relations of Rescue, 150-151; Scott, Natural Allies, 8; McCarthy, Noblesse Oblige, 4, 59; Wendy Kaminer, Women Volunteering: The Pleasure, Pain, and Politics of Unpaid Work from 1830 to the Present (Garden City, N.Y., 1984), 25-26.
66. Nathan Irvin Huggins, Protestants Against Poverty: Boston's Charities, 1870-1900 (Westport, Conn., 1971); Pascoe, Relations of Rescue, 150-151; Scott, Natural Allies, 8; McCarthy, Noblesse Oblige, 4, 59; Wendy Kaminer, Women Volunteering: The Pleasure, Pain, and Politics of Unpaid Work from 1830 to the Present (Garden City, N.Y., 1984), 25-26.
67. Nathan Irvin Huggins, Protestants Against Poverty: Boston's Charities, 1870-1900 (Westport, Conn., 1971); Pascoe, Relations of Rescue, 150-151; Scott, Natural Allies, 8; McCarthy, Noblesse Oblige, 4, 59; Wendy Kaminer, Women Volunteering: The Pleasure, Pain, and Politics of Unpaid Work from 1830 to the Present (Garden City, N.Y., 1984), 25-26.
68. Nathan Irvin Huggins, Protestants Against Poverty: Boston's Charities, 1870-1900 (Westport, Conn., 1971); Pascoe, Relations of Rescue, 150-151; Scott, Natural Allies, 8; McCarthy, Noblesse Oblige, 4, 59; Wendy Kaminer, Women Volunteering: The Pleasure, Pain, and Politics of Unpaid Work from 1830 to the Present (Garden City, N.Y., 1984), 25-26.
69. Henry G. Langley, San Francisco directory for the year commencing April, 1876 (San Francisco, 1876), 1081.
70. Barbara Welter, "The Cult of True Womanhood, 1820-1860," American Quarterly, 18 (1966), 151-174. The literature on nineteenth-century female identity is extensive; Kathryn Kish Sklar, Catharine Beecher: A Study in American Domesticity (New York, 1973) is particularly helpful.
71. Barbara Welter, "The Cult of True Womanhood, 1820-1860," American Quarterly, 18 (1966), 151-174. The literature on nineteenth-century female identity is extensive; Kathryn Kish Sklar, Catharine Beecher: A Study in American Domesticity (New York, 1973) is particularly helpful.
72. Jeffrey, Frontier Women, 4-13; Elisabeth Margo, Taming the Forty-Niner (New York, 1955).
73. Jeffrey, Frontier Women, 4-13; Elisabeth Margo, Taming the Forty-Niner (New York, 1955).
74. According to city directories, San Franciscans created at least 103 benevolent and reform organizations between 1848 and 1879. Of these, sixty were male-led, thirty-eight female-led, four had mixed boards, and one had separate boards for each sex.
75. San Francisco Daily Alta California, July 11, 1853, p. 2.
76. This study is limited to organizations formed by white, middle-class, Protestant women because they were the most successful in influencing state and local policy-makers. For black, Chinese, Catholic, and Jewish women in San Francisco, see, respectively, Delores Nason McBroome, Parallel Communities: African Americans in California's East Bay, 1850-1963 (New York, 1993); Judy Yung, Unbound Feet: A Social History of Chinese Women in San Francisco (Berkeley, 1995); Shackelford, "To Shield Them from Temptation;" William Toll, "Gender, Ethnicity, and Jewish Settlement Work in the Urban West," in An Inventory of Promises: Essays on American Jewish History in Honor of Moses Rischin (Brooklyn, N.Y., 1995).
77. This study is limited to organizations formed by white, middle-class, Protestant women because they were the most successful in influencing state and local policy-makers. For black, Chinese, Catholic, and Jewish women in San Francisco, see, respectively, Delores Nason McBroome, Parallel Communities: African Americans in California's East Bay, 1850-1963 (New York, 1993); Judy Yung, Unbound Feet: A Social History of Chinese Women in San Francisco (Berkeley, 1995); Shackelford, "To Shield Them from Temptation;" William Toll, "Gender, Ethnicity, and Jewish Settlement Work in the Urban West," in An Inventory of Promises: Essays on American Jewish History in Honor of Moses Rischin (Brooklyn, N.Y., 1995).
78. This study is limited to organizations formed by white, middle-class, Protestant women because they were the most successful in influencing state and local policy-makers. For black, Chinese, Catholic, and Jewish women in San Francisco, see, respectively, Delores Nason McBroome, Parallel Communities: African Americans in California's East Bay, 1850-1963 (New York, 1993); Judy Yung, Unbound Feet: A Social History of Chinese Women in San Francisco (Berkeley, 1995); Shackelford, "To Shield Them from Temptation;" William Toll, "Gender, Ethnicity, and Jewish Settlement Work in the Urban West," in An Inventory of Promises: Essays on American Jewish History in Honor of Moses Rischin (Brooklyn, N.Y., 1995).
79. This study is limited to organizations formed by white, middle-class, Protestant women because they were the most successful in influencing state and local policy-makers. For black, Chinese, Catholic, and Jewish women in San Francisco, see, respectively, Delores Nason McBroome, Parallel Communities: African Americans in California's East Bay, 1850-1963 (New York, 1993); Judy Yung, Unbound Feet: A Social History of Chinese Women in San Francisco (Berkeley, 1995); Shackelford, "To Shield Them from Temptation;" William Toll, "Gender, Ethnicity, and Jewish Settlement Work in the Urban West," in An Inventory of Promises: Essays on American Jewish History in Honor of Moses Rischin (Brooklyn, N.Y., 1995).
80. Cahn and Bary, Welfare Activities, 142. San Francisco's City Hospita l treated women but not children; its first children's ward opened in the 1890s. Leontina Murphy, "Public Care of the Dependent Sick in San Francisco, 1847-1936" (Master's thesis, University of California, Berkeley, 1938), 72-74; Rickey Hendricks, "Feminism and Maternalism in Early Hospitals for Children: San Francisco and Denver, 1875-1915," Journal of the West, 32 (1993), 61-69; Rickey Hendricks and Mark S. Foster, For a Child's Sake: History of the Children's Hospital, Denver, Colorado, 1910-1990 (Niwot, Colo., 1994); Joan E. Lynaugh, The Community Hospitals of Kansas City, Missouri, 1870-1915 (New York, 1989); Clement A. Smith, The Children's Hospital of Boston: They Built Better Than They Knew (Boston, 1983).
81. Cahn and Bary, Welfare Activities, 142. San Francisco's City Hospita l treated women but not children; its first children's ward opened in the 1890s. Leontina Murphy, "Public Care of the Dependent Sick in San Francisco, 1847-1936" (Master's thesis, University of California, Berkeley, 1938), 72-74; Rickey Hendricks, "Feminism and Maternalism in Early Hospitals for Children: San Francisco and Denver, 1875-1915," Journal of the West, 32 (1993), 61-69; Rickey Hendricks and Mark S. Foster, For a Child's Sake: History of the Children's Hospital, Denver, Colorado, 1910-1990 (Niwot, Colo., 1994); Joan E. Lynaugh, The Community Hospitals of Kansas City, Missouri, 1870-1915 (New York, 1989); Clement A. Smith, The Children's Hospital of Boston: They Built Better Than They Knew (Boston, 1983).
82. Cahn and Bary, Welfare Activities, 142. San Francisco's City Hospita l treated women but not children; its first children's ward opened in the 1890s. Leontina Murphy, "Public Care of the Dependent Sick in San Francisco, 1847-1936" (Master's thesis, University of California, Berkeley, 1938), 72-74; Rickey Hendricks, "Feminism and Maternalism in Early Hospitals for Children: San Francisco and Denver, 1875-1915," Journal of the West, 32 (1993), 61-69; Rickey Hendricks and Mark S. Foster, For a Child's Sake: History of the Children's Hospital, Denver, Colorado, 1910-1990 (Niwot, Colo., 1994); Joan E. Lynaugh, The Community Hospitals of Kansas City, Missouri, 1870-1915 (New York, 1989); Clement A. Smith, The Children's Hospital of Boston: They Built Better Than They Knew (Boston, 1983).
83. Cahn and Bary, Welfare Activities, 142. San Francisco's City Hospita l treated women but not children; its first children's ward opened in the 1890s. Leontina Murphy, "Public Care of the Dependent Sick in San Francisco, 1847-1936" (Master's thesis, University of California, Berkeley, 1938), 72-74; Rickey Hendricks, "Feminism and Maternalism in Early Hospitals for Children: San Francisco and Denver, 1875-1915," Journal of the West, 32 (1993), 61-69; Rickey Hendricks and Mark S. Foster, For a Child's Sake: History of the Children's Hospital, Denver, Colorado, 1910-1990 (Niwot, Colo., 1994); Joan E. Lynaugh, The Community Hospitals of Kansas City, Missouri, 1870-1915 (New York, 1989); Clement A. Smith, The Children's Hospital of Boston: They Built Better Than They Knew (Boston, 1983).
84. Cahn and Bary, Welfare Activities, 142. San Francisco's City Hospita l treated women but not children; its first children's ward opened in the 1890s. Leontina Murphy, "Public Care of the Dependent Sick in San Francisco, 1847-1936" (Master's thesis, University of California, Berkeley, 1938), 72-74; Rickey Hendricks, "Feminism and Maternalism in Early Hospitals for Children: San Francisco and Denver, 1875-1915," Journal of the West, 32 (1993), 61-69; Rickey Hendricks and Mark S. Foster, For a Child's Sake: History of the Children's Hospital, Denver, Colorado, 1910-1990 (Niwot, Colo., 1994); Joan E. Lynaugh, The Community Hospitals of Kansas City, Missouri, 1870-1915 (New York, 1989); Clement A. Smith, The Children's Hospital of Boston: They Built Better Than They Knew (Boston, 1983).
85. Cahn and Bary, Welfare Activities, 142. San Francisco's City Hospita l treated women but not children; its first children's ward opened in the 1890s. Leontina Murphy, "Public Care of the Dependent Sick in San Francisco, 1847-1936" (Master's thesis, University of California, Berkeley, 1938), 72-74; Rickey Hendricks, "Feminism and Maternalism in Early Hospitals for Children: San Francisco and Denver, 1875-1915," Journal of the West, 32 (1993), 61-69; Rickey Hendricks and Mark S. Foster, For a Child's Sake: History of the Children's Hospital, Denver, Colorado, 1910-1990 (Niwot, Colo., 1994); Joan E. Lynaugh, The Community Hospitals of Kansas City, Missouri, 1870-1915 (New York, 1989); Clement A. Smith, The Children's Hospital of Boston: They Built Better Than They Knew (Boston, 1983).
86. Peter Decker and Philip Ethington disagree on whether San Francisco had a political "machine" during the period 1850-1880. See Decker, Fortunes and Failures, 127; Ethington, Public City, 289-290. When the state of California began allocating public funds for outdoor relief in the 1880s, observers found that officials gave significantly more aid to men of voting age and economized drastically on relief given women and children. Cahn and Bary, Welfare Activities, 171-172, 175.
87. Peter Decker and Philip Ethington disagree on whether San Francisco had a political "machine" during the period 1850-1880. See Decker, Fortunes and Failures, 127; Ethington, Public City, 289-290. When the state of California began allocating public funds for outdoor relief in the 1880s, observers found that officials gave significantly more aid to men of voting age and economized drastically on relief given women and children. Cahn and Bary, Welfare Activities, 171-172, 175.
88. Peter Decker and Philip Ethington disagree on whether San Francisco had a political "machine" during the period 1850-1880. See Decker, Fortunes and Failures, 127; Ethington, Public City, 289-290. When the state of California began allocating public funds for outdoor relief in the 1880s, observers found that officials gave significantly more aid to men of voting age and economized drastically on relief given women and children. Cahn and Bary, Welfare Activities, 171-172, 175.
89. Shackelford, "To Shield Them from Temptation," 290, 294, 296.
90. In their constitution and by-laws, the founders explicitly retained the authority to collect and expend funds. San Francisco Protestant Orphan Asylum (hereafter SFPOA), Constitution and By-Laws, 21-22, located in Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley.
91. Mrs. W. A. [Anna Bissell] Haight, Some Reminiscences of the San Francisco Protestant Orphan Asylum (San Francisco, 1900), 2, in Bancroft Library; Dolores Waldorf, "Gentleman From Vermont: Royal H. Waller," California Historical Society Quarterly, 22 (1943), 110-118; SFPOA, Ninth Annual Report of the San Francisco Orphan Asylum Society (San Francisco, 1859), 6, located in San Francisco History Room, San Francisco Public Library, San Francisco; Nellie Stow, Tower of Strength in the City's Building: The Ninetieth Anniversary of the San Francisco Protestant Orphanage (San Francisco, n.d.), 3-4. The records of local women's charities must be taken with a grain of salt. Especially in their annual reports (which were distributed as fund-raising tools), the women's activities were painted in the most glowing terms. The same can also be said of the other primary materials used - the annual reports of public institutions. The only other contemporary sources commenting on public and private agencies were the local newspapers, but these were not entirely objective either: Editors were as likely to castigate the administrators of public institutions for extravagance as they were unlikely to criticize the leaders of women's charities, who were often the wives of leading citizens. Despite these drawbacks, if we are to learn anything about how social welfare emerged in San Francisco, these are the best available sources.
92. Mrs. W. A. [Anna Bissell] Haight, Some Reminiscences of the San Francisco Protestant Orphan Asylum (San Francisco, 1900), 2, in Bancroft Library; Dolores Waldorf, "Gentleman From Vermont: Royal H. Waller," California Historical Society Quarterly, 22 (1943), 110-118; SFPOA, Ninth Annual Report of the San Francisco Orphan Asylum Society (San Francisco, 1859), 6, located in San Francisco History Room, San Francisco Public Library, San Francisco; Nellie Stow, Tower of Strength in the City's Building: The Ninetieth Anniversary of the San Francisco Protestant Orphanage (San Francisco, n.d.), 3-4. The records of local women's charities must be taken with a grain of salt. Especially in their annual reports (which were distributed as fund-raising tools), the women's activities were painted in the most glowing terms. The same can also be said of the other primary materials used - the annual reports of public institutions. The only other contemporary sources commenting on public and private agencies were the local newspapers, but these were not entirely objective either: Editors were as likely to castigate the administrators of public institutions for extravagance as they were unlikely to criticize the leaders of women's charities, who were often the wives of leading citizens. Despite these drawbacks, if we are to learn anything about how social welfare emerged in San Francisco, these are the best available sources.
93. Mrs. W. A. [Anna Bissell] Haight, Some Reminiscences of the San Francisco Protestant Orphan Asylum (San Francisco, 1900), 2, in Bancroft Library; Dolores Waldorf, "Gentleman From Vermont: Royal H. Waller," California Historical Society Quarterly, 22 (1943), 110-118; SFPOA, Ninth Annual Report of the San Francisco Orphan Asylum Society (San Francisco, 1859), 6, located in San Francisco History Room, San Francisco Public Library, San Francisco; Nellie Stow, Tower of Strength in the City's Building: The Ninetieth Anniversary of the San Francisco Protestant Orphanage (San Francisco, n.d.), 3-4. The records of local women's charities must be taken with a grain of salt. Especially in their annual reports (which were distributed as fund-raising tools), the women's activities were painted in the most glowing terms. The same can also be said of the other primary materials used - the annual reports of public institutions. The only other contemporary sources commenting on public and private agencies were the local newspapers, but these were not entirely objective either: Editors were as likely to castigate the administrators of public institutions for extravagance as they were unlikely to criticize the leaders of women's charities, who were often the wives of leading citizens. Despite these drawbacks, if we are to learn anything about how social welfare emerged in San Francisco, these are the best available sources.
94. Mrs. W. A. [Anna Bissell] Haight, Some Reminiscences of the San Francisco Protestant Orphan Asylum (San Francisco, 1900), 2, in Bancroft Library; Dolores Waldorf, "Gentleman From Vermont: Royal H. Waller," California Historical Society Quarterly, 22 (1943), 110-118; SFPOA, Ninth Annual Report of the San Francisco Orphan Asylum Society (San Francisco, 1859), 6, located in San Francisco History Room, San Francisco Public Library, San Francisco; Nellie Stow, Tower of Strength in the City's Building: The Ninetieth Anniversary of the San Francisco Protestant Orphanage (San Francisco, n.d.), 3-4. The records of local women's charities must be taken with a grain of salt. Especially in their annual reports (which were distributed as fund-raising tools), the women's activities were painted in the most glowing terms. The same can also be said of the other primary materials used - the annual reports of public institutions. The only other contemporary sources commenting on public and private agencies were the local newspapers, but these were not entirely objective either: Editors were as likely to castigate the administrators of public institutions for extravagance as they were unlikely to criticize the leaders of women's charities, who were often the wives of leading citizens. Despite these drawbacks, if we are to learn anything about how social welfare emerged in San Francisco, these are the best available sources.
95. Scott, Natural Allies, 52-53.
96. See Emanu-El Sisterhood for Personal Service, First Annual Report, 1894-1897 (San Francisco, 1895), 7, in Emanu-El Sisterhood Papers, Judah L. Magnes Memorial Museum/The Jewish Museum of the West, Berkeley.
97. Ladies' Depository, Annual Report of the Ladies' Depository, Constitution and Rules for the Government of the Ladies' Depository of San Francisco (San Francisco, 1867), as well as the second, and fifth annual reports (1868 and 1871, respectively) in California Historical Society, San Francisco.
98. Ibid.; Mary Lou Locke, "Out of the Shadows and into the Western Sun: Working Women of the Late Nineteenth-Century Urban Far West," Journal of Urban History, 16 (1990), 175-204.
99. Ibid.; Mary Lou Locke, "Out of the Shadows and into the Western Sun: Working Women of the Late Nineteenth-Century Urban Far West," Journal of Urban History, 16 (1990), 175-204.
100. San Francisco Female Hospital (hereafter SFFH), Report of the San Francisco Female Hospital of the State of California (San Francisco, 1869), in California State Library, Sutro Branch, San Francisco; Report of the San Francisco Female Hospital of the State of California (San Francisco, 1874), 6, 9, in California Historical Society, San Francisco; Langley, San Francisco directory for the year commencing April, 1871 (San Francisco, 1871), 883. On nineteenth-century medical philanthropy, see McCarthy, Noblesse Oblige, 39-42; McCarthy, "Parallel Power Structures," 17. Nineteenth-century hospitals were usually charity hospitals; those who could afford it received medical treatment at home. Morris Vogel, The Invention of the Modern Hospital (Chicago, 1980), 9-11, 97-106; Regina Markell Morantz-Sanchez, Sympathy and Science: Women Physicians in American Medicine (New York, 1985), 18-26.
101. San Francisco Female Hospital (hereafter SFFH), Report of the San Francisco Female Hospital of the State of California (San Francisco, 1869), in California State Library, Sutro Branch, San Francisco; Report of the San Francisco Female Hospital of the State of California (San Francisco, 1874), 6, 9, in California Historical Society, San Francisco; Langley, San Francisco directory for the year commencing April, 1871 (San Francisco, 1871), 883. On nineteenth-century medical philanthropy, see McCarthy, Noblesse Oblige, 39-42; McCarthy, "Parallel Power Structures," 17. Nineteenth-century hospitals were usually charity hospitals; those who could afford it received medical treatment at home. Morris Vogel, The Invention of the Modern Hospital (Chicago, 1980), 9-11, 97-106; Regina Markell Morantz-Sanchez, Sympathy and Science: Women Physicians in American Medicine (New York, 1985), 18-26.
102. San Francisco Female Hospital (hereafter SFFH), Report of the San Francisco Female Hospital of the State of California (San Francisco, 1869), in California State Library, Sutro Branch, San Francisco; Report of the San Francisco Female Hospital of the State of California (San Francisco, 1874), 6, 9, in California Historical Society, San Francisco; Langley, San Francisco directory for the year commencing April, 1871 (San Francisco, 1871), 883. On nineteenth-century medical philanthropy, see McCarthy, Noblesse Oblige, 39-42; McCarthy, "Parallel Power Structures," 17. Nineteenth-century hospitals were usually charity hospitals; those who could afford it received medical treatment at home. Morris Vogel, The Invention of the Modern Hospital (Chicago, 1980), 9-11, 97-106; Regina Markell Morantz-Sanchez, Sympathy and Science: Women Physicians in American Medicine (New York, 1985), 18-26.
103. San Francisco Female Hospital (hereafter SFFH), Report of the San Francisco Female Hospital of the State of California (San Francisco, 1869), in California State Library, Sutro Branch, San Francisco; Report of the San Francisco Female Hospital of the State of California (San Francisco, 1874), 6, 9, in California Historical Society, San Francisco; Langley, San Francisco directory for the year commencing April, 1871 (San Francisco, 1871), 883. On nineteenth-century medical philanthropy, see McCarthy, Noblesse Oblige, 39-42; McCarthy, "Parallel Power Structures," 17. Nineteenth-century hospitals were usually charity hospitals; those who could afford it received medical treatment at home. Morris Vogel, The Invention of the Modern Hospital (Chicago, 1980), 9-11, 97-106; Regina Markell Morantz-Sanchez, Sympathy and Science: Women Physicians in American Medicine (New York, 1985), 18-26.
104. San Francisco Female Hospital (hereafter SFFH), Report of the San Francisco Female Hospital of the State of California (San Francisco, 1869), in California State Library, Sutro Branch, San Francisco; Report of the San Francisco Female Hospital of the State of California (San Francisco, 1874), 6, 9, in California Historical Society, San Francisco; Langley, San Francisco directory for the year commencing April, 1871 (San Francisco, 1871), 883. On nineteenth-century medical philanthropy, see McCarthy, Noblesse Oblige, 39-42; McCarthy, "Parallel Power Structures," 17. Nineteenth-century hospitals were usually charity hospitals; those who could afford it received medical treatment at home. Morris Vogel, The Invention of the Modern Hospital (Chicago, 1980), 9-11, 97-106; Regina Markell Morantz-Sanchez, Sympathy and Science: Women Physicians in American Medicine (New York, 1985), 18-26.
105. San Francisco Female Hospital (hereafter SFFH), Report of the San Francisco Female Hospital of the State of California (San Francisco, 1869), in California State Library, Sutro Branch, San Francisco; Report of the San Francisco Female Hospital of the State of California (San Francisco, 1874), 6, 9, in California Historical Society, San Francisco; Langley, San Francisco directory for the year commencing April, 1871 (San Francisco, 1871), 883. On nineteenth-century medical philanthropy, see McCarthy, Noblesse Oblige, 39-42; McCarthy, "Parallel Power Structures," 17. Nineteenth-century hospitals were usually charity hospitals; those who could afford it received medical treatment at home. Morris Vogel, The Invention of the Modern Hospital (Chicago, 1980), 9-11, 97-106; Regina Markell Morantz-Sanchez, Sympathy and Science: Women Physicians in American Medicine (New York, 1985), 18-26.
106. San Francisco Female Hospital (hereafter SFFH), Report of the San Francisco Female Hospital of the State of California (San Francisco, 1869), in California State Library, Sutro Branch, San Francisco; Report of the San Francisco Female Hospital of the State of California (San Francisco, 1874), 6, 9, in California Historical Society, San Francisco; Langley, San Francisco directory for the year commencing April, 1871 (San Francisco, 1871), 883. On nineteenth-century medical philanthropy, see McCarthy, Noblesse Oblige, 39-42; McCarthy, "Parallel Power Structures," 17. Nineteenth-century hospitals were usually charity hospitals; those who could afford it received medical treatment at home. Morris Vogel, The Invention of the Modern Hospital (Chicago, 1980), 9-11, 97-106; Regina Markell Morantz-Sanchez, Sympathy and Science: Women Physicians in American Medicine (New York, 1985), 18-26.
107. SFFH, Report . . . 1874, 6-9, 11. Neither local newspapers nor surviving reports explain the opposition hinted at by Dr. Deane. My suspicion that it related to the admission of unwed mothers is based on the hospital's annual tally of illegitimate births, followed by the assertion that these infants would have "shared the fate of so many thousands of innocents murdered in their mothers' womb." SFFH leaders were, in essence, arguing that it was better to deliver the babies of "forsaken" and "erring" women than to risk the possibility of abortion. SFFH, Report . . . 1874, 6; Langley, San Francisco directory . . . 1871, 883.
108. SFFH, Report . . . 1874, 6-9, 11. Neither local newspapers nor surviving reports explain the opposition hinted at by Dr. Deane. My suspicion that it related to the admission of unwed mothers is based on the hospital's annual tally of illegitimate births, followed by the assertion that these infants would have "shared the fate of so many thousands of innocents murdered in their mothers' womb." SFFH leaders were, in essence, arguing that it was better to deliver the babies of "forsaken" and "erring" women than to risk the possibility of abortion. SFFH, Report . . . 1874, 6; Langley, San Francisco directory . . . 1871, 883.
109. SFFH, Report . . . 1874, 6-9, 11. Neither local newspapers nor surviving reports explain the opposition hinted at by Dr. Deane. My suspicion that it related to the admission of unwed mothers is based on the hospital's annual tally of illegitimate births, followed by the assertion that these infants would have "shared the fate of so many thousands of innocents murdered in their mothers' womb." SFFH leaders were, in essence, arguing that it was better to deliver the babies of "forsaken" and "erring" women than to risk the possibility of abortion. SFFH, Report . . . 1874, 6; Langley, San Francisco directory . . . 1871, 883.
110. SFFH, Report . . . 1874, 11-12.
111. Carol Green Wilson, A History of the Heritage, 1853-1970 (San Francisco, 1970), 3-5; San Francisco Ladies' Protection and Relief Society (hereafter SFLP&RS), Articles of Incorporation (San Francisco, 1855), located in SFLP&RS Records, 1854-1969, MS 3576, in California Historical Society, San Francisco.
112. Carol Green Wilson, A History of the Heritage, 1853-1970 (San Francisco, 1970), 3-5; San Francisco Ladies' Protection and Relief Society (hereafter SFLP&RS), Articles of Incorporation (San Francisco, 1855), located in SFLP&RS Records, 1854-1969, MS 3576, in California Historical Society, San Francisco.
113. Shackelford, "To Shield Them from Temptation," 326.
114. SFLP&RS, "Minutes," May 26, 1858, Nov. 25, 1857, SFLP&RS Records.
115. Ibid., Nov. 14, 1860. According to Michael Katz, sickness was the primary reason that urban working-class families became dependent upon charity. Michael B. Katz, Poverty and Policy in American History (New York, 1983), 17-54.
116. Ibid., Nov. 14, 1860. According to Michael Katz, sickness was the primary reason that urban working-class families became dependent upon charity. Michael B. Katz, Poverty and Policy in American History (New York, 1983), 17-54.
117. SFLP&RS, Twenty-Third and Twenty-Fourth Annual Reports of the Managers and Trustees of the San Francisco Ladies' Protection and Relief Society for the Two Years Ending September 1, 1877 (San Francisco, 1877), 6-7, SFLP&RS Records.
118. Ryan, Civic Wars, 248-249; Ginzberg, Work of Benevolence, 202; Nancy A. Hewitt, "Beyond the Search for Sisterhood: American Women's History in the 1980s," in Ellen Carol DuBois and Vicki L. Ruiz, eds., Unequal Sisters: A Multicultural Reader in U.S. Women's History (New York, 1990), 9-11; Christine Stansell, City of Women: Sex and Class in New York, 1789-1860 (New York, 1990), 66.
119. Ryan, Civic Wars, 248-249; Ginzberg, Work of Benevolence, 202; Nancy A. Hewitt, "Beyond the Search for Sisterhood: American Women's History in the 1980s," in Ellen Carol DuBois and Vicki L. Ruiz, eds., Unequal Sisters: A Multicultural Reader in U.S. Women's History (New York, 1990), 9-11; Christine Stansell, City of Women: Sex and Class in New York, 1789-1860 (New York, 1990), 66.
120. Ryan, Civic Wars, 248-249; Ginzberg, Work of Benevolence, 202; Nancy A. Hewitt, "Beyond the Search for Sisterhood: American Women's History in the 1980s," in Ellen Carol DuBois and Vicki L. Ruiz, eds., Unequal Sisters: A Multicultural Reader in U.S. Women's History (New York, 1990), 9-11; Christine Stansell, City of Women: Sex and Class in New York, 1789-1860 (New York, 1990), 66.
121. Ryan, Civic Wars, 248-249; Ginzberg, Work of Benevolence, 202; Nancy A. Hewitt, "Beyond the Search for Sisterhood: American Women's History in the 1980s," in Ellen Carol DuBois and Vicki L. Ruiz, eds., Unequal Sisters: A Multicultural Reader in U.S. Women's History (New York, 1990), 9-11; Christine Stansell, City of Women: Sex and Class in New York, 1789-1860 (New York, 1990), 66.
122. Nancy Hewitt, Anne M. Boylan, and Lori Ginzberg studied the status of organized women, and found that middle-and upper-class women were more likely to join benevolent societies than "radical" organizations, such as those supporting abolition or woman suffrage. Ginzberg, Work of Benevolence, 6.
123. San Francisco Daily Alta California, July 11, 1853, p. 2.
124. Ethington, "Structures of Urban Political Life," 48-53.
125. Shackelford, "To Shield Them from Temptation," 321. The SFPOA probably lost this funding in the taxpayers' revolt of 1856; when San Francisco began publishing its Municipal Reports in 1860, the appropriation no longer appeared.
126. Shackelford, "To Shield Them from Temptation," 319.
127. Stow, Tower of Strength, 4; Haight, Some Reminiscences, 6-10; Shackelford, "To Shield Them from Temptation," 330, 326; Pacific Dispensary [Children's Hospital], Second Report of the Pacific Dispensary (San Francisco, 1878), 8, in Children's Hospital of San Francisco Records, BANC MSS 89/87c, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley; Ethington, Public City, 332.
128. Stow, Tower of Strength, 4; Haight, Some Reminiscences, 6-10; Shackelford, "To Shield Them from Temptation," 330, 326; Pacific Dispensary [Children's Hospital], Second Report of the Pacific Dispensary (San Francisco, 1878), 8, in Children's Hospital of San Francisco Records, BANC MSS 89/87c, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley; Ethington, Public City, 332.
129. Stow, Tower of Strength, 4; Haight, Some Reminiscences, 6-10; Shackelford, "To Shield Them from Temptation," 330, 326; Pacific Dispensary [Children's Hospital], Second Report of the Pacific Dispensary (San Francisco, 1878), 8, in Children's Hospital of San Francisco Records, BANC MSS 89/87c, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley; Ethington, Public City, 332.
130. Stow, Tower of Strength, 4; Haight, Some Reminiscences, 6-10; Shackelford, "To Shield Them from Temptation," 330, 326; Pacific Dispensary [Children's Hospital], Second Report of the Pacific Dispensary (San Francisco, 1878), 8, in Children's Hospital of San Francisco Records, BANC MSS 89/87c, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley; Ethington, Public City, 332.
131. Stow, Tower of Strength, 4; Haight, Some Reminiscences, 6-10; Shackelford, "To Shield Them from Temptation," 330, 326; Pacific Dispensary [Children's Hospital], Second Report of the Pacific Dispensary (San Francisco, 1878), 8, in Children's Hospital of San Francisco Records, BANC MSS 89/87c, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley; Ethington, Public City, 332.
132. Gunther Barth, Instant Cities: Urbanization and the Rise of San Francisco and Denver (New York, 1975), ix.
133. Stow, Tower of Strength, 4; Haight, Some Reminiscences, 8, 10-12; Luckingham, "Associational Life," 29; SFLP&RS, "Minutes," Aug. 10, 1859, SFLP&RS Records; Rowena Beans, Inasmuch . . . The One Hundred Year History of the San Francisco Ladies Protection and Relief Society, 1853-1953 (Berkeley, 1953), 3; Hospital for Children and Training School for Nurses (hereafter Children's Hospital), Report of the Hospital for Children and Training School for Nurses (San Francisco, 1888), 15, 37, Children's Hospital of San Francisco Records. The "vara," a vestige of California's Spanish past, is 0.84 meters in length.
134. Stow, Tower of Strength, 4; Haight, Some Reminiscences, 8, 10-12; Luckingham, "Associational Life," 29; SFLP&RS, "Minutes," Aug. 10, 1859, SFLP&RS Records; Rowena Beans, Inasmuch . . . The One Hundred Year History of the San Francisco Ladies Protection and Relief Society, 1853-1953 (Berkeley, 1953), 3; Hospital for Children and Training School for Nurses (hereafter Children's Hospital), Report of the Hospital for Children and Training School for Nurses (San Francisco, 1888), 15, 37, Children's Hospital of San Francisco Records. The "vara," a vestige of California's Spanish past, is 0.84 meters in length.
135. Stow, Tower of Strength, 4; Haight, Some Reminiscences, 8, 10-12; Luckingham, "Associational Life," 29; SFLP&RS, "Minutes," Aug. 10, 1859, SFLP&RS Records; Rowena Beans, Inasmuch . . . The One Hundred Year History of the San Francisco Ladies Protection and Relief Society, 1853-1953 (Berkeley, 1953), 3; Hospital for Children and Training School for Nurses (hereafter Children's Hospital), Report of the Hospital for Children and Training School for Nurses (San Francisco, 1888), 15, 37, Children's Hospital of San Francisco Records. The "vara," a vestige of California's Spanish past, is 0.84 meters in length.
136. Stow, Tower of Strength, 4; Haight, Some Reminiscences, 8, 10-12; Luckingham, "Associational Life," 29; SFLP&RS, "Minutes," Aug. 10, 1859, SFLP&RS Records; Rowena Beans, Inasmuch . . . The One Hundred Year History of the San Francisco Ladies Protection and Relief Society, 1853-1953 (Berkeley, 1953), 3; Hospital for Children and Training School for Nurses (hereafter Children's Hospital), Report of the Hospital for Children and Training School for Nurses (San Francisco, 1888), 15, 37, Children's Hospital of San Francisco Records. The "vara," a vestige of California's Spanish past, is 0.84 meters in length.
137. Stow, Tower of Strength, 4; Haight, Some Reminiscences, 8, 10-12; Luckingham, "Associational Life," 29; SFLP&RS, "Minutes," Aug. 10, 1859, SFLP&RS Records; Rowena Beans, Inasmuch . . . The One Hundred Year History of the San Francisco Ladies Protection and Relief Society, 1853-1953 (Berkeley, 1953), 3; Hospital for Children and Training School for Nurses (hereafter Children's Hospital), Report of the Hospital for Children and Training School for Nurses (San Francisco, 1888), 15, 37, Children's Hospital of San Francisco Records. The "vara," a vestige of California's Spanish past, is 0.84 meters in length.
138. Stow, Tower of Strength, 4; Haight, Some Reminiscences, 8, 10-12; Luckingham, "Associational Life," 29; SFLP&RS, "Minutes," Aug. 10, 1859, SFLP&RS Records; Rowena Beans, Inasmuch . . . The One Hundred Year History of the San Francisco Ladies Protection and Relief Society, 1853-1953 (Berkeley, 1953), 3; Hospital for Children and Training School for Nurses (hereafter Children's Hospital), Report of the Hospital for Children and Training School for Nurses (San Francisco, 1888), 15, 37, Children's Hospital of San Francisco Records. The "vara," a vestige of California's Spanish past, is 0.84 meters in length.
139. Luckingham, "Associational Life," 29; Haight, Some Reminiscences, 7.
140. Luckingham, "Associational Life," 29; Haight, Some Reminiscences, 7.
141. Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Susan B. Anthony, and Matilda Joslyn Gage, History of Woman Suffrage (6 vols., New York, 1881-1922), 2: 749-768.
142. Pascoe, Relations of Rescue, 15-17; Linda K. Kerber. "Separate Spheres, Female Worlds, Woman's Place: The Rhetoric of Women's History," Journal of American History, 75 (1988), 9-39, 26. I found very few local women who belonged to both charitable associations and the state woman suffrage organization; the notable exception was Marietta Stow. See Donna C. Schuele, "In Her Own Way: Marietta Stow's Crusade for Probate Law Reform Within the Nineteenth-Century Woman's Rights Movement," Yale Journal of Law and Feminism, 7 (1995), 279-306.
143. Pascoe, Relations of Rescue, 15-17; Linda K. Kerber. "Separate Spheres, Female Worlds, Woman's Place: The Rhetoric of Women's History," Journal of American History, 75 (1988), 9-39, 26. I found very few local women who belonged to both charitable associations and the state woman suffrage organization; the notable exception was Marietta Stow. See Donna C. Schuele, "In Her Own Way: Marietta Stow's Crusade for Probate Law Reform Within the Nineteenth-Century Woman's Rights Movement," Yale Journal of Law and Feminism, 7 (1995), 279-306.
144. Pascoe, Relations of Rescue, 15-17; Linda K. Kerber. "Separate Spheres, Female Worlds, Woman's Place: The Rhetoric of Women's History," Journal of American History, 75 (1988), 9-39, 26. I found very few local women who belonged to both charitable associations and the state woman suffrage organization; the notable exception was Marietta Stow. See Donna C. Schuele, "In Her Own Way: Marietta Stow's Crusade for Probate Law Reform Within the Nineteenth-Century Woman's Rights Movement," Yale Journal of Law and Feminism, 7 (1995), 279-306.
145. Hendricks, "Feminism and Maternalism," 62; Dr. Adelaide Brown, "The History of the Children's Hospital in Relation to Medical Women" (typescript, n.d. [probably Sept. 1920]), Children's Hospital of San Francisco Records; Joan M. Jensen and Gloria Ricci Lothrop, California Women: A History (San Francisco, 1987), 186.
146. Hendricks, "Feminism and Maternalism," 62; Dr. Adelaide Brown, "The History of the Children's Hospital in Relation to Medical Women" (typescript, n.d. [probably Sept. 1920]), Children's Hospital of San Francisco Records; Joan M. Jensen and Gloria Ricci Lothrop, California Women: A History (San Francisco, 1987), 186.
147. Hendricks, "Feminism and Maternalism," 62; Dr. Adelaide Brown, "The History of the Children's Hospital in Relation to Medical Women" (typescript, n.d. [probably Sept. 1920]), Children's Hospital of San Francisco Records; Joan M. Jensen and Gloria Ricci Lothrop, California Women: A History (San Francisco, 1987), 186.
148. Children's Hospital, Annual Report for the Hospital for Children and Training School for Nurses (San Francisco, 1889), 18 (emphasis in original), Children's Hospital of San Francisco Records.
149. Kerber, "Separate Spheres," 9-39, 26; Ginzberg, Work of Benevolence, 68.
150. Kerber, "Separate Spheres," 9-39, 26; Ginzberg, Work of Benevolence, 68.
151. Kerber, "Separate Spheres," 9-39, 26.
152. Roth, "Cholera, Community, and Public Health," 534.
153. Katz, Poverty and Policy, 132; David J. Rothman, The Discovery of the Asylum: Social Order and Disorder in the New Republic (Boston, 1971), 28, 166-167, 183.
154. Katz, Poverty and Policy, 132; David J. Rothman, The Discovery of the Asylum: Social Order and Disorder in the New Republic (Boston, 1971), 28, 166-167, 183.
155. San Francisco Board of Supervisors, "Auditor's Report," San Francisco Municipal Reports for the Fiscal Year 1871-1872 (San Francisco, 1872; hereafter, Municipal Reports). Note the city's choice of a private male-led charity to distribute outdoor relief. The Municipal Reports do not explain the selection, but I suspect the SFBS was chosen, in part, because the funds were to be distributed to men. For that, propriety dictated that a male-led agency would be preferable to a female-led agency. Unfortunately. I cannot determine how the funds were distributed because no SFBS organizational records survive.
156. Jenness, Charities of San Francisco, ii, iv. Following the 1906 earthquake, private institutions were overcrowded, and the city began boarding children in private homes at taxpayer expense. When leaders realized that those funds could be used to keep children at home, the city began paying some widowed mothers to care for their own children in their own homes; these payments became the precedent for distribution of "mother's pensionsin California in 1913. San Francisco's first direct distribution of outdoor relief to adults came with the New Deal in 1933. Shackelford, "To Shield Them from Temptation," n. 69, 412; Cahn and Bary, Welfare Activities, 174-175.
157. Jenness, Charities of San Francisco, ii, iv. Following the 1906 earthquake, private institutions were overcrowded, and the city began boarding children in private homes at taxpayer expense. When leaders realized that those funds could be used to keep children at home, the city began paying some widowed mothers to care for their own children in their own homes; these payments became the precedent for distribution of "mother's pensionsin California in 1913. San Francisco's first direct distribution of outdoor relief to adults came with the New Deal in 1933. Shackelford, "To Shield Them from Temptation," n. 69, 412; Cahn and Bary, Welfare Activities, 174-175.
158. Jenness, Charities of San Francisco, ii, iv. Following the 1906 earthquake, private institutions were overcrowded, and the city began boarding children in private homes at taxpayer expense. When leaders realized that those funds could be used to keep children at home, the city began paying some widowed mothers to care for their own children in their own homes; these payments became the precedent for distribution of "mother's pensionsin California in 1913. San Francisco's first direct distribution of outdoor relief to adults came with the New Deal in 1933. Shackelford, "To Shield Them from Temptation," n. 69, 412; Cahn and Bary, Welfare Activities, 174-175.
159. Wilson, History of the Heritage, 23; according to its 1877 report, the SFLP&RS also gave outdoor relief in 1859, 1860, and 1869. Unfortunately, the reports from those years are not available. SFLP&RS, Twenty-Third and Twenty-Fourth Annual Reports of the Managers and Trustees of the San Francisco Ladies' Protection and Relief Society for the Two Years Ending September 1, 1877 (San Francisco, 1877), 6-7, SFLP&RS Papers.
160. Wilson, History of the Heritage, 23; according to its 1877 report, the SFLP&RS also gave outdoor relief in 1859, 1860, and 1869. Unfortunately, the reports from those years are not available. SFLP&RS, Twenty-Third and Twenty-Fourth Annual Reports of the Managers and Trustees of the San Francisco Ladies' Protection and Relief Society for the Two Years Ending September 1, 1877 (San Francisco, 1877), 6-7, SFLP&RS Papers.
161. Jenness, Charities of San Francisco, ii, iv.
162. California Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children (CSPCC) records do not mention what happened to Mary Walker. CSPCC, First Annual Report for the Year Ending December 31, 1877 (San Francisco, 1877), 16, located in Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley.
163. Eighteen children were placed in private, male-led facilities (thirteen were sent to St. Joseph's Youth Directory, managed by the Reverend William O. Mahoney, five to St. Vincent's Orphan Asylum, operated by the Brothers of the Order of St. Dominic). Twenty-two were placed in woman-led facilities (twelve children to the SFLP&RS Home, ten to the Home of Friendless Children). Ibid., 19; Shackelford, "To Shield Them from Temptation," 312-314; Jenness, The Charities of San Francisco, 41.
164. Eighteen children were placed in private, male-led facilities (thirteen were sent to St. Joseph's Youth Directory, managed by the Reverend William O. Mahoney, five to St. Vincent's Orphan Asylum, operated by the Brothers of the Order of St. Dominic). Twenty-two were placed in woman-led facilities (twelve children to the SFLP&RS Home, ten to the Home of Friendless Children). Ibid., 19; Shackelford, "To Shield Them from Temptation," 312-314; Jenness, The Charities of San Francisco, 41.
165. Eighteen children were placed in private, male-led facilities (thirteen were sent to St. Joseph's Youth Directory, managed by the Reverend William O. Mahoney, five to St. Vincent's Orphan Asylum, operated by the Brothers of the Order of St. Dominic). Twenty-two were placed in woman-led facilities (twelve children to the SFLP&RS Home, ten to the Home of Friendless Children). Ibid., 19; Shackelford, "To Shield Them from Temptation," 312-314; Jenness, The Charities of San Francisco, 41.
166. CSPCC, Third Annual Report for the Year Ending December 31, 1879 (San Francisco, 1879). The Roman Catholic Orphan Asylum and Mt. St. Joseph's Infant Asylum were managed by the Sisters of Mercy and the Sisters of Charity, respectively. Ruth Shackelford provides an invaluable study of the charity work of Catholic women in San Francisco in "To Shield Them from Temptation," 287-428.
167. CSPCC, Third Annual Report for the Year Ending December 31, 1879 (San Francisco, 1879). The Roman Catholic Orphan Asylum and Mt. St. Joseph's Infant Asylum were managed by the Sisters of Mercy and the Sisters of Charity, respectively. Ruth Shackelford provides an invaluable study of the charity work of Catholic women in San Francisco in "To Shield Them from Temptation," 287-428.
168. Rev. Dennis John Kavanaugh, S.J., The Holy Family Sisters of San Francisco: A Sketch of Their First Fifty Years (San Francisco, 1922), 27-53.
169. Municipal Reports, 1867-1868, p. 392.
170. SFFH, Report . . . 1874, 5.
171. Ginzberg, Work of Benevolence, 202.
172. Capt. Joseph C. Morrill, The Industrial School Investigation, With a Glance at the Great Reformation and Its Results (San Francisco, 1872); San Francisco Daily Evening Bulletin, July 2, 8-10, 13, 27, 1869.
173. Capt. Joseph C. Morrill, The Industrial School Investigation, With a Glance at the Great Reformation and Its Results (San Francisco, 1872); San Francisco Daily Evening Bulletin, July 2, 8-10, 13, 27, 1869.
174. Daily Evening Bulletin, March 8, 1869, quoted in SFFH, Report . . . 1874, 5.
175. Daily Evening Bulletin, March 8, 1869, quoted in SFFH, Report . . . 1874, 5.
176. Ibid.
177. SFLP&RS, "Minutes" Feb. 22, 1870, SFLP&RS Records.
178. Ibid., Jan. 4, 1870.
179. Ibid., Jan. 3, 1871.
180. See, for example, employee Henry Funk's description of conditions in the City Alms House in the period 1871 to 1878, in Henry Funk, The True Life at the Last Chance; or, Seven Years, Six Months, and Three Weeks in a Human Slaughter House (San Francisco, 1878), held in the Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley.
181. Again underscoring the city's reliance on private, woman-led facilities, the Industrial School began sending female juveniles to the Sisters of Mercy Magdalene Asylum in 1869. Shackelford, "To Shield Them from Temptation," 361.
182. SFLP&RS, "Minutes," 1872-1879, SFLP&RS Records; Municipal Reports, 1872-1879. Formula: The SFLP&RS provided monthly inmate figures, but public institutions reported the number of inmates only at the beginning and end of each report year. The monthly average for public institutions is the average of the beginning and ending populations. Both public and private facilities provided annual expenditures. To arrive at average cost per inmate per month for public and private institutions, I multiplied the average number of inmates per month by twelve, and divided total expenditures by this figure.
183. SFLP&RS, "Minutes," 1872-1879, SFLP&RS Records; Municipal Reports, 1872-1879. Formula: The SFLP&RS provided monthly inmate figures, but public institutions reported the number of inmates only at the beginning and end of each report year. The monthly average for public institutions is the average of the beginning and ending populations. Both public and private facilities provided annual expenditures. To arrive at average cost per inmate per month for public and private institutions, I multiplied the average number of inmates per month by twelve, and divided total expenditures by this figure.
184. For the period 1872-1880, the city spent $33,000 more on Industrial School salaries ($146,056.37) than on food/provisions ($112,711.31). Municipal Reports, 1872-1880.
185. Ibid., 1859-1880.
186. Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers, 72; Warner, Private City, xiii, 99, 175-176, 202; Flanagan, Charter Reform, 18-20; Ryan, Civic Wars, 101; Michael B. Katz, In the Shadow of the Poorhouse: A Social History of Welfare in America (New York, 1996), 26-27; Katz, Poverty and Policy, 11-12; Steven Mintz, Moralists and Modernizes: America's Pre-Civil War Reformers (Baltimore, 1995), 85; Priscilla Ferguson Clement, Welfare and the Poor in the Nineteenth-Century City: Philadelphia, 1800-1854 (Cranbury, N.J., 1985), 43, 59; Stephen J. Leonard and Thomas J. Noel, Denver: Mining Camp to Metropolis (Niwot, Colo., 1994), 68-69.
187. Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers, 72; Warner, Private City, xiii, 99, 175-176, 202; Flanagan, Charter Reform, 18-20; Ryan, Civic Wars, 101; Michael B. Katz, In the Shadow of the Poorhouse: A Social History of Welfare in America (New York, 1996), 26-27; Katz, Poverty and Policy, 11-12; Steven Mintz, Moralists and Modernizes: America's Pre-Civil War Reformers (Baltimore, 1995), 85; Priscilla Ferguson Clement, Welfare and the Poor in the Nineteenth-Century City: Philadelphia, 1800-1854 (Cranbury, N.J., 1985), 43, 59; Stephen J. Leonard and Thomas J. Noel, Denver: Mining Camp to Metropolis (Niwot, Colo., 1994), 68-69.
188. Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers, 72; Warner, Private City, xiii, 99, 175-176, 202; Flanagan, Charter Reform, 18-20; Ryan, Civic Wars, 101; Michael B. Katz, In the Shadow of the Poorhouse: A Social History of Welfare in America (New York, 1996), 26-27; Katz, Poverty and Policy, 11-12; Steven Mintz, Moralists and Modernizes: America's Pre-Civil War Reformers (Baltimore, 1995), 85; Priscilla Ferguson Clement, Welfare and the Poor in the Nineteenth-Century City: Philadelphia, 1800-1854 (Cranbury, N.J., 1985), 43, 59; Stephen J. Leonard and Thomas J. Noel, Denver: Mining Camp to Metropolis (Niwot, Colo., 1994), 68-69.
189. Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers, 72; Warner, Private City, xiii, 99, 175-176, 202; Flanagan, Charter Reform, 18-20; Ryan, Civic Wars, 101; Michael B. Katz, In the Shadow of the Poorhouse: A Social History of Welfare in America (New York, 1996), 26-27; Katz, Poverty and Policy, 11-12; Steven Mintz, Moralists and Modernizes: America's Pre-Civil War Reformers (Baltimore, 1995), 85; Priscilla Ferguson Clement, Welfare and the Poor in the Nineteenth-Century City: Philadelphia, 1800-1854 (Cranbury, N.J., 1985), 43, 59; Stephen J. Leonard and Thomas J. Noel, Denver: Mining Camp to Metropolis (Niwot, Colo., 1994), 68-69.
190. Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers, 72; Warner, Private City, xiii, 99, 175-176, 202; Flanagan, Charter Reform, 18-20; Ryan, Civic Wars, 101; Michael B. Katz, In the Shadow of the Poorhouse: A Social History of Welfare in America (New York, 1996), 26-27; Katz, Poverty and Policy, 11-12; Steven Mintz, Moralists and Modernizes: America's Pre-Civil War Reformers (Baltimore, 1995), 85; Priscilla Ferguson Clement, Welfare and the Poor in the Nineteenth-Century City: Philadelphia, 1800-1854 (Cranbury, N.J., 1985), 43, 59; Stephen J. Leonard and Thomas J. Noel, Denver: Mining Camp to Metropolis (Niwot, Colo., 1994), 68-69.
191. Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers, 72; Warner, Private City, xiii, 99, 175-176, 202; Flanagan, Charter Reform, 18-20; Ryan, Civic Wars, 101; Michael B. Katz, In the Shadow of the Poorhouse: A Social History of Welfare in America (New York, 1996), 26-27; Katz, Poverty and Policy, 11-12; Steven Mintz, Moralists and Modernizes: America's Pre-Civil War Reformers (Baltimore, 1995), 85; Priscilla Ferguson Clement, Welfare and the Poor in the Nineteenth-Century City: Philadelphia, 1800-1854 (Cranbury, N.J., 1985), 43, 59; Stephen J. Leonard and Thomas J. Noel, Denver: Mining Camp to Metropolis (Niwot, Colo., 1994), 68-69.
192. Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers, 72; Warner, Private City, xiii, 99, 175-176, 202; Flanagan, Charter Reform, 18-20; Ryan, Civic Wars, 101; Michael B. Katz, In the Shadow of the Poorhouse: A Social History of Welfare in America (New York, 1996), 26-27; Katz, Poverty and Policy, 11-12; Steven Mintz, Moralists and Modernizes: America's Pre-Civil War Reformers (Baltimore, 1995), 85; Priscilla Ferguson Clement, Welfare and the Poor in the Nineteenth-Century City: Philadelphia, 1800-1854 (Cranbury, N.J., 1985), 43, 59; Stephen J. Leonard and Thomas J. Noel, Denver: Mining Camp to Metropolis (Niwot, Colo., 1994), 68-69.
193. Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers, 72; Warner, Private City, xiii, 99, 175-176, 202; Flanagan, Charter Reform, 18-20; Ryan, Civic Wars, 101; Michael B. Katz, In the Shadow of the Poorhouse: A Social History of Welfare in America (New York, 1996), 26-27; Katz, Poverty and Policy, 11-12; Steven Mintz, Moralists and Modernizes: America's Pre-Civil War Reformers (Baltimore, 1995), 85; Priscilla Ferguson Clement, Welfare and the Poor in the Nineteenth-Century City: Philadelphia, 1800-1854 (Cranbury, N.J., 1985), 43, 59; Stephen J. Leonard and Thomas J. Noel, Denver: Mining Camp to Metropolis (Niwot, Colo., 1994), 68-69.
194. Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers, 72; Warner, Private City, xiii, 99, 175-176, 202; Flanagan, Charter Reform, 18-20; Ryan, Civic Wars, 101; Michael B. Katz, In the Shadow of the Poorhouse: A Social History of Welfare in America (New York, 1996), 26-27; Katz, Poverty and Policy, 11-12; Steven Mintz, Moralists and Modernizes: America's Pre-Civil War Reformers (Baltimore, 1995), 85; Priscilla Ferguson Clement, Welfare and the Poor in the Nineteenth-Century City: Philadelphia, 1800-1854 (Cranbury, N.J., 1985), 43, 59; Stephen J. Leonard and Thomas J. Noel, Denver: Mining Camp to Metropolis (Niwot, Colo., 1994), 68-69.
195. Lotchin, San Francisco, 186, 222.
196. Murphy, "Public Care," 70-72, 75; Municipal Reports, 1874-1875, pp. 380-381. Women's Christian Association of San Francisco, Constitution, By-Laws (n.p., n.d.), 5, located in Bancroft Library. References to Christian thought are pervasive in the women's writings. An SFLP&RS recording secretary, for example, expressed her relief when a sick woman in the Home gave "good evidence that her heart rested in full assurance of Jesus as her Savior" before she died. SFLP&RS, Seventh Annual Report of the San Francisco Ladies' Protection and Relief Society, December 12, 1860, 5, SFLP&RS Records.
197. Murphy, "Public Care," 70-72, 75; Municipal Reports, 1874-1875, pp. 380-381. Women's Christian Association of San Francisco, Constitution, By-Laws (n.p., n.d.), 5, located in Bancroft Library. References to Christian thought are pervasive in the women's writings. An SFLP&RS recording secretary, for example, expressed her relief when a sick woman in the Home gave "good evidence that her heart rested in full assurance of Jesus as her Savior" before she died. SFLP&RS, Seventh Annual Report of the San Francisco Ladies' Protection and Relief Society, December 12, 1860, 5, SFLP&RS Records.
198. Murphy, "Public Care," 70-72, 75; Municipal Reports, 1874-1875, pp. 380-381. Women's Christian Association of San Francisco, Constitution, By-Laws (n.p., n.d.), 5, located in Bancroft Library. References to Christian thought are pervasive in the women's writings. An SFLP&RS recording secretary, for example, expressed her relief when a sick woman in the Home gave "good evidence that her heart rested in full assurance of Jesus as her Savior" before she died. SFLP&RS, Seventh Annual Report of the San Francisco Ladies' Protection and Relief Society, December 12, 1860, 5, SFLP&RS Records.
199. Murphy, "Public Care," 70-72, 75; Municipal Reports, 1874-1875, pp. 380-381. Women's Christian Association of San Francisco, Constitution, By-Laws (n.p., n.d.), 5, located in Bancroft Library. References to Christian thought are pervasive in the women's writings. An SFLP&RS recording secretary, for example, expressed her relief when a sick woman in the Home gave "good evidence that her heart rested in full assurance of Jesus as her Savior" before she died. SFLP&RS, Seventh Annual Report of the San Francisco Ladies' Protection and Relief Society, December 12, 1860, 5, SFLP&RS Records.
200. James T. Kloppenberg quoted in Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers, 318-324.
201. California State Board of Control, "Report of the Children's Agents of the State Board of Control" (typescript, Dec. 1914), 3-4, California State Library, Sutro Branch, San Francisco;
202. Cahn and Bary, Welfare Activities, 4.
203. Pascoe, Relations of Rescue, 188. The Associated Charities of San Francisco was formed in 1888; see Lisa Goodrich-Boyd, "Charity Redefined; Katherine [sic] Felton and the Associated Charities of San Francisco" (Master's thesis, San Francisco State University, 1995). On the charity organization society movement, see Katz Shadow of the Poorhouse, 70, 75-78, 83-87. Like earlier women's charity organizations, settlement houses faced their own challenge of professionalization with the emergence of the Community Chest movement in the period 1910 to 1920 See Judith Ann Trolander, Professionalism and Social Change: From the Settlement House Movement to Neighborhood Centers, 1886 to the Present (New York, 1987), 21-24.
204. Pascoe, Relations of Rescue, 188. The Associated Charities of San Francisco was formed in 1888; see Lisa Goodrich-Boyd, "Charity Redefined; Katherine [sic] Felton and the Associated Charities of San Francisco" (Master's thesis, San Francisco State University, 1995). On the charity organization society movement, see Katz Shadow of the Poorhouse, 70, 75-78, 83-87. Like earlier women's charity organizations, settlement houses faced their own challenge of professionalization with the emergence of the Community Chest movement in the period 1910 to 1920 See Judith Ann Trolander, Professionalism and Social Change: From the Settlement House Movement to Neighborhood Centers, 1886 to the Present (New York, 1987), 21-24.
205. Pascoe, Relations of Rescue, 188. The Associated Charities of San Francisco was formed in 1888; see Lisa Goodrich-Boyd, "Charity Redefined; Katherine [sic] Felton and the Associated Charities of San Francisco" (Master's thesis, San Francisco State University, 1995). On the charity organization society movement, see Katz Shadow of the Poorhouse, 70, 75-78, 83-87. Like earlier women's charity organizations, settlement houses faced their own challenge of professionalization with the emergence of the Community Chest movement in the period 1910 to 1920 See Judith Ann Trolander, Professionalism and Social Change: From the Settlement House Movement to Neighborhood Centers, 1886 to the Present (New York, 1987), 21-24.
206. Pascoe, Relations of Rescue, 188. The Associated Charities of San Francisco was formed in 1888; see Lisa Goodrich-Boyd, "Charity Redefined; Katherine [sic] Felton and the Associated Charities of San Francisco" (Master's thesis, San Francisco State University, 1995). On the charity organization society movement, see Katz Shadow of the Poorhouse, 70, 75-78, 83-87. Like earlier women's charity organizations, settlement houses faced their own challenge of professionalization with the emergence of the Community Chest movement in the period 1910 to 1920 See Judith Ann Trolander, Professionalism and Social Change: From the Settlement House Movement to Neighborhood Centers, 1886 to the Present (New York, 1987), 21-24.
207. Millicent W. Shinn, "Poverty and Charity in San Francisco," Overland Monthly (1889), 535-547. On the philosophical differences between settlement houses and earlier church-based charities, see Trolander, Professionalism and Social Change, 7-21 . On San Francisco settlements, see Ethington, Public City, 352-354; Toll, "Gender, Ethnicity," 294-297.
208. Millicent W. Shinn, "Poverty and Charity in San Francisco," Overland Monthly (1889), 535-547. On the philosophical differences between settlement houses and earlier church-based charities, see Trolander, Professionalism and Social Change, 7-21 . On San Francisco settlements, see Ethington, Public City, 352-354; Toll, "Gender, Ethnicity," 294-297.
209. Millicent W. Shinn, "Poverty and Charity in San Francisco," Overland Monthly (1889), 535-547. On the philosophical differences between settlement houses and earlier church-based charities, see Trolander, Professionalism and Social Change, 7-21 . On San Francisco settlements, see Ethington, Public City, 352-354; Toll, "Gender, Ethnicity," 294-297.
210. Millicent W. Shinn, "Poverty and Charity in San Francisco," Overland Monthly (1889), 535-547. On the philosophical differences between settlement houses and earlier church-based charities, see Trolander, Professionalism and Social Change, 7-21 . On San Francisco settlements, see Ethington, Public City, 352-354; Toll, "Gender, Ethnicity," 294-297.
211. See, for example, Jacqueline R. Braitman, "A California Stateswoman: The Public Career of Katherine Philips Edson," California History, 65 (1986), 82-95; Ethington, Public City, 361.
212. See, for example, Jacqueline R. Braitman, "A California Stateswoman: The Public Career of Katherine Philips Edson," California History, 65 (1986), 82-95; Ethington, Public City, 361.
213. A number of the entities described here have faded into history, but others remain. The SFPOA, that orphanage started by local churchwomen in 1850, is still serving local families as the Edgewood Children's Center. Likewise, one and one-half centuries after it was founded, the organizational descendant of the SFLP&RS continues to house San Francisco women, now as "the Heritage," an elegant women's retirement home. One and one-quarter centuries later, the hospital started by women to serve women continues to offer medical care as well as residency and training for doctors and nurses; now known as California Pacific Medical Center, Children's Hospital remains one of only three independent, nonprofit teaching hospitals in the state. The longevity of these institutions is perhaps the best evidence yet of the value of women's charity work to the city of San Francisco.
214. See Sandra Haarsager, Bertha Knight Landes of Seattle: Big City Mayor (Norman, Okla., 1994), xiii, xiv, 41, 264; Ethington, Public City, 208-218, 326-336.
215. See Sandra Haarsager, Bertha Knight Landes of Seattle: Big City Mayor (Norman, Okla., 1994), xiii, xiv, 41, 264; Ethington, Public City, 208-218, 326-336.
216. Koven and Michel, Mothers of a New World, 2-6.
217. Paula Baker, "The Domestication of Politics: Women and American Political Society, 1780-1920," American Historical Review, 89 (1984), 620-647.
218. Maureen A. Flanagan, "Gender and Urban Political Reform: The City Club and the Woman's City Club of Chicago in the Progressive Era," American Historical Review, 95 (1990), 1032-1050; Louise Armstrong, Of "Sluts" and "Bastards": A Feminist Decodes the Child Welfare Debate (Monroe, Me., 1995).
219. Maureen A. Flanagan, "Gender and Urban Political Reform: The City Club and the Woman's City Club of Chicago in the Progressive Era," American Historical Review, 95 (1990), 1032-1050; Louise Armstrong, Of "Sluts" and "Bastards": A Feminist Decodes the Child Welfare Debate (Monroe, Me., 1995).