Video-rate confocal scanning laser microscope for imaging human tissues in vivo

Applied Optics

Volumn 38, Issue 10, 1999, Pages 2105-2115

  Rajadhyaksha, Milind ^a   Anderson, R Rox ^a   Webb, Robert H ^a  

^a MASSACHUSETTS GENERAL HOSPITAL   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

MEDICAL IMAGING; OPTICAL RESOLVING POWER; SKIN; TISSUE;

CONFOCAL SCANNING LASER MICROSCOPES; LIGHT TISSUE INTERACTION;

MICROSCOPES;

EID: 0032614525     PISSN: 1559128X     EISSN: 21553165     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1364/AO.38.002105     Document Type: Article

References (61)

1. J. B. Pawley, ed., Handbook of Biological Confocal Microscopy, 2nd ed. (Plenum, New York, 1995).
2. R. H. Webb, “Confocal optical microscopy, ” Rep. Prog. Phys. 59, 427-471 (1996).
3. M. Petran, M. Hadravsky, J. Benes, and A. Boyde, “In vivo microscopy using the tandem scanning microscope, ” Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 483, 440-447 (1986).
4. J. V. Jester, H. D. Cavanagh, J. Essepian, W. J. Shields, and M. A. Lemp, “Real-time confocal imaging of the living eye, ” in New Methods in Light Microscopy and Low Light Imaging, J. E. Wampler, ed., Proc. SPIE 1161, 366-376 (1989).
5. H. D. Cavanagh, J. V. Jester, J. Essepian, W. Shields, and M. A. Lemp, “Confocal microscopy of the living eye, ” Contact Lens Association of Ophthalmologists Journal 16, 65-73 (1990).
6. J. V. Jester, P. M. Andrews, W. M. Petroll, M. A. Lemp, and H. D. Cavanagh, “In vivo, real-time confocal imaging, ” J. Electron Microsc. 18, 50-60 (1991).
7. P. M. Andrews, W. M. Petroll, H. D. Cavanagh, and J. V. Jester, “Tandem scanning confocal microscopy (TSCM) of normal and ischemic living kidneys, ” Am. J. Anat. 191, 95-102 (1991).
8. C. J. Koester, J. D. Auran, H. D. Rosskothen, G. J. Florakis, and R. B. Tackaberry, “Clinical microscopy of the cornea utilizing optical sectioning and a high numerical aperture objective, ” J. Opt. Soc. Am. A 10, 1670-1679 (1993).
9. B. R. Masters and A. A. Thaer, “Real-time scanning slit confocal microscopy of the in vivo human cornea, ” Appl. Opt. 33, 695-701 (1994).
10. G. E. Pierard, “In vivo confocal microscopy: a new paradigm in dermatology, ” Dermatology 186, 4-5 (1993).
11. K. C. New, W. M. Petroll, A. Boyde, L. Martin, P. Corcuff, J. L. Leveque, M. A. Lemp, H. D. Cavanagh, and J. V. Jester, “In vivo imaging of human teeth and skin using real-time confocal microscopy, ” Scanning 13, 369-372 (1991).
12. P. Corcuff and J. L. Leveque, “In vivo vision of the human skin with the tandem scanning microscope, ” Dermatology 186, 5054 (1993).
13. P. Corcuff, C. Bertrand, and J. L. Leveque, “Morphometry of human epidermis in vivo by real-time confocal microscopy, ” Arch. Dermatol. Res. 285, 475-481 (1993).
14. C. Bertrand and P. Corcuff, “In vivo spatio-temporal visualization of the human skin by real-time confocal microscopy, ” Scanning 16, 150-154 (1994).
15. S. C. Kaufman, R. W. Beuerman, and D. L. Greer, “Confocal microscopy: a new tool for the study of the nail unit, ” J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 32, 668-670 (1995).
16. P. Corcuff, G. Gonnord, G. E. Pierard, and J. L. Leveque, “In vivo confocal microscopy of human skin: a new design for cosmetology and dermatology, ” Scanning 18, 351-355 (1996).
17. B. R. Masters, G. Gonnord, and P. Corcuff, “Three-dimensional microscopic biopsy of in vivo human skin: a new technique based on a flexible confocal microscope, ” J. Microsc. 185, 329-338 (1997).
18. B. R. Masters, D. J. Aziz, A. F. Gmitro, J. H. Kerr, T. C. O’Grady, and L. Goldman, “Rapid observation of unfixed, unstained human skin biopsy specimens with confocal microscopy and visualization, ” J. Biomed. Opt. 2, 437-445 (1997).
19. M. Rajadhyaksha, M. Grossman, D. Esterowitz, R. H. Webb, and R. R. Anderson, “In vivo confocal scanning laser microscopy of human skin: melanin provides strong contrast, ” J. Invest. Dermatol. 104, 946-952 (1995).
20. R. H. Webb and G. W. Hughes, “Scanning laser ophthalmoscope, ” IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng. BME-28, 488-492 (1981).
21. R. H. Webb, G. W. Hughes, and F. C. Delori, “Confocal scanning laser ophthalmoscope, ” Appl. Opt. 26, 1492-1499 (1987).
22. O. Pomerantzeff and R. H. Webb, “Scanning ophthalmoscope for examining the fundus of the eye, ” U.S. patent 4, 213, 678 (22 July 1980).
23. R. H. Webb and G. W. Hughes, “Double scanning optical apparatus, ” U.S. patents 4, 764, 005, 4, 765, 730, and 4768873 (16 August, 23 August, and 6 September 1988).
24. R. R. Anderson and J. A. Parrish, “The optics of human skin, ” J. Invest. Dermatol. 77, 13-19 (1981).
25. C. J. R. Sheppard and C. J. Cogswell, “Effects of aberrating layers and tube length on confocal imaging properties, ” Optik 87, 34-38 (1991).
26. C. J. R. Sheppard and M. Gu, “Aberration compensation in confocal microscopy, ” Appl. Opt. 30, 3563-3568 (1991).
27. K. Carlsson, “The influence of specimen refractive index, detector signal integration, and non-uniform scan speed on the imaging properties in confocal microscopy, ” J. Microsc. 163, 167-178 (1991).
28. S. Hell, G. Reiner, C. Cremer, and E. H. K. Stelzer, “Aberrations in confocal fluorescence microscopy induced by mismatches in refractive index, ” J. Microsc. 169, 391-405 (1993).
29. S. F. Gibson and F. Lanni, “Experimental test of an analytical model of aberration in an oil-immersion objective lens used in three-dimensional light microscopy, ” J. Opt. Soc. Am. A 9, 154-166 (1992).
30. B. C. Wilson and S. L. Jacques, “Optical reflectance and transmittance of tissues: principles and applications, ” IEEE J. Quantum Electron. 26, 2186-2199 (1990).
31. R. H. Webb and G. W. Hughes, “Detectors for scanning video imagers, ” Appl. Opt. 32, 6227-6235 (1993).
32. H. J. van Staveren, C. J. M. Moes, J. van Marle, S. A. Prahl, and M. J. C. van Gemert, “Light scattering in Intralipid-10% in the wavelength range of 400-1100 nm, ” Appl. Opt. 30, 4507-4514 (1991).
33. M. H. Koelink, F. F. M. de Mul, J. Greve, R. Graaff, A. C. M. Dassel, and J. G. Aardnouse, “Laser Doppler blood flowmetry using two wavelengths: Monte Carlo simulations and measurements, ” Appl. Opt. 33, 3549-3558 (1994).
34. S. Wan, R. R. Anderson, and J. A. Parrish, “Analytical modeling for the optical properties of the skin with in vitro and in vivo applications, ” Photochem. Photobiol. 34, 493-499 (1981).
35. M. J. C. van Gemert, S. L. Jacques, H. J. C. M. Sterenborg, and W. M. Star, “Skin optics, ” IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng. 36, 1146-1154 (1989).
36. S. Inoue, Video Microscopy (Plenum, New York, 1986).
37. T. R. Corle, C. H. Chou, and G. S. Kino, “Depth response of confocal optical microscopes, ” Opt. Lett. 11, 770-772 (1986).
38. C. J. R. Sheppard and T. Wilson, “Depth of field in the scanning microscope, ” Opt. Lett. 3, 115-117 (1978).
39. E. Peli Schepens Eye Research Institute, Boston, Mass. 02114 (personal communication, 1997).
40. E. Peli, “Contrast in complex images, ” J. Opt. Soc. Am. A 7, 2032-2040 (1990).
41. W. F. Cheong, S. A. Prahl, and A. J. Welch, “A review of the optical properties of biological tissue, ” IEEE J. Quantum Electron. 26, 2166-2185 (1990).
42. T. Wilson and A. R. Carlini, “Three-dimensional imaging in confocal imaging systems with finite sized detectors, ” J. Microsc. 149, 51-66 (1988).
43. T. Wilson and A. R. Carlini, “Size of the detector in confocal imaging systems, ” Opt. Lett. 12, 227-229 (1987).
44. D. R. Sandison, D. W. Piston, R. M. Williams, and W. W. Webb, “Quantitative comparison of background rejection, signal-tonoise ratio, and resolution in confocal and full-field scanning microscopes, ” Appl. Opt. 34, 3576-3588 (1995).
45. M. Born and E. Wolf, Principles of Optics, 6th ed. (Pergamon, New York, 1980), p. 437.
46. T. Wilson, “The role of the pinhole in confocal imaging systems, ” in Handbook of Biological Confocal Microscopy, 2nd ed., J. B. Pawley, Ed. (Plenum, New York, 1995), Chap. 11, pp. 167-182.
47. P. P. Webb, R. J. McIntyre, and J. Conradi, “Properties of avalanche photodiodes, ” RCA Rev. 35, 234-278 (1974).
48. J. T. Verdeyen, “Detection of optical radiation, ” in Laser Electronics (Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1981), Chap. 14, pp. 399-418.
49. A. B. Watson, “Temporal sensitivity, ” in Handbook of Perception and Human Performance K. R. Boff, L. Kaufman, and J. P. Thomas, eds. (Wiley, New York, 1986), Vol. 1, Chap. 6, pp. 6.34-6.35.
50. A. K. Dunn, C. Smithpeter, A. J. Welch, and R. Richards-Kortum, “Sources of contrast in confocal reflectance imaging, ” Appl. Opt. 35, 3441-3446 (1996).
51. A. K. Dunn, C. Smithpeter, A. J. Welch, and R. Richards-Kortum, “Finite-difference time-domain simulation of light scattering from single cells, ” J. Biomed. Opt. 2, 262-266 (1997).
52. I. A. Vitkin, J. Woolsey, B. C. Wilson, and R. R. Anderson, “Optical and thermal characterization of natural (sepia officinalis) melanin, ” Photochem. Photobiol. 59, 455-462 (1994).
53. G. J. Tearney, M. E. Brezinski, J. F. Southern, B. E. Bouma, M. R. Hee, and J. G. Fujimoto, “Determination of the refractive index of highly scattering human tissue by optical coherence tomography, ” Opt. Lett. 20, 2258-2260 (1995).
54. G. Szabo, A. B. Gerald, M. A. Pathak, and T. B. Fitzpatrick, “Racial differences in the fate of melanosomes in human epidermis, ” Nature (London) 222, 1081-1082 (1969).
55. K. Toda, M. A. Pathak, J. A. Parrish, T. B. Fitzpatrick, and W. C. Quevedo, “Alteration of racial differences in melanosome distribution in human epidermis after exposure to ultraviolet light, ” Nature New Biology 236, 143-145 (1972).
56. R. G. B. Langley, M. Rajadhyaksha, P. J. Dwyer, R. R. Anderson, and A. J. Sober, “Confocal scanning laser microscopy of pigmented lesions, ” J. Invest. Dermatol. 106, 836 (1996).
57. S. Gonzalez, W. M. White, G. Rubinstein, M. Rajadhyaksha, J. Zavislan, J. L. Fewkes, and R. R. Anderson, “In vivo real-time confocal imaging of non-pigmented cutaneous neoplasms, ” J. Invest. Dermatol. 110, 583 (1998).
58. W. M. White, M. Rajadhyaksha, S. Gonzalez, R. L. Fabian, and R. R. Anderson, “Clinical, real-time confocal imaging of human oral mucosa in vivo, ” J. Invest. Dermatol. 110, 588 (1998).
59. S. J. Ugent, M. Rajadhyaksha, N. Kollias, and R. R. Anderson, “In vivo scanning laser confocal microscopy of UVB-irradiated human skin, ” Photochem. Photobiol. 63, 50 (1996).
60. S. Gonzälez, M. Rajadhyaksha, G. Rubinstein, W. M. White, E. Gonzalez, and R. R. Anderson, “Non-invasive histologic characterization of skin diseases using in vivo confocal scanning laser microscopy, ” J. Invest. Dermatol. 110, 580 (1998).
61. S. Gonzälez, W. M. White, M. Rajadhyaksha, G. Rubinstein, R. R. Anderson, E. Gonzalez, “Confocal imaging of acute contact dermatitis in vivo, ” Am. J. Contact Dermatitis 9, 62 (1998).