Surveying Britain's informal empire: Rose Kingsley's 1872 reconnaissance for the Mexican National Railway

Historical Geography

Volumn 27, Issue , 1999, Pages 5-26

  Morin, Karen M ^a  

^a BUCKNELL UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

NINETEENTH CENTURY; RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION; RAILWAY TRANSPORT;

MEXICO;

EID: 0032693838     PISSN: 10916458     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (125)

1. Rose Kingsley, South by West or Winter in the Rocky Mountains and Spring in Mexico (London: W. Isbister & Co., 1874), 411. South by West is divided roughly in half between the United States portion of Kingsley's journey (primarily Colorado) and the portion of her travels in Mexico. I discuss only her travels in Mexico in this paper. For discussion of the section on Colorado see Karen M. Morin, "Gender, Imperialism, and the Western American Landscapes of Victorian Women Travelers, 1874-1897," (Ph.D. diss., University of Nebraska-Lincoln, 1996); and Karen M. Morin, "British Women Travellers and Constructions of Racial Difference Across the Nineteenth Century American West," Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 23 (1998): 311-330.
2. Rose Kingsley, South by West or Winter in the Rocky Mountains and Spring in Mexico (London: W. Isbister & Co., 1874), 411. South by West is divided roughly in half between the United States portion of Kingsley's journey (primarily Colorado) and the portion of her travels in Mexico. I discuss only her travels in Mexico in this paper. For discussion of the section on Colorado see Karen M. Morin, "Gender, Imperialism, and the Western American Landscapes of Victorian Women Travelers, 1874-1897," (Ph.D. diss., University of Nebraska-Lincoln, 1996); and Karen M. Morin, "British Women Travellers and Constructions of Racial Difference Across the Nineteenth Century American West," Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 23 (1998): 311-330.
3. Rose Kingsley, South by West or Winter in the Rocky Mountains and Spring in Mexico (London: W. Isbister & Co., 1874), 411. South by West is divided roughly in half between the United States portion of Kingsley's journey (primarily Colorado) and the portion of her travels in Mexico. I discuss only her travels in Mexico in this paper. For discussion of the section on Colorado see Karen M. Morin, "Gender, Imperialism, and the Western American Landscapes of Victorian Women Travelers, 1874-1897," (Ph.D. diss., University of Nebraska-Lincoln, 1996); and Karen M. Morin, "British Women Travellers and Constructions of Racial Difference Across the Nineteenth Century American West," Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 23 (1998): 311-330.
4. Kingsley's clerical and literary family included her father, Charles Kingsley - chaplain to Queen Victoria (1859), professor of modern history at Cambridge (1860-1869), and Canon of Westminister (1873). Her younger cousin Mary Kingsley became the popular Victorian traveler best known for her two books about colonial Africa: Travels in West Africa (1897) and West African Studies (1899). According to Cheryl McEwan, the cousins were "quite close by all accounts"(personal correspondences with author, May 1993 and May 1998).
5. Richard N. Sinkin, The Mexican Reform, 1855-1876: A Study in Liberal Nation-Building (Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 1979), 174; John H. Coatsworth, Growth Against Development: The Economic Impact of Railroads in Profirian Mexico (DeKalb, Il.: Northern Illinois University Press, 1981), 35-41; Jan Bazant, A Concise History of Mexico from Hidalgo to Cardenas, 1805-1940 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977), 111-113.
6. Richard N. Sinkin, The Mexican Reform, 1855-1876: A Study in Liberal Nation-Building (Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 1979), 174; John H. Coatsworth, Growth Against Development: The Economic Impact of Railroads in Profirian Mexico (DeKalb, Il.: Northern Illinois University Press, 1981), 35-41; Jan Bazant, A Concise History of Mexico from Hidalgo to Cardenas, 1805-1940 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977), 111-113.
7. Richard N. Sinkin, The Mexican Reform, 1855-1876: A Study in Liberal Nation-Building (Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 1979), 174; John H. Coatsworth, Growth Against Development: The Economic Impact of Railroads in Profirian Mexico (DeKalb, Il.: Northern Illinois University Press, 1981), 35-41; Jan Bazant, A Concise History of Mexico from Hidalgo to Cardenas, 1805-1940 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977), 111-113.
8. Kingsley, South by West, 189, 192, 249, 409-411.
9. Ibid.
10. See, for instance, Mary L. Pratt, Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation (London: Routledge, 1992); K.L. Jones, "Nineteenth-Century British Travel Accounts of Argentina," Ethnohistory 33 (1986): 195-211.
11. See, for instance, Mary L. Pratt, Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation (London: Routledge, 1992); K.L. Jones, "Nineteenth-Century British Travel Accounts of Argentina," Ethnohistory 33 (1986): 195-211.
12. Robert Young, Colonial Desire: Hybridity in Theory, Culture and Race (London: Routledge, 1995), 165.
13. Joseph Smith, Illusions of Conflict: Anglo-American Diplomacy Toward Latin America, 1865-1896 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1979); Rory Miller, Britain and Latin America in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries (London: Longman, 1993); H.M. Johnston, Missions to Mexico: A Tale of British Diplomacy in the 1820s (London: British Academic Press, 1992).
14. Joseph Smith, Illusions of Conflict: Anglo-American Diplomacy Toward Latin America, 1865-1896 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1979); Rory Miller, Britain and Latin America in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries (London: Longman, 1993); H.M. Johnston, Missions to Mexico: A Tale of British Diplomacy in the 1820s (London: British Academic Press, 1992).
15. Joseph Smith, Illusions of Conflict: Anglo-American Diplomacy Toward Latin America, 1865-1896 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1979); Rory Miller, Britain and Latin America in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries (London: Longman, 1993); H.M. Johnston, Missions to Mexico: A Tale of British Diplomacy in the 1820s (London: British Academic Press, 1992).
16. Sinkin, The Mexican Reform, 15.
17. Bazant, A Concise History of Mexico, 87.
18. These include: Colonel Bourne's Notes on the State of Sonora and Sinaloa (1825); George Francis Lyon's Residence in Mexico, 1826: Diary of a Tour with a Stay in the Republic of Mexico; Henry George Ward's (the first British ambassador to independent Mexico) Mexico in 1827; and George F. Ruxton's Adventures in Mexico (1846). Perhaps the best known of early British women's published travel accounts of Mexico is Frances E. Calderon de la Barca's classic Life in Mexico, during a Residence of Two Years in that Country (1843). Calderon was the Scottish wife of the first Spanish ambassador to Mexico, a woman whom Rose Kingsley quoted on Spanish colonial history. Lady Emmeline Stuart Wortley and her twelve-year-old daughter Victoria also wrote separate accounts of Mexico during the mid nineteenth century, in Travels in the United States, North America, Caribbean, and Peru during 1849 and 1850 (1851), and A Young Traveller's Journal of a Tour in North and South America During the Year 1850 (1852). When the railroad lines made the western and southwestern portions of the United States more accessible to foreign travelers, Mexico was also added to the itineraries of many Britishers on "grand tours" of North America later in the century. These include Baroness Winefred Howard of Glossop, who traveled to North America with her brother in 1894, producing Journal of a Tour in the United States, Canada and Mexico (1897), Mrs. E.H. Carbutt's Five Months' Fine Weather in Canada, Western United States, and Mexico (1889), and of course the text by Rose Kingsley (1874). A published account of an Englishwoman in Guanajuato in the late nine-teenth century can also be found in Annie Poole's Mexicans at Home in the Interior (1884).
19. These include: Colonel Bourne's Notes on the State of Sonora and Sinaloa (1825); George Francis Lyon's Residence in Mexico, 1826: Diary of a Tour with a Stay in the Republic of Mexico; Henry George Ward's (the first British ambassador to independent Mexico) Mexico in 1827; and George F. Ruxton's Adventures in Mexico (1846). Perhaps the best known of early British women's published travel accounts of Mexico is Frances E. Calderon de la Barca's classic Life in Mexico, during a Residence of Two Years in that Country (1843). Calderon was the Scottish wife of the first Spanish ambassador to Mexico, a woman whom Rose Kingsley quoted on Spanish colonial history. Lady Emmeline Stuart Wortley and her twelve-year-old daughter Victoria also wrote separate accounts of Mexico during the mid nineteenth century, in Travels in the United States, North America, Caribbean, and Peru during 1849 and 1850 (1851), and A Young Traveller's Journal of a Tour in North and South America During the Year 1850 (1852). When the railroad lines made the western and southwestern portions of the United States more accessible to foreign travelers, Mexico was also added to the itineraries of many Britishers on "grand tours" of North America later in the century. These include Baroness Winefred Howard of Glossop, who traveled to North America with her brother in 1894, producing Journal of a Tour in the United States, Canada and Mexico (1897), Mrs. E.H. Carbutt's Five Months' Fine Weather in Canada, Western United States, and Mexico (1889), and of course the text by Rose Kingsley (1874). A published account of an Englishwoman in Guanajuato in the late nine-teenth century can also be found in Annie Poole's Mexicans at Home in the Interior (1884).
20. These include: Colonel Bourne's Notes on the State of Sonora and Sinaloa (1825); George Francis Lyon's Residence in Mexico, 1826: Diary of a Tour with a Stay in the Republic of Mexico; Henry George Ward's (the first British ambassador to independent Mexico) Mexico in 1827; and George F. Ruxton's Adventures in Mexico (1846). Perhaps the best known of early British women's published travel accounts of Mexico is Frances E. Calderon de la Barca's classic Life in Mexico, during a Residence of Two Years in that Country (1843). Calderon was the Scottish wife of the first Spanish ambassador to Mexico, a woman whom Rose Kingsley quoted on Spanish colonial history. Lady Emmeline Stuart Wortley and her twelve-year-old daughter Victoria also wrote separate accounts of Mexico during the mid nineteenth century, in Travels in the United States, North America, Caribbean, and Peru during 1849 and 1850 (1851), and A Young Traveller's Journal of a Tour in North and South America During the Year 1850 (1852). When the railroad lines made the western and southwestern portions of the United States more accessible to foreign travelers, Mexico was also added to the itineraries of many Britishers on "grand tours" of North America later in the century. These include Baroness Winefred Howard of Glossop, who traveled to North America with her brother in 1894, producing Journal of a Tour in the United States, Canada and Mexico (1897), Mrs. E.H. Carbutt's Five Months' Fine Weather in Canada, Western United States, and Mexico (1889), and of course the text by Rose Kingsley (1874). A published account of an Englishwoman in Guanajuato in the late nine-teenth century can also be found in Annie Poole's Mexicans at Home in the Interior (1884).
21. These include: Colonel Bourne's Notes on the State of Sonora and Sinaloa (1825); George Francis Lyon's Residence in Mexico, 1826: Diary of a Tour with a Stay in the Republic of Mexico; Henry George Ward's (the first British ambassador to independent Mexico) Mexico in 1827; and George F. Ruxton's Adventures in Mexico (1846). Perhaps the best known of early British women's published travel accounts of Mexico is Frances E. Calderon de la Barca's classic Life in Mexico, during a Residence of Two Years in that Country (1843). Calderon was the Scottish wife of the first Spanish ambassador to Mexico, a woman whom Rose Kingsley quoted on Spanish colonial history. Lady Emmeline Stuart Wortley and her twelve-year-old daughter Victoria also wrote separate accounts of Mexico during the mid nineteenth century, in Travels in the United States, North America, Caribbean, and Peru during 1849 and 1850 (1851), and A Young Traveller's Journal of a Tour in North and South America During the Year 1850 (1852). When the railroad lines made the western and southwestern portions of the United States more accessible to foreign travelers, Mexico was also added to the itineraries of many Britishers on "grand tours" of North America later in the century. These include Baroness Winefred Howard of Glossop, who traveled to North America with her brother in 1894, producing Journal of a Tour in the United States, Canada and Mexico (1897), Mrs. E.H. Carbutt's Five Months' Fine Weather in Canada, Western United States, and Mexico (1889), and of course the text by Rose Kingsley (1874). A published account of an Englishwoman in Guanajuato in the late nine-teenth century can also be found in Annie Poole's Mexicans at Home in the Interior (1884).
22. These include: Colonel Bourne's Notes on the State of Sonora and Sinaloa (1825); George Francis Lyon's Residence in Mexico, 1826: Diary of a Tour with a Stay in the Republic of Mexico; Henry George Ward's (the first British ambassador to independent Mexico) Mexico in 1827; and George F. Ruxton's Adventures in Mexico (1846). Perhaps the best known of early British women's published travel accounts of Mexico is Frances E. Calderon de la Barca's classic Life in Mexico, during a Residence of Two Years in that Country (1843). Calderon was the Scottish wife of the first Spanish ambassador to Mexico, a woman whom Rose Kingsley quoted on Spanish colonial history. Lady Emmeline Stuart Wortley and her twelve-year-old daughter Victoria also wrote separate accounts of Mexico during the mid nineteenth century, in Travels in the United States, North America, Caribbean, and Peru during 1849 and 1850 (1851), and A Young Traveller's Journal of a Tour in North and South America During the Year 1850 (1852). When the railroad lines made the western and southwestern portions of the United States more accessible to foreign travelers, Mexico was also added to the itineraries of many Britishers on "grand tours" of North America later in the century. These include Baroness Winefred Howard of Glossop, who traveled to North America with her brother in 1894, producing Journal of a Tour in the United States, Canada and Mexico (1897), Mrs. E.H. Carbutt's Five Months' Fine Weather in Canada, Western United States, and Mexico (1889), and of course the text by Rose Kingsley (1874). A published account of an Englishwoman in Guanajuato in the late nine-teenth century can also be found in Annie Poole's Mexicans at Home in the Interior (1884).
23. These include: Colonel Bourne's Notes on the State of Sonora and Sinaloa (1825); George Francis Lyon's Residence in Mexico, 1826: Diary of a Tour with a Stay in the Republic of Mexico; Henry George Ward's (the first British ambassador to independent Mexico) Mexico in 1827; and George F. Ruxton's Adventures in Mexico (1846). Perhaps the best known of early British women's published travel accounts of Mexico is Frances E. Calderon de la Barca's classic Life in Mexico, during a Residence of Two Years in that Country (1843). Calderon was the Scottish wife of the first Spanish ambassador to Mexico, a woman whom Rose Kingsley quoted on Spanish colonial history. Lady Emmeline Stuart Wortley and her twelve-year-old daughter Victoria also wrote separate accounts of Mexico during the mid nineteenth century, in Travels in the United States, North America, Caribbean, and Peru during 1849 and 1850 (1851), and A Young Traveller's Journal of a Tour in North and South America During the Year 1850 (1852). When the railroad lines made the western and southwestern portions of the United States more accessible to foreign travelers, Mexico was also added to the itineraries of many Britishers on "grand tours" of North America later in the century. These include Baroness Winefred Howard of Glossop, who traveled to North America with her brother in 1894, producing Journal of a Tour in the United States, Canada and Mexico (1897), Mrs. E.H. Carbutt's Five Months' Fine Weather in Canada, Western United States, and Mexico (1889), and of course the text by Rose Kingsley (1874). A published account of an Englishwoman in Guanajuato in the late nine-teenth century can also be found in Annie Poole's Mexicans at Home in the Interior (1884).
24. These include: Colonel Bourne's Notes on the State of Sonora and Sinaloa (1825); George Francis Lyon's Residence in Mexico, 1826: Diary of a Tour with a Stay in the Republic of Mexico; Henry George Ward's (the first British ambassador to independent Mexico) Mexico in 1827; and George F. Ruxton's Adventures in Mexico (1846). Perhaps the best known of early British women's published travel accounts of Mexico is Frances E. Calderon de la Barca's classic Life in Mexico, during a Residence of Two Years in that Country (1843). Calderon was the Scottish wife of the first Spanish ambassador to Mexico, a woman whom Rose Kingsley quoted on Spanish colonial history. Lady Emmeline Stuart Wortley and her twelve-year-old daughter Victoria also wrote separate accounts of Mexico during the mid nineteenth century, in Travels in the United States, North America, Caribbean, and Peru during 1849 and 1850 (1851), and A Young Traveller's Journal of a Tour in North and South America During the Year 1850 (1852). When the railroad lines made the western and southwestern portions of the United States more accessible to foreign travelers, Mexico was also added to the itineraries of many Britishers on "grand tours" of North America later in the century. These include Baroness Winefred Howard of Glossop, who traveled to North America with her brother in 1894, producing Journal of a Tour in the United States, Canada and Mexico (1897), Mrs. E.H. Carbutt's Five Months' Fine Weather in Canada, Western United States, and Mexico (1889), and of course the text by Rose Kingsley (1874). A published account of an Englishwoman in Guanajuato in the late nine-teenth century can also be found in Annie Poole's Mexicans at Home in the Interior (1884).
25. These include: Colonel Bourne's Notes on the State of Sonora and Sinaloa (1825); George Francis Lyon's Residence in Mexico, 1826: Diary of a Tour with a Stay in the Republic of Mexico; Henry George Ward's (the first British ambassador to independent Mexico) Mexico in 1827; and George F. Ruxton's Adventures in Mexico (1846). Perhaps the best known of early British women's published travel accounts of Mexico is Frances E. Calderon de la Barca's classic Life in Mexico, during a Residence of Two Years in that Country (1843). Calderon was the Scottish wife of the first Spanish ambassador to Mexico, a woman whom Rose Kingsley quoted on Spanish colonial history. Lady Emmeline Stuart Wortley and her twelve-year-old daughter Victoria also wrote separate accounts of Mexico during the mid nineteenth century, in Travels in the United States, North America, Caribbean, and Peru during 1849 and 1850 (1851), and A Young Traveller's Journal of a Tour in North and South America During the Year 1850 (1852). When the railroad lines made the western and southwestern portions of the United States more accessible to foreign travelers, Mexico was also added to the itineraries of many Britishers on "grand tours" of North America later in the century. These include Baroness Winefred Howard of Glossop, who traveled to North America with her brother in 1894, producing Journal of a Tour in the United States, Canada and Mexico (1897), Mrs. E.H. Carbutt's Five Months' Fine Weather in Canada, Western United States, and Mexico (1889), and of course the text by Rose Kingsley (1874). A published account of an Englishwoman in Guanajuato in the late nine-teenth century can also be found in Annie Poole's Mexicans at Home in the Interior (1884).
26. These include: Colonel Bourne's Notes on the State of Sonora and Sinaloa (1825); George Francis Lyon's Residence in Mexico, 1826: Diary of a Tour with a Stay in the Republic of Mexico; Henry George Ward's (the first British ambassador to independent Mexico) Mexico in 1827; and George F. Ruxton's Adventures in Mexico (1846). Perhaps the best known of early British women's published travel accounts of Mexico is Frances E. Calderon de la Barca's classic Life in Mexico, during a Residence of Two Years in that Country (1843). Calderon was the Scottish wife of the first Spanish ambassador to Mexico, a woman whom Rose Kingsley quoted on Spanish colonial history. Lady Emmeline Stuart Wortley and her twelve-year-old daughter Victoria also wrote separate accounts of Mexico during the mid nineteenth century, in Travels in the United States, North America, Caribbean, and Peru during 1849 and 1850 (1851), and A Young Traveller's Journal of a Tour in North and South America During the Year 1850 (1852). When the railroad lines made the western and southwestern portions of the United States more accessible to foreign travelers, Mexico was also added to the itineraries of many Britishers on "grand tours" of North America later in the century. These include Baroness Winefred Howard of Glossop, who traveled to North America with her brother in 1894, producing Journal of a Tour in the United States, Canada and Mexico (1897), Mrs. E.H. Carbutt's Five Months' Fine Weather in Canada, Western United States, and Mexico (1889), and of course the text by Rose Kingsley (1874). A published account of an Englishwoman in Guanajuato in the late nine-teenth century can also be found in Annie Poole's Mexicans at Home in the Interior (1884).
27. These include: Colonel Bourne's Notes on the State of Sonora and Sinaloa (1825); George Francis Lyon's Residence in Mexico, 1826: Diary of a Tour with a Stay in the Republic of Mexico; Henry George Ward's (the first British ambassador to independent Mexico) Mexico in 1827; and George F. Ruxton's Adventures in Mexico (1846). Perhaps the best known of early British women's published travel accounts of Mexico is Frances E. Calderon de la Barca's classic Life in Mexico, during a Residence of Two Years in that Country (1843). Calderon was the Scottish wife of the first Spanish ambassador to Mexico, a woman whom Rose Kingsley quoted on Spanish colonial history. Lady Emmeline Stuart Wortley and her twelve-year-old daughter Victoria also wrote separate accounts of Mexico during the mid nineteenth century, in Travels in the United States, North America, Caribbean, and Peru during 1849 and 1850 (1851), and A Young Traveller's Journal of a Tour in North and South America During the Year 1850 (1852). When the railroad lines made the western and southwestern portions of the United States more accessible to foreign travelers, Mexico was also added to the itineraries of many Britishers on "grand tours" of North America later in the century. These include Baroness Winefred Howard of Glossop, who traveled to North America with her brother in 1894, producing Journal of a Tour in the United States, Canada and Mexico (1897), Mrs. E.H. Carbutt's Five Months' Fine Weather in Canada, Western United States, and Mexico (1889), and of course the text by Rose Kingsley (1874). A published account of an Englishwoman in Guanajuato in the late nine-teenth century can also be found in Annie Poole's Mexicans at Home in the Interior (1884).
28. Her best known work, The Order of St. John of Jerusalem (Past and Present)(1918) is a history of Malta in the Middle Ages.
29. Charles Kingsley was one of England's first churchmen to support Darwin's theories and to seek reconciliation between modern science and Christian doctrine. As such, he was known for his "Christian progressivism" through social programs such as improved education and sanitation. Widely read in England, his novel Water Babies (1863) was inspired by his thoughts on evolution. He also wrote American Notes: Letters from a Lecture Tour (rpt. 1958) and Westward Ho! (1855), an anti-Catholic adventure set in the Elizabethan period.
30. Maurice Kingsley worked as a secretary for the railway company, taking an active role during her four month visit, Rose helped Maurice keep books for the railway company writing out agreements for lots and memberships. See R. Athearn, Westward the Briton (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1962), 194.
31. Ibid, 41, 49, 61-62, 86, 232, 261, 270. While General Palmer was associated with the railway, Mrs. P. had started a school in Colorado for colonialists' children. Rose apparently already knew the couple before meeting them in Colorado. Nowhere in the text does Rose explicitly name Palmer as anyone other than "General P," although there is no doubt as to the General's identity. Rose made many references to visiting Palmer's acclaimed home in Glen Eyrie, near Colorado Springs, and she lived in accommodations provided by the Denver & Rio Grande Railway Company throughout her stay in Colorado. Furthermore, the dates and route of her travels in Mexico coincide precisely with Palmer's. See also David M. Pletcher, Rails, Mines, and Progress: Seven American Promoters in Mexico, 1867-1911 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1958), 47-50.
32. Ibid, 41, 49, 61-62, 86, 232, 261, 270. While General Palmer was associated with the railway, Mrs. P. had started a school in Colorado for colonialists' children. Rose apparently already knew the couple before meeting them in Colorado. Nowhere in the text does Rose explicitly name Palmer as anyone other than "General P," although there is no doubt as to the General's identity. Rose made many references to visiting Palmer's acclaimed home in Glen Eyrie, near Colorado Springs, and she lived in accommodations provided by the Denver & Rio Grande Railway Company throughout her stay in Colorado. Furthermore, the dates and route of her travels in Mexico coincide precisely with Palmer's. See also David M. Pletcher, Rails, Mines, and Progress: Seven American Promoters in Mexico, 1867-1911 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1958), 47-50.
33. As Colorado was home to many wealthy British health seekers and investors, titled remittance men and retired colonels, with the help of them, Palmer's million-dollar bond issue to inaugurate his Colorado railroad succeeded with $700,000 from England and $300,000 from a construction company in his native Philadelphia. His Denver & Rio Grande Railway opened for business in 1871, and was eventually extended from Denver to Ogden, Utah, in 1884. See Lucius Beebe and Charles Clegg, Narrow Gauge in the Rockies (Berkeley: Howell-North, 1958). As Beebe and Clegg assert, Palmer had an admiration for all things English, to the extent that his Colorado Springs home, which Rose Kingsley visited many times, was modeled after the home of the Duke of Marlborough.
34. Pletcher, Rails, Mines and Progress, 47.
35. Ibid., 48. G.M. Best, Mexican Narrow Gauge (Berkeley: Howell North Books, 1968).
36. Ibid., 48. G.M. Best, Mexican Narrow Gauge (Berkeley: Howell North Books, 1968).
37. Maurice Kingsley contributed South by West's chapter 23, titled: "A Reconnaissance in the Southern Tierra Caliente," 357-381.
38. Pratt, Imperial Eyes, 131-136, 146-155; See Pratt's reference to Franco's work, 149, 243; Pratt focuses here on European travel literature about South America in the early decades of the nineteenth century. Interestingly, though, Alexander von Humboldt's Political Essays on Mexico, produced during his year there in 1803-1804, does not seem to fit the narrative conventions of capital vanguardism. Pratt reports that von Humboldt spent most of his time in Mexico City, among scholars and in libraries and among scientific communities, the outcome of which was a representation of Mexico as ahistorical, cultivated antiquity, and as both primal culture and nature.
39. Pratt, Imperial Eyes, 131-136, 146-155; See Pratt's reference to Franco's work, 149, 243; Pratt focuses here on European travel literature about South America in the early decades of the nineteenth century. Interestingly, though, Alexander von Humboldt's Political Essays on Mexico, produced during his year there in 1803-1804, does not seem to fit the narrative conventions of capital vanguardism. Pratt reports that von Humboldt spent most of his time in Mexico City, among scholars and in libraries and among scientific communities, the outcome of which was a representation of Mexico as ahistorical, cultivated antiquity, and as both primal culture and nature.
40. Ibid., 148.
41. Sara Mills, "Knowledge, Gender and Empire," in Writing Women and Space: Colonial and Postcolonial Geographies, ed. A. Blunt and G. Rose (New York: Guilford Press, 1994), 29-50; Mona Domosh, "Toward a Feminist Historiography of Geography," Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 16 (1991): 95-104. Also see Anne McClintock, Imperial Leather: Race, Gender and Sexuality in the Colonial Context (New York: Routledge, 1995); Allison Blunt and Gillian Rose, eds., Writing Women and Space: Colonial and Postcolonial Geographies (New York: Guilford Press, 1994); Alison Blunt, Travel Gender and Imperialism: Mary Kingsley and West Africa (New York: Guilford Press, 1994); C. McEwan, "Paradise or Pandemonium? West African Landscapes in the Travel Accounts of Victorian Women," Journal of Historical Geography 22 (1996): 68-83; Sara Mills, Discourses of Difference: An Analysis of Women's Travel Writing and Colonialism (London: Routledge, 1991); Karen Morin, "British Women Travellers"; and Margaret Strobel, European Women and the Second British Empire (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991).
42. Sara Mills, "Knowledge, Gender and Empire," in Writing Women and Space: Colonial and Postcolonial Geographies, ed. A. Blunt and G. Rose (New York: Guilford Press, 1994), 29-50; Mona Domosh, "Toward a Feminist Historiography of Geography," Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 16 (1991): 95-104. Also see Anne McClintock, Imperial Leather: Race, Gender and Sexuality in the Colonial Context (New York: Routledge, 1995); Allison Blunt and Gillian Rose, eds., Writing Women and Space: Colonial and Postcolonial Geographies (New York: Guilford Press, 1994); Alison Blunt, Travel Gender and Imperialism: Mary Kingsley and West Africa (New York: Guilford Press, 1994); C. McEwan, "Paradise or Pandemonium? West African Landscapes in the Travel Accounts of Victorian Women," Journal of Historical Geography 22 (1996): 68-83; Sara Mills, Discourses of Difference: An Analysis of Women's Travel Writing and Colonialism (London: Routledge, 1991); Karen Morin, "British Women Travellers"; and Margaret Strobel, European Women and the Second British Empire (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991).
43. Sara Mills, "Knowledge, Gender and Empire," in Writing Women and Space: Colonial and Postcolonial Geographies, ed. A. Blunt and G. Rose (New York: Guilford Press, 1994), 29-50; Mona Domosh, "Toward a Feminist Historiography of Geography," Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 16 (1991): 95-104. Also see Anne McClintock, Imperial Leather: Race, Gender and Sexuality in the Colonial Context (New York: Routledge, 1995); Allison Blunt and Gillian Rose, eds., Writing Women and Space: Colonial and Postcolonial Geographies (New York: Guilford Press, 1994); Alison Blunt, Travel Gender and Imperialism: Mary Kingsley and West Africa (New York: Guilford Press, 1994); C. McEwan, "Paradise or Pandemonium? West African Landscapes in the Travel Accounts of Victorian Women," Journal of Historical Geography 22 (1996): 68-83; Sara Mills, Discourses of Difference: An Analysis of Women's Travel Writing and Colonialism (London: Routledge, 1991); Karen Morin, "British Women Travellers"; and Margaret Strobel, European Women and the Second British Empire (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991).
44. Sara Mills, "Knowledge, Gender and Empire," in Writing Women and Space: Colonial and Postcolonial Geographies, ed. A. Blunt and G. Rose (New York: Guilford Press, 1994), 29-50; Mona Domosh, "Toward a Feminist Historiography of Geography," Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 16 (1991): 95-104. Also see Anne McClintock, Imperial Leather: Race, Gender and Sexuality in the Colonial Context (New York: Routledge, 1995); Allison Blunt and Gillian Rose, eds., Writing Women and Space: Colonial and Postcolonial Geographies (New York: Guilford Press, 1994); Alison Blunt, Travel Gender and Imperialism: Mary Kingsley and West Africa (New York: Guilford Press, 1994); C. McEwan, "Paradise or Pandemonium? West African Landscapes in the Travel Accounts of Victorian Women," Journal of Historical Geography 22 (1996): 68-83; Sara Mills, Discourses of Difference: An Analysis of Women's Travel Writing and Colonialism (London: Routledge, 1991); Karen Morin, "British Women Travellers"; and Margaret Strobel, European Women and the Second British Empire (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991).
45. Sara Mills, "Knowledge, Gender and Empire," in Writing Women and Space: Colonial and Postcolonial Geographies, ed. A. Blunt and G. Rose (New York: Guilford Press, 1994), 29-50; Mona Domosh, "Toward a Feminist Historiography of Geography," Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 16 (1991): 95-104. Also see Anne McClintock, Imperial Leather: Race, Gender and Sexuality in the Colonial Context (New York: Routledge, 1995); Allison Blunt and Gillian Rose, eds., Writing Women and Space: Colonial and Postcolonial Geographies (New York: Guilford Press, 1994); Alison Blunt, Travel Gender and Imperialism: Mary Kingsley and West Africa (New York: Guilford Press, 1994); C. McEwan, "Paradise or Pandemonium? West African Landscapes in the Travel Accounts of Victorian Women," Journal of Historical Geography 22 (1996): 68-83; Sara Mills, Discourses of Difference: An Analysis of Women's Travel Writing and Colonialism (London: Routledge, 1991); Karen Morin, "British Women Travellers"; and Margaret Strobel, European Women and the Second British Empire (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991).
46. Sara Mills, "Knowledge, Gender and Empire," in Writing Women and Space: Colonial and Postcolonial Geographies, ed. A. Blunt and G. Rose (New York: Guilford Press, 1994), 29-50; Mona Domosh, "Toward a Feminist Historiography of Geography," Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 16 (1991): 95-104. Also see Anne McClintock, Imperial Leather: Race, Gender and Sexuality in the Colonial Context (New York: Routledge, 1995); Allison Blunt and Gillian Rose, eds., Writing Women and Space: Colonial and Postcolonial Geographies (New York: Guilford Press, 1994); Alison Blunt, Travel Gender and Imperialism: Mary Kingsley and West Africa (New York: Guilford Press, 1994); C. McEwan, "Paradise or Pandemonium? West African Landscapes in the Travel Accounts of Victorian Women," Journal of Historical Geography 22 (1996): 68-83; Sara Mills, Discourses of Difference: An Analysis of Women's Travel Writing and Colonialism (London: Routledge, 1991); Karen Morin, "British Women Travellers"; and Margaret Strobel, European Women and the Second British Empire (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991).
47. Sara Mills, "Knowledge, Gender and Empire," in Writing Women and Space: Colonial and Postcolonial Geographies, ed. A. Blunt and G. Rose (New York: Guilford Press, 1994), 29-50; Mona Domosh, "Toward a Feminist Historiography of Geography," Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 16 (1991): 95-104. Also see Anne McClintock, Imperial Leather: Race, Gender and Sexuality in the Colonial Context (New York: Routledge, 1995); Allison Blunt and Gillian Rose, eds., Writing Women and Space: Colonial and Postcolonial Geographies (New York: Guilford Press, 1994); Alison Blunt, Travel Gender and Imperialism: Mary Kingsley and West Africa (New York: Guilford Press, 1994); C. McEwan, "Paradise or Pandemonium? West African Landscapes in the Travel Accounts of Victorian Women," Journal of Historical Geography 22 (1996): 68-83; Sara Mills, Discourses of Difference: An Analysis of Women's Travel Writing and Colonialism (London: Routledge, 1991); Karen Morin, "British Women Travellers"; and Margaret Strobel, European Women and the Second British Empire (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991).
48. Sara Mills, "Knowledge, Gender and Empire," in Writing Women and Space: Colonial and Postcolonial Geographies, ed. A. Blunt and G. Rose (New York: Guilford Press, 1994), 29-50; Mona Domosh, "Toward a Feminist Historiography of Geography," Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 16 (1991): 95-104. Also see Anne McClintock, Imperial Leather: Race, Gender and Sexuality in the Colonial Context (New York: Routledge, 1995); Allison Blunt and Gillian Rose, eds., Writing Women and Space: Colonial and Postcolonial Geographies (New York: Guilford Press, 1994); Alison Blunt, Travel Gender and Imperialism: Mary Kingsley and West Africa (New York: Guilford Press, 1994); C. McEwan, "Paradise or Pandemonium? West African Landscapes in the Travel Accounts of Victorian Women," Journal of Historical Geography 22 (1996): 68-83; Sara Mills, Discourses of Difference: An Analysis of Women's Travel Writing and Colonialism (London: Routledge, 1991); Karen Morin, "British Women Travellers"; and Margaret Strobel, European Women and the Second British Empire (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991).
49. Ann L. Stoler, Race and the Education of Desire: Foucault's History of Sexuality and the Colonial Order of Things (Durham: Duke University Press, 1995), 98-116; and Pratt, Imperial Eyes, 1-11. Also see B. Ashcroft, G. Griffiths, and H. Tiffen, eds., The Post-colonial Studies Reader (London: Routledge, 1995) and C. Mohanty, "Under Western Eyes: Feminist Scholarship and Colonial Discourses," Feminist Review 30 (1988): 65-88.
50. Ann L. Stoler, Race and the Education of Desire: Foucault's History of Sexuality and the Colonial Order of Things (Durham: Duke University Press, 1995), 98-116; and Pratt, Imperial Eyes, 1-11. Also see B. Ashcroft, G. Griffiths, and H. Tiffen, eds., The Post-colonial Studies Reader (London: Routledge, 1995) and C. Mohanty, "Under Western Eyes: Feminist Scholarship and Colonial Discourses," Feminist Review 30 (1988): 65-88.
51. Ann L. Stoler, Race and the Education of Desire: Foucault's History of Sexuality and the Colonial Order of Things (Durham: Duke University Press, 1995), 98-116; and Pratt, Imperial Eyes, 1-11. Also see B. Ashcroft, G. Griffiths, and H. Tiffen, eds., The Post-colonial Studies Reader (London: Routledge, 1995) and C. Mohanty, "Under Western Eyes: Feminist Scholarship and Colonial Discourses," Feminist Review 30 (1988): 65-88.
52. Ann L. Stoler, Race and the Education of Desire: Foucault's History of Sexuality and the Colonial Order of Things (Durham: Duke University Press, 1995), 98-116; and Pratt, Imperial Eyes, 1-11. Also see B. Ashcroft, G. Griffiths, and H. Tiffen, eds., The Post-colonial Studies Reader (London: Routledge, 1995) and C. Mohanty, "Under Western Eyes: Feminist Scholarship and Colonial Discourses," Feminist Review 30 (1988): 65-88.
53. Kingsley, South by West, 188, 192, 204, 213-214, 222, 240, 245, 268-269, 295, 384. She would have gone to Queretaro and Guanajuato as important Mexican mining centers, although her travels took place after the most prodigious mining stage in these areas.
54. Ibid., 195, 209, 251, 258, 279.
55. Ibid., 195.
56. Ibid., 399-411. The three zones are the Tierra Caliente, or Torrid Zone; the Tierra Templada, or Temperate Zone; and the Tierra Fria, or Cold Zone. This material duplicates the same type of information Kingsley provided on Colorado's resources.
57. After Jean Franco, as quoted in Pratt, Imperial Eyes, 149.
58. Kingsley, South by West, 254, 284, 215.
59. Ibid., vii-ix.
60. Sinkin, The Mexican Reform, 25, 170.
61. Jean Franco, Plotting Women: Gender and Representation in Mexico (New York: Columbia University Press, 1989); Peter Calvert, Mexico (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1973); Sinkin, The Mexican Reform; Bazant, A Concise History of Mexico. 33. Young, Colonial Desire, 159-182.
62. Jean Franco, Plotting Women: Gender and Representation in Mexico (New York: Columbia University Press, 1989); Peter Calvert, Mexico (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1973); Sinkin, The Mexican Reform; Bazant, A Concise History of Mexico. 33. Young, Colonial Desire, 159-182.
63. Jean Franco, Plotting Women: Gender and Representation in Mexico (New York: Columbia University Press, 1989); Peter Calvert, Mexico (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1973); Sinkin, The Mexican Reform; Bazant, A Concise History of Mexico. 33. Young, Colonial Desire, 159-182.
64. Jean Franco, Plotting Women: Gender and Representation in Mexico (New York: Columbia University Press, 1989); Peter Calvert, Mexico (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1973); Sinkin, The Mexican Reform; Bazant, A Concise History of Mexico. 33. Young, Colonial Desire, 159-182.
65. Jean Franco, Plotting Women: Gender and Representation in Mexico (New York: Columbia University Press, 1989); Peter Calvert, Mexico (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1973); Sinkin, The Mexican Reform; Bazant, A Concise History of Mexico. 33. Young, Colonial Desire, 159-182.
66. Kingsley, South by West, 232.
67. See Catherine Hall, White, Male and Middle Class: Explorations in Feminism and History (New York: Routledge, 1988), especially 94-107.
68. Kingsley, South by West, 409-41.
69. Ibid., 315, 401-402.
70. A. Skeels, "A Passage to Premodernity: Carl Sauer Repositioned in the Field" (Master's thesis, University of British Columbia, 1993), 169; C. Robinson, Mexico and the Hispanic Southwest in American Literature (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1977).
71. A. Skeels, "A Passage to Premodernity: Carl Sauer Repositioned in the Field" (Master's thesis, University of British Columbia, 1993), 169; C. Robinson, Mexico and the Hispanic Southwest in American Literature (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1977).
72. This intersected with Victorian patriarchy, which postulated that women's biological functions limited their intellectual ones, as well as "scientific racism," which inferred social and moral attributes from physical traits such as cranial capacity, skin color, and facial features. The "white man's burden" of imperialism found literary expression in the works of many authors of the day, including those of Charles Kingsley. See Helen Callaway, Gender, Culture and Empire: European Women in Colonial Nigeria (London: MacMillan Press, 1987); and Greta Jones, Social Darwinism and English Thought: The Interaction Between Biological and Society Theory (Brighton: Harvester Press, 1980).
73. This intersected with Victorian patriarchy, which postulated that women's biological functions limited their intellectual ones, as well as "scientific racism," which inferred social and moral attributes from physical traits such as cranial capacity, skin color, and facial features. The "white man's burden" of imperialism found literary expression in the works of many authors of the day, including those of Charles Kingsley. See Helen Callaway, Gender, Culture and Empire: European Women in Colonial Nigeria (London: MacMillan Press, 1987); and Greta Jones, Social Darwinism and English Thought: The Interaction Between Biological and Society Theory (Brighton: Harvester Press, 1980).
74. Kingsley, South by West, 185, 199, 234.
75. Ibid., 189, 191-192, 206, 208.
76. Ibid., 273-274.
77. Ibid., 212-213, 296, 323, 355.
78. Ibid., 204, 270.
79. Pratt, Imperial Eyes.
80. Kingsley, South by West, 171.
81. Ibid., 302.
82. Sinkin, The Mexican Reform, 20; Eric J. Hobsbawm, Social Bandits and Primitive Rebels: Studies in Archaic Forms of Social Movement in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries (Glencoe, IL: The Free Press, 1969).
83. Sinkin, The Mexican Reform, 20; Eric J. Hobsbawm, Social Bandits and Primitive Rebels: Studies in Archaic Forms of Social Movement in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries (Glencoe, IL: The Free Press, 1969).
84. Kingsley, South by West, 247, 229.
85. Ibid. Her entries also referred to an attack on Colima the day after she left; that the "revolution had broken out" near Queretaro; that pronunciatos were advancing from all sides at Zapotalan; and, that government troops were marching through Seyula and from the west.
86. Ibid., 194, 206, 217-218, 224, 228-229.
87. Ibid., 224-226. Kingsley lengthily quoted a letter from her brother about the engineering party's encounter with "bandits" as well (342-343). In this skirmish, shooting broke out, several men were killed, and General Palmer was grazed by a bullet (also see Pletcher, Rails, Mines, and Progress, 50).
88. Ibid., 224-226. Kingsley lengthily quoted a letter from her brother about the engineering party's encounter with "bandits" as well (342-343). In this skirmish, shooting broke out, several men were killed, and General Palmer was grazed by a bullet (also see Pletcher, Rails, Mines, and Progress, 50).
89. Ibid.
90. Rose had traveled to North America as an official representative of the Church of England. In Mexico, Rose met only one Catholic priest she admired, a German who had been Maximilian's confessor (297), but the rest were vain (336); engaged mindlessly in "revolting" practices such as confession (236); and were criminals, themselves fighting against the liberal reforms, such as in Penjamo (255). She reported that they "scowled" at her on numerous occasions for her own religious orientation (290, 329); were "thieves" who stole the common people's money for the building of "useless" buildings, while the people's huts were not fit for pigs (261, 304); and were frauds (300). Kingsley declared that the Virgin of Guadalupe was a "fraudulent," "disgusting," and "absurd" story. Rose's deep Anglican roots, anti-Catholicism, and Christian progressivism can be traced to her father's works, as well as to the works of other social theorists. See Max Weber's The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (London: Routledge, 1996).
91. Ibid., 187-188, 248, 255, 279.
92. Ibid., 187-188, 193, 255, 248, 216, 256.
93. McClintock, Imperial Leather, 207-214. See also, Mills, Discourses of Difference, 81-83; D. Birkett, Spinsters Abroad: Victorian Lady Explorers (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1989), 191-200; Morin, "Gender, Imperialism and Western American Landscapes"; Morin, "British Women Travellers."
94. McClintock, Imperial Leather, 207-214. See also, Mills, Discourses of Difference, 81-83; D. Birkett, Spinsters Abroad: Victorian Lady Explorers (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1989), 191-200; Morin, "Gender, Imperialism and Western American Landscapes"; Morin, "British Women Travellers."
95. McClintock, Imperial Leather, 207-214. See also, Mills, Discourses of Difference, 81-83; D. Birkett, Spinsters Abroad: Victorian Lady Explorers (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1989), 191-200; Morin, "Gender, Imperialism and Western American Landscapes"; Morin, "British Women Travellers."
96. McClintock, Imperial Leather, 207-214. See also, Mills, Discourses of Difference, 81-83; D. Birkett, Spinsters Abroad: Victorian Lady Explorers (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1989), 191-200; Morin, "Gender, Imperialism and Western American Landscapes"; Morin, "British Women Travellers."
97. McClintock, Imperial Leather, 207-214. See also, Mills, Discourses of Difference, 81-83; D. Birkett, Spinsters Abroad: Victorian Lady Explorers (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1989), 191-200; Morin, "Gender, Imperialism and Western American Landscapes"; Morin, "British Women Travellers."
98. Kingsley, South by West, 134; see Morin, "British Women Travellers."
99. Kingsley, South by West, 134; see Morin, "British Women Travellers."
100. After David Wishart, "The Roles and Status of Men and Women in Nineteenth Century Omaha and Pawnee Societies: Postmodernist Uncertainties and Empirical Evidence," American Indian Quarterly 19 (1995): 509-518. Gerda Lerner would argue against Wishart's (plausible) conceptualization of women's power and prestige; she tries to show how much women's heavy labor was the result of a loss of power and redefinition of labor relations by men. Gerda Lerner, The Creation of Patriarchy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986).
101. After David Wishart, "The Roles and Status of Men and Women in Nineteenth Century Omaha and Pawnee Societies: Postmodernist Uncertainties and Empirical Evidence," American Indian Quarterly 19 (1995): 509-518. Gerda Lerner would argue against Wishart's (plausible) conceptualization of women's power and prestige; she tries to show how much women's heavy labor was the result of a loss of power and redefinition of labor relations by men. Gerda Lerner, The Creation of Patriarchy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986).
102. Hall, White, Male and Middle Class, 62-63. But for a different view on the importance of these women's roles as household employers and therefore instruments of class management see,
103. Elizabeth Langland, Nobody's Angels: Middle-Class Women and Domestic Ideology in Victorian Culture (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1995), 8-11.
104. Kingsley, South by West, 194, 205, 223, 306, 322.
105. Ibid., 183. On the ship from San Francisco to Manzanillo, Kingsley reported that she met "two Mexican gentlemen, who say they are merchants traveling for a house in Guadalajara" (183), one of whom appears in a footnote as Don Porfirio Diaz, "the leader of the Revolution." She said that the men asked to join their party as far as Colima, which was agreed to, since "two more armed men may be an advantage to our little party." Beyond reporting that the "Revolution . . . flamed up more fiercely than ever" upon Diaz's return to Mexico, Kingsley made no further mention of either of the two men.
106. Ibid., 317, 321, 326, 331, 350.
107. Ibid., 197, 203.
108. Ibid., 192-194.
109. Ibid., 212-213, 252, 307.
110. Franco, Plotting Women, 93;
111. Sinkin, The Mexican Reform, 19-20.
112. L. Poteet, personal correspondences with author, November-December 1998;
113. Young, Colonial Desire.
114. As quoted in Bazant, A Concise History of Mexico, 114.
115. The cientificos were a group of intellectuals influenced by Auguste Comte' s positivist philosophy and its goals of modernization through capitalism and science. See Coatsworth, Growth Against Development, 186; Pletcher, Rails, Mines, and Progress, 14-15, 308; Bazant, A Concise History of Mexico, 107-108, 120-121; Cockcroft, Intellectual Precursors, 17.
116. The cientificos were a group of intellectuals influenced by Auguste Comte' s positivist philosophy and its goals of modernization through capitalism and science. See Coatsworth, Growth Against Development, 186; Pletcher, Rails, Mines, and Progress, 14-15, 308; Bazant, A Concise History of Mexico, 107-108, 120-121; Cockcroft, Intellectual Precursors, 17.
117. The cientificos were a group of intellectuals influenced by Auguste Comte' s positivist philosophy and its goals of modernization through capitalism and science. See Coatsworth, Growth Against Development, 186; Pletcher, Rails, Mines, and Progress, 14-15, 308; Bazant, A Concise History of Mexico, 107-108, 120-121; Cockcroft, Intellectual Precursors, 17.
118. The cientificos were a group of intellectuals influenced by Auguste Comte' s positivist philosophy and its goals of modernization through capitalism and science. See Coatsworth, Growth Against Development, 186; Pletcher, Rails, Mines, and Progress, 14-15, 308; Bazant, A Concise History of Mexico, 107-108, 120-121; Cockcroft, Intellectual Precursors, 17.
119. See John H. Coatsworth, "Railroads, Landholding, and Agrarian Protest in the Early Porfiriato," Hispanic American Historical Review 54 (1974): 55-57, for a discussion of the railroads as a site of resistance during the early Porfiriato.
120. Bazant, A Concise History of Mexico, 111.
121. Cockcroft, Intellectual Precursors, 17; Bazant, A Concise History of Mexico, 87, 111; M.C. Meyer and W.L. Sherman, The Course of Mexican History (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983), 444-445; Pletcher, Rails, Mines, and Progress, 1-5, 296-311 ; Calvert, Mexico, 61.
122. Cockcroft, Intellectual Precursors, 17; Bazant, A Concise History of Mexico, 87, 111; M.C. Meyer and W.L. Sherman, The Course of Mexican History (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983), 444-445; Pletcher, Rails, Mines, and Progress, 1-5, 296-311 ; Calvert, Mexico, 61.
123. Cockcroft, Intellectual Precursors, 17; Bazant, A Concise History of Mexico, 87, 111; M.C. Meyer and W.L. Sherman, The Course of Mexican History (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983), 444-445; Pletcher, Rails, Mines, and Progress, 1-5, 296-311 ; Calvert, Mexico, 61.
124. Cockcroft, Intellectual Precursors, 17; Bazant, A Concise History of Mexico, 87, 111; M.C. Meyer and W.L. Sherman, The Course of Mexican History (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983), 444-445; Pletcher, Rails, Mines, and Progress, 1-5, 296-311 ; Calvert, Mexico, 61.
125. Cockcroft, Intellectual Precursors, 17; Bazant, A Concise History of Mexico, 87, 111; M.C. Meyer and W.L. Sherman, The Course of Mexican History (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983), 444-445; Pletcher, Rails, Mines, and Progress, 1-5, 296-311 ; Calvert, Mexico, 61.