Servant migration in Sweden in the early nineteenth century

Journal of Family History

Volumn 24, Issue 1, 1999, Pages 53-73

  Lundh, Christer ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0032623198     PISSN: 03631990     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/036319909902400104     Document Type: Article

References (107)

1. Leslie Page Moch, Moving Europeans: Migration in Western Europe since 1650 (Bloomington, 1992), 31.
2. Ibid., 32.
3. Ibid., 59.
4. Ibid., 32-36.
5. For short-term variations in family migration in the same area, see M. Dribe, Migration, Security and Economic Fluctuations: Family Migration from Halmstad, 1801-1860 (Lund: Lund Papers in Economic History, no. 40, 1995).
6. Ekeby, Frillestad, Halmstad, Hög, Kävlinge, Sireköpinge, and Stenestad.
7. Checks have revealed a certain amount of underrecording in the migration registers. Martinius estimates the underrecording compared with the data in the catechetical examination records of five parishes in central Sweden at 25, 16, 2, 0, and 0 percent, respectively. S. Martinius, Befolkningsrorlighet under industrialismens inledningsskede I Sverige (Goteborg, 1967), 37. Hägerstrand compares migration registers in various parishes and cannot find 4 percent of the migrants; as a result, he believes that they had moved to a place other than that stated in the change-of-address certificate. T. Hägerstrand, "En landsbygdsbefolknings flyttningsrorelser," Geografisk Arsbok 23 (1947): 136 n.7.
8. Checks have revealed a certain amount of underrecording in the migration registers. Martinius estimates the underrecording compared with the data in the catechetical examination records of five parishes in central Sweden at 25, 16, 2, 0, and 0 percent, respectively. S. Martinius, Befolkningsrorlighet under industrialismens inledningsskede I Sverige (Goteborg, 1967), 37. Hägerstrand compares migration registers in various parishes and cannot find 4 percent of the migrants; as a result, he believes that they had moved to a place other than that stated in the change-of-address certificate. T. Hägerstrand, "En landsbygdsbefolknings flyttningsrorelser," Geografisk Arsbok 23 (1947): 136 n.7.
9. In five parishes in central Sweden, migration within parishes accounted for 13, 20, 36, 38. and 56 percent, respectively, of total migration. Martinius, Befolkningsrorlighet, 41.
10. The Scania study was initiated within the framework of the project, "Life Events in a Peasant Society in Transition." For a more detailed discussion of the organization of the study, see T. Bengtsson and C. Lundh, Life Events in a Peasant Society in Transition (Lund: Lund Papers in Economic History, no. 1, 1990). Data are registered in the Scanian Demographic Database, which is a collaborative project between the Research Group in Population, Department of Economic History at Lund University and the Provincial Archives, Lund. Studies of these data are currently in hand within the framework of the project, "From Uncertainty to Modern Economic Growth," which is the Swedish part of the "EurAsian Project on Population and Family History."
11. The family reconstitutions were made on the basis of vital events in the parish records. Scattered data on births, marriages, and deaths were linked together by means of an automatic family reconstitution program. For a description of the program, see T. Bengtsson and C. Lundh, Evaluation of a Swedish Computer Program for Automatic Family Reconstitution (Lund: Lund Papers in Economic History, no. 8, 1991) and T. Bengtsson and C. Lundh, Name Standardisation and Automatic Family Reconstitution (Lund: Lund Papers in Economic History, no. 29, 1993). Data on migratory movements and socioeconomic conditions based on information in migration registers, church catechetical examination registers, and population registers were also linked manually to the reconstructed families.
12. The family reconstitutions were made on the basis of vital events in the parish records. Scattered data on births, marriages, and deaths were linked together by means of an automatic family reconstitution program. For a description of the program, see T. Bengtsson and C. Lundh, Evaluation of a Swedish Computer Program for Automatic Family Reconstitution (Lund: Lund Papers in Economic History, no. 8, 1991) and T. Bengtsson and C. Lundh, Name Standardisation and Automatic Family Reconstitution (Lund: Lund Papers in Economic History, no. 29, 1993). Data on migratory movements and socioeconomic conditions based on information in migration registers, church catechetical examination registers, and population registers were also linked manually to the reconstructed families.
13. Population tables of Ekeby, Frillestad, Halmstad, Hög, Kävlinge, Sireköpinge, and Stenestad, the Provincial Archives, Lund.
14. "Noble" parishes refers to parishes where almost all land was owned by one or several noble estates.
15. D. S. Thomas, Social and Economic Aspects of Swedish Population Movements, 1750-1933 (New York, 1941), 28.
16. Ibid., 45; I. Eriksson and J. Rogers, Rural Labor and Population Change (Uppsala, 1978), 178.
17. Ibid., 45; I. Eriksson and J. Rogers, Rural Labor and Population Change (Uppsala, 1978), 178.
18. T. Bengtsson, "Migration, Wages, and Urbanization in Sweden in the Nineteenth Century," in Urbanization in History: A Process of Dynamic Interactions, eds. A. D. van der Woude, A. Hayami, and J. de Vries (Oxford, 1990), 188-89; S. Dahl, "Flyttningsintensitet och flyttningsnetto," Ekonomisk Tidskrift 51 (1949): 188; Eriksson and Rogers, Rural Labor, 187.
19. T. Bengtsson, "Migration, Wages, and Urbanization in Sweden in the Nineteenth Century," in Urbanization in History: A Process of Dynamic Interactions, eds. A. D. van der Woude, A. Hayami, and J. de Vries (Oxford, 1990), 188-89; S. Dahl, "Flyttningsintensitet och flyttningsnetto," Ekonomisk Tidskrift 51 (1949): 188; Eriksson and Rogers, Rural Labor, 187.
20. T. Bengtsson, "Migration, Wages, and Urbanization in Sweden in the Nineteenth Century," in Urbanization in History: A Process of Dynamic Interactions, eds. A. D. van der Woude, A. Hayami, and J. de Vries (Oxford, 1990), 188-89; S. Dahl, "Flyttningsintensitet och flyttningsnetto," Ekonomisk Tidskrift 51 (1949): 188; Eriksson and Rogers, Rural Labor, 187.
21. Halmstad, Hög, Kävlinge, and Sireköpinge.
22. As to gross migration rates referring to migration across parish borders, these rates must be used with caution since the size of the parish and the density and distribution of its population determine migration rates to some extent. In larger parishes, migration within the parish is generally higher and migration across the parish borders is lower than in smaller parishes. Thus, gross migration rates are not comparable between parishes of different sizes but tell us that migration across parish borders was extensive. However, net migration rates are not included in this critical observation. In preindustrial Sweden, net migration across parish borders was only a small fraction of gross migration.
23. Migration registers and population tables, the Provincial Archives, Lund. See also C. Lundh, Youth Migration in a Life-Cycle Perspective (Lund: Lund Papers in Economic History, no. 52, 1996), 6.
24. The use of a distance of 17 kilometers in Swedish migration studies results from the desire for comparability with a classical study made by Hägerstrand in 1949. In this, 17 kilometers was the distance between the parish churches, which sufficed to include all neighboring parishes and exclude all other parishes and nearby towns. Hägerstrand assumed that the parish churches indicated the centers of the parishes. Hägerstrand, "En landsbygdsbefolknings," 137 n.22.
25. Martinius, Befolkningsrorlighet, 57.
26. Hägerstrand, "En landsbygdsbefolknings," 126; Martinius, Befolkningsrorlighet, 52; T. Bengtsson, "Migration och loner. Tillampning av Todoros migrationsteori pa 1800-talets svenska urbanisering," Vingslag (1987): 32; Eriksson and Rogers, Rural Labor, 189-97.
27. Hägerstrand, "En landsbygdsbefolknings," 126; Martinius, Befolkningsrorlighet, 52; T. Bengtsson, "Migration och loner. Tillampning av Todoros migrationsteori pa 1800-talets svenska urbanisering," Vingslag (1987): 32; Eriksson and Rogers, Rural Labor, 189-97.
28. Hägerstrand, "En landsbygdsbefolknings," 126; Martinius, Befolkningsrorlighet, 52; T. Bengtsson, "Migration och loner. Tillampning av Todoros migrationsteori pa 1800-talets svenska urbanisering," Vingslag (1987): 32; Eriksson and Rogers, Rural Labor, 189-97.
29. Hägerstrand, "En landsbygdsbefolknings," 126; Martinius, Befolkningsrorlighet, 52; T. Bengtsson, "Migration och loner. Tillampning av Todoros migrationsteori pa 1800-talets svenska urbanisering," Vingslag (1987): 32; Eriksson and Rogers, Rural Labor, 189-97.
30. Martinius, Befolkningsrorlighet, 57.
31. Hägerstrand, "En landsbygdsbefolknings," 126-27; Martinius, Befolkningsrorlighet, 56-57.
32. Hägerstrand, "En landsbygdsbefolknings," 126-27; Martinius, Befolkningsrorlighet, 56-57.
33. Bengtsson, "Migration och loner," 31 ; Eriksson and Rogers, Rural Labour, 199-202.
34. Bengtsson, "Migration och loner," 31 ; Eriksson and Rogers, Rural Labour, 199-202.
35. The migration registers of Halmstad, Hög, Kävlinge, and Sireköpinge, the Provincial Archives, Lund.
36. Bengtsson, "Migration, Wages, and Urbanization," 193; Eriksson and Rogers, Rural Labor, 177.
37. Bengtsson, "Migration, Wages, and Urbanization," 193; Eriksson and Rogers, Rural Labor, 177.
38. Halmstad, Hög, Kävlinge, and Sireköpinge, the Provincial Archives, Lund.
39. Martinius, Befolkningsrorlighet, 38.
40. J. Hajnal, "Two Kinds of Pre-Industrial Household Formation System," in Family Forms in Historic Europe, ed. R. Wall (Cambridge, 1983), 69.
41. A. Kussmaul, Servants in Husbandry in Early Modern England (Cambridge, 1981), 31-48; B. Harnesk, Legofolk. Drangar, pigor och bonder I 1700-och 1800-talens Sverige (Umea, 1990), 17-19.
42. A. Kussmaul, Servants in Husbandry in Early Modern England (Cambridge, 1981), 31-48; B. Harnesk, Legofolk. Drangar, pigor och bonder I 1700-och 1800-talens Sverige (Umea, 1990), 17-19.
43. A. O.Winroth, Tjenstehnjonsforhallandet enligt svensk ratt (Uppsala, 1878), 3, 119-20, 125.
44. Ibid., 125-34, 140-42, 146-62.
45. Ibid., 134-39, 144.
46. Ibid., 128-30.
47. Ibid., 121 ; G. Utterström, Jordbrukets arbetare (Stockholm, 1957), 235-40.
48. Ibid., 121 ; G. Utterström, Jordbrukets arbetare (Stockholm, 1957), 235-40.
49. Study of all job-related advertisements in Lund's Veckoblad Gammalt och Nytt, Nyare Helsingborgs-Posten, and Landskrona Tidning, 1836 and 1839.
50. The migration registers of Halmstad, Hög, Kävlinge, and Sireköpinge, the Provincial Archives, Lund (n = 3,076).
51. Martinius, Befolkningsrorlighet, 63.
52. Kussmaul, Servants in Husbandry, 55-56; M. Mitterauer, "Gesindienst und Jugenphase Europaischen Vergleich," Geschichte und Gesellschaft 2 (1985): 199; Martinius, Befolkningsrorlighet, 109; Harnesk, Legofolk, 166.
53. Kussmaul, Servants in Husbandry, 55-56; M. Mitterauer, "Gesindienst und Jugenphase Europaischen Vergleich," Geschichte und Gesellschaft 2 (1985): 199; Martinius, Befolkningsrorlighet, 109; Harnesk, Legofolk, 166.
54. Kussmaul, Servants in Husbandry, 55-56; M. Mitterauer, "Gesindienst und Jugenphase Europaischen Vergleich," Geschichte und Gesellschaft 2 (1985): 199; Martinius, Befolkningsrorlighet, 109; Harnesk, Legofolk, 166.
55. Kussmaul, Servants in Husbandry, 55-56; M. Mitterauer, "Gesindienst und Jugenphase Europaischen Vergleich," Geschichte und Gesellschaft 2 (1985): 199; Martinius, Befolkningsrorlighet, 109; Harnesk, Legofolk, 166.
56. Kussmaul, Servants in Husbandry, 55-56; Harnesk, Legofolk, 164-65.
57. Kussmaul, Servants in Husbandry, 55-56; Harnesk, Legofolk, 164-65.
58. Bengtsson, "Migration, Wages, and Urbanization," 193-94.
59. L. Berkner, "The Stem Family and the Developmental Cycle of the Peasant Household: An Eighteenth-Century Austrian Example," American Historical Review 75 (1972): 721-38; C. Lundh, "Households and Families in Pre-Industrial Sweden," Continuity and Change 10 (1995): 54-64.
60. L. Berkner, "The Stem Family and the Developmental Cycle of the Peasant Household: An Eighteenth-Century Austrian Example," American Historical Review 75 (1972): 721-38; C. Lundh, "Households and Families in Pre-Industrial Sweden," Continuity and Change 10 (1995): 54-64.
61. Martinius, Befolkningsrorlighet, 22, 26.
62. Kussmaul, Servants in Husbandry, 58-59.
63. The catechetical examinations records of Hög and Kävlinge in 1820, the Provincial Archives, Lund (n = 182).
64. N. Staf, Marknadsreformen 1788 (Stockholm, 1940), 5-8; N. Staf, ̈Marknader och marknadsterminer,̈ Nordisk Kulture 16 (1933): 191-99; N. Staf, Marknad och mote (Stockholm, 1935), 343-69.
65. N. Staf, Marknadsreformen 1788 (Stockholm, 1940), 5-8; N. Staf, ̈Marknader och marknadsterminer,̈ Nordisk Kulture 16 (1933): 191-99; N. Staf, Marknad och mote (Stockholm, 1935), 343-69.
66. N. Staf, Marknadsreformen 1788 (Stockholm, 1940), 5-8; N. Staf, ̈Marknader och marknadsterminer,̈ Nordisk Kulture 16 (1933): 191-99; N. Staf, Marknad och mote (Stockholm, 1935), 343-69.
67. Almanach För Året Efter Frälsarens Christi Födelse, 1820-1829, Efter Hans Kongl. Maj:ts Nädigste Stadgande utgifiven Af Dess Wetenskaps-Academie (Stockholm).
68. M. Lemner, "Vasteras pig-eller folkmarknad 'till nytta och wederqvickelser'" (Uppsala University, Department of Ethnology, 1985, duplicated), 1, 8-11.
69. J. Agri, "Marknader I Landskrona," Skanes Hembygdsforbunds arsbok (1939): 84-85.
70. Nyare Helsingborgs-Posten, no. 84, 19 October 1839; Lund's Veckoblad Gemmalt och Nytt, no. 35, 28 August 1839. See also Lemner, Vasteras, 22-23. Studies of the labor exchange in Helsingborg are also being undertaken by Elisabeth Reuterswärd at the Department of History, Lund University. However, no results have yet been published.
71. Nyare Helsingborgs-Posten, no. 84, 19 October 1839; Lund's Veckoblad Gemmalt och Nytt, no. 35, 28 August 1839. See also Lemner, Vasteras, 22-23. Studies of the labor exchange in Helsingborg are also being undertaken by Elisabeth Reuterswärd at the Department of History, Lund University. However, no results have yet been published.
72. Nyare Helsingborgs-Posten, no. 84, 19 October 1839; Lund's Veckoblad Gemmalt och Nytt, no. 35, 28 August 1839. See also Lemner, Vasteras, 22-23. Studies of the labor exchange in Helsingborg are also being undertaken by Elisabeth Reuterswärd at the Department of History, Lund University. However, no results have yet been published.
73. Study of all job-related advertisements in Lund's Veckoblad Gammalt och Nytt, Nyare Helsingborgs-Posten, and Landskrona Tidning, 1836 and 1839.
74. Ibid.
75. Ibid.
76. Lund's Veckoblad Gammalt och Nytt, no. 4, 27 January 1830.
77. Study of all job-related advertisements in Lund's Veckoblad Gammalt och Nytt, Nyare Helsingborgs-Posten, and Landskrona Tidning, 1836 and 1839.
78. In the church legislation of 1689, the ages of thirteen and fourteen were regarded as a minimum for being confirmed. Ethnologists who have been studying the customs of the nineteenth century believe that most young people were confirmed between ages fourteen and fifteen (K. Öhman, Att sta pa gangen och gafram. En studie over svensk konfirmationssed [Uppsala, 1983], 30) or between ages fourteen and sixteen (O. Löfgren, "Umgangesformer," in Land och stad. Svenska samhallstyper och livsformer fran medeltid till nutid, eds. M. Hellspong and O. Lofgren [Lund, 1974], 319). See also N. Ekdahl, Om confirmationen (Lund, 1889), vol. 1. 57. C. Lundh, Giftermalsmonster I Sverige fore del industriella genombrottet (Lund: Lund Papers in Economic History, no. 31, 1993).
79. In the church legislation of 1689, the ages of thirteen and fourteen were regarded as a minimum for being confirmed. Ethnologists who have been studying the customs of the nineteenth century believe that most young people were confirmed between ages fourteen and fifteen (K. Öhman, Att sta pa gangen och gafram. En studie over svensk konfirmationssed [Uppsala, 1983], 30) or between ages fourteen and sixteen (O. Löfgren, "Umgangesformer," in Land och stad. Svenska samhallstyper och livsformer fran medeltid till nutid, eds. M. Hellspong and O. Lofgren [Lund, 1974], 319). See also N. Ekdahl, Om confirmationen (Lund, 1889), vol. 1. 57. C. Lundh, Giftermalsmonster I Sverige fore del industriella genombrottet (Lund: Lund Papers in Economic History, no. 31, 1993).
80. In the church legislation of 1689, the ages of thirteen and fourteen were regarded as a minimum for being confirmed. Ethnologists who have been studying the customs of the nineteenth century believe that most young people were confirmed between ages fourteen and fifteen (K. Öhman, Att sta pa gangen och gafram. En studie over svensk konfirmationssed [Uppsala, 1983], 30) or between ages fourteen and sixteen (O. Löfgren, "Umgangesformer," in Land och stad. Svenska samhallstyper och livsformer fran medeltid till nutid, eds. M. Hellspong and O. Lofgren [Lund, 1974], 319). See also N. Ekdahl, Om confirmationen (Lund, 1889), vol. 1. 57. C. Lundh, Giftermalsmonster I Sverige fore del industriella genombrottet (Lund: Lund Papers in Economic History, no. 31, 1993).
81. In the church legislation of 1689, the ages of thirteen and fourteen were regarded as a minimum for being confirmed. Ethnologists who have been studying the customs of the nineteenth century believe that most young people were confirmed between ages fourteen and fifteen (K. Öhman, Att sta pa gangen och gafram. En studie over svensk konfirmationssed [Uppsala, 1983], 30) or between ages fourteen and sixteen (O. Löfgren, "Umgangesformer," in Land och stad. Svenska samhallstyper och livsformer fran medeltid till nutid, eds. M. Hellspong and O. Lofgren [Lund, 1974], 319). See also N. Ekdahl, Om confirmationen (Lund, 1889), vol. 1. 57. C. Lundh, Giftermalsmonster I Sverige fore del industriella genombrottet (Lund: Lund Papers in Economic History, no. 31, 1993).
82. A. Macfarlane, The Origins of English Individualism (Oxford, 1978), 76; Kussmaul, Servants in Husbandry, 78.
83. A. Macfarlane, The Origins of English Individualism (Oxford, 1978), 76; Kussmaul, Servants in Husbandry, 78.
84. The migration registers of Hög and Kävlinge, the Provincial Archives, Lund (n = 101).
85. The migration registers, population tables, and catechetical examination registers of Hög and Kävlinge, the Provincial Archives, Lund; Lundh, "Households and Families," 50-51, 55.
86. Ekeby, Frillestad, Halmstad, Hög, Kävlinge, and Sireköpinge.
87. The catechetical examination registers, the Provincial Archives, Lund; Lundh, "Households and Families," 50-51, 55.
88. Winroth, "Tjenstehjonsforhallandet," 139-49, 197.
89. P. Ariès, Centuries of Childhood (Oxford, 1962), 367-69, 506-9; J. Gillis, Youth and History (New York, 1974), 7-9, 23.
90. P. Ariès, Centuries of Childhood (Oxford, 1962), 367-69, 506-9; J. Gillis, Youth and History (New York, 1974), 7-9, 23.
91. M. Mitterauer, "Servants and Youth," Continuity and Change 5 (1990): 15-24.
92. The catechetical examination records of Hög and Kävlinge in 1820, the Provincial Archives, Lund.
93. Ekeby, Frillestad, Halmstad, Hög. Kävlinge, Sireköpinge, and Stenestad.
94. The migration registers of Ekeby, Frillestad, Halmstad, Hög, Kävlinge, Sireköpinge, and Stenestad, the Provincial Archives, Lund.
95. The children's birth ranks are reckoned by the children alive at the time of the migratory movement in question.
96. Stature were married farm laborers employed by the year and paid partly in kind.
97. Martinius, Befolkningsrorlighet, 21.
98. The catechetical examniation records of Hög and Kävlinge in 1820, the Provincial Archives, Lund.
99. Estimations of mean age at first marriage based on family reconstitutions in Hög, Kävlinge, Sireköpinge, Halmstad, Ekeby, Stenestad, and Frillestad, 1811-1860. Records of births, marriages, and deaths are from the Provincial Archives, Lund.
100. In 1800, the proportion of men ages forty-five to forty-nine who had ever been married was 93 percent and of women of the same age group 88 percent. Lundh, "Giftermalsmonster," 5.
101. S. Åkerman, "A Demographic Study of a Pre-Transitional Society," in Chance and Change, eds. S. Akerman, H. C. Johansen, and D. Gaunt (Odense, 1978), 44; A. Norberg and M. Rolén, "Migration and Marriage," in Time, Space and Man, eds. J. Sundin and E. Soderlund (Umea, 1977), 133-35.
102. S. Åkerman, "A Demographic Study of a Pre-Transitional Society," in Chance and Change, eds. S. Akerman, H. C. Johansen, and D. Gaunt (Odense, 1978), 44; A. Norberg and M. Rolén, "Migration and Marriage," in Time, Space and Man, eds. J. Sundin and E. Soderlund (Umea, 1977), 133-35.
103. G. G. Kvillner, "En Studie I giftermalsfalt," Fataburen. Landskrona Tidning, 1836-39 (1969): 65.
104. Marriage cohort (1815-1830) from a family reconstitution population; records of births, marriages, and deaths are from the Provincial Archives, Lund.
105. E. Heckscher, An Economic History of Sweden (Cambridge, MA, 1954), 255. See also P.-E. Back, En klass I uppbrott. Den fackliga lantarbetarrorelsens uppkomst och utveckling (Malmo, 1961) and L. Furuland, Statarna I litteraturen. En studie I svensk dikt och samhallsdebatt (Stockholm, 1962).
106. E. Heckscher, An Economic History of Sweden (Cambridge, MA, 1954), 255. See also P.-E. Back, En klass I uppbrott. Den fackliga lantarbetarrorelsens uppkomst och utveckling (Malmo, 1961) and L. Furuland, Statarna I litteraturen. En studie I svensk dikt och samhallsdebatt (Stockholm, 1962).
107. E. Heckscher, An Economic History of Sweden (Cambridge, MA, 1954), 255. See also P.-E. Back, En klass I uppbrott. Den fackliga lantarbetarrorelsens uppkomst och utveckling (Malmo, 1961) and L. Furuland, Statarna I litteraturen. En studie I svensk dikt och samhallsdebatt (Stockholm, 1962).