Gender-based emotional stereotyping

Journal of Counseling Psychology

Volumn 46, Issue 4, 1999, Pages 483-495

  Heesacker, Martin ^a   Wester, Stephen R ^b   Vogel, David L ^b   Wentzel, Jeffrey T ^b   Mejia Millan, Cristina M ^b   Goodholm Jr , Carl Robert ^b  

^a University of Florida ^*  (United States)

^b NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ADULT; ARTICLE; COUNSELING; DECISION MAKING; EMOTION; EMOTIONALITY; FACTORIAL ANALYSIS; FEMALE; GENDER; HUMAN; HUMAN EXPERIMENT; MALE; MARRIAGE; NORMAL HUMAN; RELIABILITY; SEX DIFFERENCE; SEX ROLE; STEREOTYPY;

EID: 0032716467     PISSN: 00220167     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/0022-0167.46.4.483     Document Type: Article

References (83)

1. Allen, J. G., & Haccoun, D. (1976). Sex differences in emotionality: A multidimensional approach. Human Relations, 29, 711-722.
2. American Psychological Association. (1992). Ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct. American Psychologist, 47, 1612-1628.
3. American Psychological Association Task Force. (1975). Report of the task force on sex bias and sex-role stereotyping in psychotherapeutic practice. American Psychologist, 30, 1169-1175.
4. Association of Psychology Postdoctoral and Internship Centers. (1994-1995). APPIC Directory: Internship and postdoctoral programs in professional psychology (73rd ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
5. Atkinson, D. R., Morten, G., & Sue, D. W. (1998). Racial/ethnic minorities and cross cultural counseling. In D. R. Atkinson, G. Morten, & D. W. Sue (Eds.), Counseling American minorities (5th ed., pp. 1-80). New York: McGraw-Hill.
6. Balswick, J. O. (1988). The inexpressive male. Lexington, MA: Lexington.
7. Barker, A. W., & Blackburn, D. R. (1992). The men's forum: A new inpatient treatment option for men. Men's Studies Review, 9(2), 9-14.
8. Bentler, P. M. (1989). EQS structural equations program. Los Angeles: BMDP Statistical Software.
9. Bentler, P. M., & Bonett, D. G. (1980). Significance tests and goodness-of-fit in the analysis of covariance structures. Psychological Bulletin, 88, 588-606.
10. Bernardez, T. (1987). Gender based countertransference of female therapists in the psychotherapy of women. Women and Therapy, 6, 25-39.
11. Biaggio, M. K. (1989). Sex differences in behavioral reactions to provocation of anger. Psychological Reports, 64(1), 23-26.
12. Birnbaum, D. W., Nosanchuk, T. A., & Croll, W. L. (1980). Children's stereotypes about sex differences in emotionality. Sex Roles, 6, 435-443.
13. Blier, M. J., & Blier-Wilson, L. A. (1989). Gender differences in self-rated emotional expressiveness. Sex Roles, 21, 287-295.
14. Bowman, P. R. (1982). An analog study with beginning therapists suggesting bias against 'activity' in women. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research & Practice, 19, 318-324.
15. Brooks, G. R. (1998). A new psychotherapy for traditional men. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
16. Brooks, G. R., & Gilbert, L. A. (1995). Men in families: Old constraints, new possibilities. In R. F. Levant & W. S. Pollack (Eds.), A new psychology of men (pp. 252-279). New York: Basic Books.
17. Broverman, I. K., Broverman, D. M., Clarkson, F. E., Rosenkrantz, P. S., & Vogel, S. R. (1970). Sex-role stereotypes and clinical judgments of mental health. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 34, 1-7.
18. Broverman, I. K., Vogel, S. R., Broverman, D. M., Clarkson, F. E., & Rosenkrantz, P. S. (1972). Sex-role stereotypes: A current appraisal. Journal of Social Issues, 28, 59-78.
19. Buck, R., Miller, R. E., & Caul, W. F. (1974). Sex, personality, and psychological variables in the communication of affect via facial expression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 30, 587-596.
20. Burrowes, B. D., & Halberstadt, A. G. (1987). Self-and family-expressiveness styles in the experience and expression of anger. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 11, 254-268.
21. Burt, M. R. (1980). Cultural myths and support for rape. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38, 217-230.
22. Cacioppo, J. T., & Petty, R. E. (1980). The need for cognition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42, 116-131.
23. Cacioppo, J. T., Petty, R. E., & Kao, C. F. (1984). The efficient assessment of need for cognition. Journal of Personality Assessment, 48, 306-307.
24. Canary, D. J., & Emmers-Sommers, T. M. (1997). Sex and gender differences in personal relationships. New York: Guilford Press.
25. Chaplin, W. F. (1984). State-Trait Anxiety Inventory [Review of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory - Form Y]. In D. J. Keyser & R. C. Sweetbacy (Eds.), Test critiques (Vol. 1, pp. 626-632). Kansas City, MO: Test Corporation of America.
26. Cherulnik, P. D. (1979). Sex differences in the expression of emotion in a structured social encounter. Sex Roles, 5, 413-424.
27. Conner, K., & Heesacker, M. (1999). Sex, gender, and emotions: Accuracy of the dyadic communication of emotions. Manuscript submitted for publication.
28. Cronbach, L. J., & Meehl, P. E. (1955). Construct validity of psychological tests. Psychological Bulletin, 52, 281-302.
29. Crowne, D. P., & Marlowe, P. (1966). The approval motive. New York: Wiley.
30. Fabes, R. A., & Martin, C. L. (1991). Gender and age stereotypes of emotionality. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 17, 532-540.
31. Fischer, P. C., Smith, R. J., Leonard, E., Fuqua, D. R., Campbell, J. L., & Masters, M. A. (1993). Sex differences on affective dimensions: Continuing examination. Journal of Counseling and Development, 71, 440-443.
32. Fisher, A. R., & Good, G. E. (1994). Gender, self, and others: Perceptions of the campus environment. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 41, 343-355.
33. Frank, E., Carpenter, L. L., & Kupfer, D. J. (1988). Sex differences in recurrent depression: Are there any that are significant? American Journal of Psychiatry, 145, 41-45.
34. Gleser, G. C., & Ihilevich, D. (1969). An objective instrument for measuring defense mechanisms. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 33, 51-60.
35. Good, G. E., Robertson, J. M., O'Neal, J. M., Fitzgerald, L. F., Stevens, M., DeBord, K., Bartels, K. M., & Braverman, D. G. (1995). Male gender role conflicts, psychometric issues, and relations to psychological distress. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 42, 3-10.
36. Graham, J. W., Gentry, K. W., & Green, J. (1981). The self-presentational nature of emotional expression: Some evidence. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 7, 467-474.
37. Hammen, C. L., & Peters, S. D. (1977). Differential responses to male and female depressive reactions. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 45, 994-1001.
38. Hare-Mustin, R. T. (1983). An appraisal of the relationship between women and psychotherapy: 80 years after the case of Dora. American Psychologist, 38, 593-601.
39. Haring, M., & Beyard-Tyler, K. C. (1984). Counseling with women: The challenge of nontraditional careers. School Counselor, 31, 301-309.
40. Hatcher, L. (1994). A step-by-step approach to using the SAS system for factor analysis and structural equation modeling. Cary, NC: SAS Institute.
41. Heatherington, L., Stets, J., & Mazzarella, S. (1986). Whither the bias: The female client's "edge" in psychotherapy. Psychotherapy, 23, 252-256.
42. Heesacker, M. (1985). Need for Cognition Scale [Review of the Need for Cognition Scale]. In D. J. Keyser & R. C. Sweetland (Eds.), Test critiques (Vol. 3, pp. 466-474). Kansas City, MO: Test Corporation of America.
43. Heesacker, M., & Bradley, M. M. (1997). Beyond feelings: Psychotherapy and emotion. The Counseling Psychologist, 25, 201-219.
44. Heesacker, M., & Pritchard, S. (1992). In a different voice revisited: Men, women, and emotion. Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 14, 274-290.
45. Johnson, P. B., & Goodchilds, J. D. (1976). How women get their way. Psychology Today, 10, 69-70.
46. LaFrance, M., & Banaji, M. (1992). Toward a reconsideration of the gender-emotion relationship. In M. S. Clark (Ed.), Review of personality and social psychology (Vol. 14, pp. 178-201). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
47. Lang, P. J., Greenwald, M. K., Bradley, M. M., & Hamm, A. O. (1993). Looking at pictures: Affective, facial, visceral, and behavioral reactions. Psychophysiology, 30, 261-273.
48. Levant, R. F. (1992). A gender-aware divorce prevention program. Men's Studies Review, 9(2), 15-20.
49. Levant, R. F., & Pollack, W. S. (1995). A new psychology of men. New York: Basic Books.
50. Lips, H. M. (1997). Sex and gender: An introduction (3rd ed.). Mountain View, CA: Mayfield.
51. Mallinckrodt, B., King, J. L., & Coble, H. M. (1998). Family dysfunction, alexithymia, and client attachment to therapist. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 45, 497-504.
52. McCauley, C., & Stitt, C. L. (1978). An individual and quantitative measure of stereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 929-940.
53. Olson, R., Camp, C., & Fuller, D. (1984). Curiosity and need for cognition. Psychological Reports, 54, 71-74.
54. O'Neil, J. M., Good, G. E., & Holmes, S. (1995). Fifteen years of theory and research on men's gender role conflict: New paradigms for empirical research. In R. F. Levant & W. S. Pollack (Eds.), A new psychology of men (pp. 164-206). New York: Basic Books.
55. O'Neil, J. M., Helms, B., Gable, R., David, L., & Wrightsman, L. (1986). Gender Role Conflict Scale: College men's fear of femininity. Sex Roles, 14, 335-350.
56. Oxford dictionary and thesaurus. (1996). New York: Oxford University Press.
57. Phillips, S. T., & Ziller, R. C. (1997). Toward a theory and measure of the nature of nonprejudice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 420-434.
58. Philpot, C. L., Brooks, G. R., Lusterman, D., & Nutt, R. L. (1997). Bridging separate gender worlds: Why men and women clash and how therapists can bring them together. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
59. Pleck, J. H. (1981). The myth of masculinity. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
60. Pleck, J. H. (1995). The gender role strain paradigm. In R. F. Levant & W. S. Pollack (Eds.), A new psychology of men (pp. 11-32). New York: Basic Books.
61. Ridley, C. R. (1995). Overcoming unintentional racism in counseling and therapy. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
62. Rosenthal, R., & Rosnow, R. C. (1991). Essentials of behavioral research: Methods and data analysis. New York: McGraw-Hill.
63. Scher, M. (1993). Men and boys, myths and mythic proportions: A rejoinder to Kelly and Hall. Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 15, 290-297.
64. Shields, S. A. (1984). Reports of bodily changes in anxiety, sadness, and anger. Motivation and Emotion, 8, 1-21.
65. Shields, S. A. (1987). Women, men and the dilemma of emotion. In P. Shaver & C. Hendrick (Eds.), Review of personality and social psychology (Vol. 7, pp. 229-250). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
66. Shields, S. A. (1995). The role of emotion beliefs and values in gender development. In N. Eisenberg (Ed.), Review of personality and social psychology (Vol. 15, pp. 212-232). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
67. Skovholt, T. M. (1993). Counseling and psychotherapy interventions with men. Counseling and Human Development, 25, 1-16.
68. Smith, R. L., & Bradley, D. W. (1980). In defense of the Attitudes Toward Women Scale: An affirmation of validity and reliability. Psychological Reports, 47, 511-522.
69. Snyder, M., & Miene, P. (1994). On the functions of stereotypes and prejudice. In M. P. Zanna & J. M. Olson (Eds.), The psychology of prejudice: The Ontario Symposium (Vol. 7, pp. 33-54). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
70. Spence, J. T. (1993). Gender-related traits and gender ideology: Evidence for a multifactorial theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 624-635.
71. Spence, J. T., & Helmreich, R. (1972). The Attitudes Toward Women Scale: An objective instrument to measure attitudes toward the rights and roles of women in contemporary society. JSAS Catalog of Selected Documents in Psychology, 2, 1-66.
72. Spence, J. T., Helmreich, R., & Stapp, J. A. (1973). A short version of the Attitudes Toward Women Scale (AWS). Bulletin of the Psychometric Society, 2, 219-220.
73. Spence, J. T., Helmreich, R., & Stapp, J. A. (1974). A measure of sex, gender, and emotions: Accuracy, sex-role stereotyping, and masculinity and femininity. JSAS Catalog of Selected Documents in Psychology, 4, 43.
74. Spielberger, C. D., Gorsuch, R., Lushene, R. E., Vagg, P. R., & Jacobs, G. A. (1983). State-Trait Anxiety Inventory - Form Y. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
75. Stapley, J. C., & Haviland, J. M. (1989). Beyond depression: Gender differences in normal adolescents' emotional experiences. Sex Roles, 20, 295-308.
76. Sue, D. W., & Sue, D. (1990). Counseling the culturally different: Theory and practice (2nd ed.). New York: Wiley.
77. Thomas, S. P. (1989). Gender differences in anger expression: Health implications. Research in Nursing and Health, 12, 389-398.
78. Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1974, September). Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases. Science, 185, 1124-1131.
79. Walbott, H. G., Ricci-Bitti, P., & Banninger-Huber, E. (1986). Non-verbal reactions to emotional experiences. In K. R. Scherer, H. G. Walbott, & A. B. Sumnerfield (Eds.), Experiencing emotion: A cross-cultural study. New York: Cambridge University Press.
80. Weiner, J. P., & Boss, P. (1985). Exploring gender bias against women: Ethics for marriage and family therapy. Counseling & Values, 39, 9-23.
81. Wilcox, D. W., & Forrest, L. (1992). The problems of men and counseling: Gender bias or gender truth. Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 14, 291-304.
82. Wright, L. (1993, January/February). Women and men. Utne Reader, 55, 52-61.
83. Yoder, J. D., Rice, R., Adams, J., Priest, R. F., & Prince, H. T., III. (1982). Reliability of the Attitudes Toward Women Scale (AWS) and the Personal Attributes Questionnaire (PAQ). Sex Roles, 8, 651-659.