11β-Hpdroxysteroid dehydrogenase: A link between the dysregulation of cortisol metabolism and hypertension

British Journal of Biomedical Science

Volumn 56, Issue 3, 1999, Pages 215-225

  Donovan, Stephen J ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF PORTSMOUTH   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

11 Beta hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase; Hypertension; Mineralocorticoids

Indexed keywords

11BETA HYDROXYSTEROID DEHYDROGENASE; CORTISONE; GLUCOCORTICOID RECEPTOR; HYDROCORTISONE; MINERALOCORTICOID RECEPTOR; HYDROXYSTEROID DEHYDROGENASE;

ARTICLE; ENZYME ACTIVITY; ESSENTIAL HYPERTENSION; HORMONE METABOLISM; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; HYPOKALEMIA; HYPOTHESIS; LOW BIRTH WEIGHT; METABOLIC ALKALOSIS; PLACENTA WEIGHT; PRIORITY JOURNAL; ENZYMOLOGY; METABOLISM; PHYSIOLOGY; REVIEW;

11-BETA-HYDROXYSTEROID DEHYDROGENASES; HUMANS; HYDROCORTISONE; HYDROXYSTEROID DEHYDROGENASES; HYPERTENSION; RECEPTORS, GLUCOCORTICOID; RECEPTORS, MINERALOCORTICOID;

EID: 0032586397     PISSN: 09674845     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (149)

1. Kumanyika SK, Landis JR, Matthews-Cook YL et al. Systolic blood pressure trends in US adults between 1960 and 1980: influence of antihypertensive drug therapy. Am J Epidemiol 1998; 148:528-38.
2. Steptoe A, Fieldman G, Evans O, Perry L. Cardiovascular risk and responsivity to mental stress: the influence of age, gender and risk factors. J Cardiovasc Risk 1996; 3:83-93.
3. Funder JW, Krozowski Z, Myles K et al. Mineralocorticoid receptors, salt, and hypertension. Recent Prog Horm Res 1997; 52:247-62.
4. Litchfield WR, Hunt SC, Jeunemaitre X et al. Increased urinary free cortisol: a potential intermediate phenotype of essential hypertension. Hypertension 1998; 31:569-74.
5. Pickup JC, Mattock MB, Chusney GD, Burt D. NIDDM as a disease of the innate immune system: association of acute-phase reactants and interleukin-6 with metabolic syndrome X. Diabetologia 1997; 40:1286-92.
6. Fraser R, Padfield PL. Role of mineralocorticoids. In: Edwards CRW, Carey RM, ed. Hypertension as an endocrine disease. London: Butterworths, 1985:158-83.
7. Genest J, Nowaczynski W, Kuchel O et al. The role of the adrenal cortex in human essential hypertension. Mayo Clin Proc 1977; 52:291-307.
8. Melby JC, Dale SL. Adrenocorticosteroids in experimental and human hypertension. J Endocrinol 1979; 81:93-106P.
9. Fraser R, Brown J, Lever AF, Robertson JIS. Control of aldosterone in hypertension. In: Genest J, Kuchel O, Hamet P, Cantin M, eds. Hypertension. 2nd edn. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1983: 338-48.
10. Melby JC, Dale SL, Griffing GT. Nonaldosterone, adrenocorticol and other hormonal steroids in experimental and human hypertension. In: Genest J, Kuchel I, Hamet P, Cantin M, eds. Hypertension 2nd edn. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1983: 349-59.
11. Connell JM, Jamieson AJ, Davies E et al. 11 beta-hydroxylase activity in glucocorticoid suppressible hyperaldosteronism: lessons for essential hypertension? Endocr Res 1996; 22:691-700.
12. Gudbjörnsdóttir S, Fowelin J, Elam M et al. The effect of metoprolol treatment on insulin sensitivity and diurnal plasma hormone levels in hypertensive subjects. Eur J Clin Invest 1997; 27:29-35.
13. Nazar K, Kaciuba Uscilko H, Ziemba W et al. Physiological characteristics and hormonal profile of young normotensive men wth exaggerated blood pressure response to exercise. Clin Physiol 1997; 17:1-18.
14. Kokron CM, Casestro AS, Solé D, Nespitz CK. Lysine-vaso-pressin in the evaluation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in children with allergic rhinitis treated with intranasal beclomethasone dipropionate or oral prednisone. J Investig Allergol Clin Immunol 1997; 7:51-6.
15. Brooks RV. Biosynthesis and metabolism of adrenocorticol steroids. In: James VHT, ed. The adrenal gland. 1st edn. New York: Raven Press, 1979:67-92.
16. Buckingham JC, Smith T, Loxley HD. The control of ACTH secretion. In: James VHT, ed. The adrenal gland. 2nd edn. New York: Raven Press, 1992:131-58.
17. Fraser R. Biosynthesis of adrenocorticol steroids. In: James VHT, ed. The adrenal gland. 2nd edn. New York: Raven Press, 1992:117-30.
18. Miller WL. Congenital adrenal hyperplasia. In: Strauss JF, ed. Steroid hormones: synthesis, metabolism, and action in health and disease. Endocrinology and metabolism clinics of North America. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 1991:721-49.
19. Osinski PA. Steroid 11β-ol dehydrogenase in human placenta. Nature 1960; 187:777.
20. Bonvalet JP, Doignon J, Biot-Chaband M et al. Distribution of 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase along the rabbit nephron. J Clin Invest 1990; 86:832-7.
21. Rusvai E, Fejes-Toth AN. A new isoform of 11β-hydroxy-steroid dehydrogenease in aldosterone target cells. J Biol Chem 1993; 268:107 17-20.
22. Mercer W, Krozowski ZS. Localisation of an 11β-hydroxy-steroid dehydrogenase activity to the distal nephron. Evidence for the existence of two species of dehydrogenase in the rat kidney. Endocrinology 1992; 130:540-3.
23. Smith BT, Tanswell KA, Minshall D et al. Influence of corticosteroids on glycogen content and steroid 11-reductase activity in lung and liver of the fetal and newborn rat. Biol Neonate 1982; 42:201-7.
24. 3H-cortisol perfused through liver in vivo. J Clin Endocrinol 1971; 33:597-603.
25. Whitworth JA, Stewart PM, Burt D et al. The kidney is the major site of cortisone production in man. J Clin Endocrinol 1989; 31:355-61.
26. Mahesh VB, Ulrich F. Metabolism of cortisol and cortisone by various tissues and subcellular particles. J Biol Chem 1960; 235:356-60.
27. Jenkins JS. The metabolism of cortisol by human extrahepatic tissues. J Endocrinol 1966; 34:51-6.
28. Monder C. Heterogeneity of 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase in rat tissues. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 1991; 41:533-6.
29. Liddle GW. Clinical pharmacology of the anti-inflammatory steroids. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1961; 2:615-35.
30. Voccia E, Saenger P, Peterson RE et al. 6β-hydroxycortisol excretion in hypercortisolaemic states. J Endocrinol Metab 1979; 48:467-71.
31. Touchstone JC, Blackemore WS. 6β-hydroxycortisol in adrenocortical hyperfunction. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1961; 21:263-70.
32. Lipman MH, Katz FH, Jailer JW. An alternative pathway for cortisol metabolism: 6β-hydroxycortisol production by human tissue slices. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1962; 22:268-72.
33. Makin HLJ. Biochemistry of steroid hormones. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications, 1975:149-275.
34. Sprague RG, Mason HL, Power MH. Physiologic effects of cortisone and ACTH in man. Recent Prog Horm Res 1951; 6:315-65.
35. Hench PS, Slocumb CH, Polley HF, Kendall EC. Effect of cortisone and pituitary adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) on rheumatic diseases. JAMA 1950; 144:1327-35.
36. Boland EW, Headley NE. Oral use of cortisone acetate. JAMA 1950; 145:8-11.
37. Hollander JL, Brown EM, Jessar RA, Brown CY. Hydrocortisone and cortisone injected into arthritic joints. Comparative effects of and use of hydrocortisone as a local antiarthritic agent. JAMA 1951; 147:1629-35.
38. Amelung D, Huebener HJ, Roka L, Meyerheim G. Conversion of cortisone to compound F. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1953; 13:1125.
39. Caspi EY, Levy H, Hechter OM. Cortisone metabolism in liver. II. Isolation of certain cortisone metabolites. Arch Biochem Biophys 1953; 45:169-82.
40. Hurlock B, Talalay P. Microsomal 3α and 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases. Arch Biochem Biophys 1959; 80:469-70.
41. Takeda Y, Yoneda T, Miyamori I et al. 11β-hydroxysteroid dehyrogenase activity in mesenteric arteries of spontaneously hypertensive rats. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 1993; 20:627-31.
42. Takeda Y, Miyamori I, Yoneda T et al. Gene expression of 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase in the mesenteric arteries of genetically hypertensive rats. Hypertension 1994; 23:577-80.
43. Lakshmi V, Sakai RR, McEwen BS, Monder C. Regional distribution of 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase in rat brain. Endocrinology 1991; 128:1741-8.
44. Moisin MP, Seckl JR, Mondel C et al. 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase in brain: mRNA expression and bioactivity in rat cerebellum. N Neuroendocrinol 1990; 2:853-8.
45. Diaz R, Brown RW, Seckl JR. Distinct ontogeny of glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid receptor and 11 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase types I and II mRNAs in the fetal rat brain suggest a complex control of glucocorticoid actions. J Neurosci 1998; 18:2570-80.
46. Benediktsson R, Yau JL, Low S et al. 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase in the rat ovary: high expression in the oocyte. J Endocrinol 1992; 135:53-8.
47. Michael AE, Gregory L, Walker SM et al. Ovarian 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase: potential predictor of conception by in vitro fertilisation and embryo transfer. Lancet 1993; 342:711-2.
48. Michael AE, Pester LA, Curtis P et al. Direct inhibition of ovarian steroidogenesis by cortisol and the modulatory role of 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase. Clin Endocrinol 1993; 38:641-4.
49. Michael AE, Greogry L, Piercy EC et al. Ovarian 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase activity is inversely related to the outcome of in vitro fertilization-embryo transfer treatment cycles. Fertil Steril 1995; 64:590-8.
50. Whorwood CB, Barber PC, Gregory J et al. 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase and corticosteroid hormone receptors in the rat colon. Am J Physiol 1993; 264:E951-7.
51. Whorwood CB, Ricketts M, Stewart PM. Epithelial cell localization of type 2 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase in rat and human colon. Endocrinology 1994; 135:2533-41.
52. Monder C, Lakshmi V. Corticosteroid 11ß-dehydrogenase of rat tissues: immunological studies. Endocrinology 1990; 126:2435-13.
53. +-dependent enzyme and differs from the cloned 'type I' isoform. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1994; 79:480-4.
54. Tannin GM, Agarwal AK, Monder C et al. The human gene for 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase. Structure, tissue distribution and chromosomal localization. J Biol Chem 1991; 266:16653-8.
55. Albiston AL, Obeyesekere VR, Smith RE, Krozowski ZS. Cloning and tissue distribution of the human 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 enzyme. Mol Cell Endocrinol 1994; 105:R11-17.
56. Krozowski ZS, Baker E, Obeyesekere VR, Callen DF. Localization of the gene for 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type II enzyme to chromosome 16q22. Cytogenet Cell Genet 1995; 71:124-5.
57. White PC, Mune T, Agarwal AK. 11β-Hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase and the syndrome of apparent mineralocorticoid excess. Endocr Rev 1997; 18:135-56.
58. Edwards CR, Stewart PM, Burt D et al. Localisation of 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase-tissue specific protector of the meinralocorticoid receptor. Lancet 1988; ii:986-9.
59. Rundle SE, Funder JW, Lakshmi V, Monder C. The intrarenal localization of mineralocorticoid receptors and 11β-dehydrogenase: immunocytochemical studies. Endocrinology 1989; 125:1700-4.
60. Castello R, Schwarting R, Muller C, Hierholzer K. Immunohistochemical localization of 11-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase in rat kidney with monoclonal antibody. Ren Physiol Biochem 1989; 12:320-7.
61. Stewart PM, Whorwood CB, Barber P et al. Localization of renal 11β-dehydrogenase by in situ hybridisation: autocrine not paracrine protector of the mineralocorticoid receptor. Endocrinology 1991; 128:2129-35.
62. Yau JL, Van Haarst AD, Moisan MP et al. 11ß-Hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase mRNA expression in rat kidney. Am J Physiol 1991; 260:F764-7.
63. Funder JW. Corticosteroid receptors and renal 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase activity. Semin Nephrol 1990; 10:311-9.
64. Roland BL, Krozowski ZS, Funder JW. Glucocorticoid receptor, mineralocorticoid receptors, 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase-1 and -2 expression in rat brain and kidney: in situ studies. Mol Cell Endocrinol 1995; 111:R1-7.
65. Naray-Fejes-Toth A, Fejes-Togh G. Expression cloning of the aldosterone target cell-specific 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase from rabbit collecting duct cells. Endocrinology 1995; 136:2579-86.
66. Cole TJ. Cloning of the mouse 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 gene: tissue specific expression and localization in distal convoluted tubules and collecting ducts of the kidney. Endocrinology 1995; 136:4693-6.
67. Whorwood CB, Mason JI, Ricketts ML et al. Detection of human 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isoforms using reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction and localization of the type 2 isoform to renal collecting ducts. Mol Cell Endocrinol 1995; 110:R7-12.
68. Whorwood CB, Franklyn JA, Sheppard MC, Stewart PM. Tissue localization of 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase and its relationship to the glucocorticoid receptor. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 1992; 41:21-8.
69. Krozowski Z, MaGuire JA, Stein-Oakley AN et al. Immunohistochemical localization of the 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type II enzyme in human kidney and placenta. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1995; 80:2203-9.
70. Kyossev Z, Walker PD, Reeves WB. Immunolocalization of NAD-dependent 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase in human kidney and colon. Kidney Int 1996; 49:271-81
71. Roland BL, Funder JW. Localization of 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 in rat tissues: in situ studies. Endocrinology 1996; 137:1123-8.
72. Evans RM. The steroid and thyroid hormone receptor super-family. Science 1988; 240:889-95.
73. Arriza JI, Weinberger C, Cerelli G et al. Cloning of human mineralocorticoid receptor complementary DNA: structural and functional kinship with the glucocorticoid receptor. Science 1987; 237:268-75.
74. Munck A, Mendel DB, Smith LI, Orti E. Glucocorticoid receptors and actions. Am Rev Respir Dis 1990; 141:S2-10.
75. Krozowski ZS, Funder JW. Renal mineralocorticoid receptors and hippocampal corticosterone binding species have identical intrinsic steroid specificity. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1983; 80:6056-60.
76. Beaumont K, Fanestil DD. Characterization of rat brain aldosterone receptors reveals high affinity for corticosterone. Endocrinology 1983; 113:2043-51.
77. Sheppard K, Funder JW. Mineralocorticoid specificity of renal type I receptors: in vivo binding studies. Am J Physiol 1987; 253:E224-9.
78. Doyle D, Smith R, Krozowski ZS, Funder JW. Mineralocorticoid specificity of renal type I receptors: binding and metabolism of corticosterone. J Steroid Biochem 1989; 33:165-70.
79. Souness GW, Morris DJ. The 'mineralocorticoid-like' actions conferred on corticosterone by carbenoxolone are inhibited by the mineralocorticoid receptor (type I) antagonist RU2318. Endocrinology 1991; 129:2451-6.
80. Stephenson G, Krozowski Z, Funder JW. Extravascular CBG-like sites in rat kidney and mineralocorticoid receptor specificity. Am J Physiol 1984; 246:F227-33.
81. Edwards CRW, Burt D, Stewart PM. The specificity of the human mineralocorticoid receptor: clinical clues to a biological conundrum. J Steroid Biochem 1988; 32:213-6.
82. Werder E, Zachman M, Vollmin JA et al. Unusual steroid excretion in a child with low renin hypertension. Res Ster 1974; 6:385-9.
83. New MI, Levine L, Biglieri EG et al. Evidence for an unidentified steroid in a child with apparent mineralocorticoid hypertension. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1977; 44:924-33.
84. Ulick S, Levine LS, Gunczler P et al. A syndrome of apparent mineralocorticoid excess associated with defects in the peripheral metabolism of cortisol. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1979; 49:757-64.
85. Shackleton CHL, Rodriguez J, Arteaga E et al. Congenital 11-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase deficiency associated with juvenile hypertension. Corticosteroid metabolite profiles of four patients and their families. Clin Endocrinol 1985; 22:701-12.
86. Ulick S, Ramirez LC, New MI. An abnormality in steroid reductive metabolism in a hypertensive syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1977; 44:799-802.
87. Honour JW, Dilon MJ, Levin M, Shah V. Fatal, low-renin hypertension associated with a disturbance of cortisol metabolism. Arch Dis Child 1983; 58:1018-20.
88. Oberfield SE, Levine LS, Carey RM et al. New MI. Metabolic and blood pressure responses to hydrocortisone in the syndrome of apparent mineralocorticoid excess. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1983; 56:332-8.
89. Stewart PM, Corrie JET, Shackleton CHL, Edwards CRW. Syndrome of apparent mineralocorticoid excess: a defect in the cortisol-cortisone shuttle. J Clin Invest 1988; 82:640-9.
90. Gourmelen M, Saint Jacques I, Morineau G et al. 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase deficit: a rare cause of arterial hypertension. Diagnosis and therapeutic approach in two young brothers. Eur J Endocrinol 1996; 135:238-44.
91. Li A, Li KX, Marui S et al. Apparent mineralocorticoid excess in a Brazilian kindred: hypertension in the heterozygote state. J Hypertens 1997; 15:1397-402.
92. Ferrari P, Obeyesekere VR, Li K et al. Point mutations abolish 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type II activity in three families with the congenital syndrome of apparent mineralocorticoid excess. Mol Cell Endocrinol 1996; 119:21-4.
93. Liddle GW, Bledsoe T, Coppage WS. A familial renal disorder simulating primary aldosteronism but with negligible aldosterone secretion. Trans Assoc Am Phys 1963; 76:199-213.
94. Mune T, White PC. Apparent mineralocorticoid excess: geno-type is correlated with biochemical phenotype. Hypertension 1996; 27:1193-9.
95. Mantero F, Palermo M, Petrelli MD et al. Apparent mineralocorticoid excess: type 1 and type II. Steroids 1996; 61:193-6.
96. White PC, Mune T, Rogerson FM et al. Molecular analysis of 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase and its role in the syndrome of apparent mineralocorticoid excess. Steroids 1997; 62:83-8.
97. Palermo M, Shackleton CH, Mantero F, Stewart PM. Urinary free cortisone and the assessment of 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase activity in man. Clin Endocrinol 1996; 45:605-11.
98. Ulick S, Tedde R, Wang JZ. Defective ring A reduction of cortisol as the major metabolic error in the syndrome of mineralocorticoid excess. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1992; 74:593-9.
99. Monder C, Shackleton CHL, Bradlow HL et al. The syndrome of apparent mineralocorticoid excess: its association with 11β-dehydrogenase and 5β-reductase deficiency and some consequences for corticosteroid metabolism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1986; 63:550-7.
100. Zumoff B, Fukushima DK, Hellman L. Intercomparison of four methods for measuring cortisol production. J Endocrinol Metab 1974; 88:169-75.
101. Whitworth JA, Kelly JJ, Brown MA et al. Glucocorticoids and hypertension in man. Clin Exp Hypertens 1997; 19:871-84.
102. Shackleton CHL, Honour JW, Dillon MJ et al. Hypertension in a four-year-old child: gas chromoatographic evidence for deficient hepatic metabolism of steroids. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1980; 50:786-92.
103. William PM, Kelly JJ, Whitworth JA. Dose-response relationships and mineralocorticoid activity in cortisol-induced hypertension in humans, J Hypertens Suppl 1996; 14:S37-41.
104. Wilson RC, Krozowski ZS, Obeyesekere VR et al. A mutation in the HSD 11β2 gene in a family with apparent mineralocorticoid excess. J Clin Endocrinol 1995; 80:3145-50.
105. Ferrari P, Obeyesekere VR, Li K et al. The 11β-hydrogenase type II enzyme: biochemical consequences of the congenital R337C mutation. Steroids 1996; 61:197-200.
106. Whorwood CB, Stewart PM. Human hypertension caused by mutations in the 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase gene: a molecular analysis of apparent mineralocorticoid excess. J Hypertens Suppl 1996; 14:S19-24.
107. Stewart PM, Hrozowski ZS, Gupta A et al. Hypertension in the syndrome of apparent mineralocorticoid excess due to mutation of the 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 gene. Lancet 1996; 347:88-91.
108. Ulick S, Tedde R, Mantero F. Pathogenesis of the type 2 variant of the syndrome of apparent mineralocorticoid excess. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1980; 50:786-92.
109. Bayly GR, Bartlett WA, Jones AF. A non-isotopic method for estimating 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase activity in vivo. Ann Clin Biochem 1997; 34:521-6.
110. Li KX, Obeyesekere VR, Krozowski ZS, Ferrari P. Oxoreductase and dehydrogenase activities of the human and rat 11β-hyhroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 enzyme. Endocrinology 1997; 138:2948-52.
111. Barjon JH. Side effects of carbenoxolone. Acta Gasteroenterol 1983; 46:469-84.
112. Bujalska I, Shimono M, Howie A, Stewart PM. Human 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase: studies on the stably transfected isoforms and localization of the type 2 isozyme within renal tissue. Steroids 1997; 62:77-82.
113. Borst JGG, Ten Holt SP, De Vries LA, Molhuysen JA. Synergistic action of liquorice and cortisone in Addison's and Simmond's disease. Lancet 1953; i:657-63.
114. Hoefnagels WHL, Kloppenborg PWC. Antimineralocorticoid effects of dexamethasone in subjects treated with glycyrrhetinic acid. J Hypertens 1983; 1:313-5.
115. Salassa RM, Mattox VR, Rosevear JW. Inhibition of mineralocorticoid activity of liquorice by spironolactone. J Clin Endocrinol 1962; 22:1156-9.
116. Epstein MT, Espiner EA, Donald RA et al. Liquorice raises urinary cortisol in man. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1978; 47:397-400.
117. Ulmann A, Menard J, Corvol P. Binding of glycyrrhetinic acid to kidney mineralocorticoid receptors. Endocrinology 1975; 97:46-51.
118. Armanini D, Karbowiak I, Funder JW. Affionity of liquorice derivatives for mineralocorticoid receptors. Clin Endocrinol 1983; 19:609-12.
119. MacKenzie MA, Hoefnagels WHL, Jansen RWMM et al. The influence of glycyrrhetinic acid on plasma cortisol and cortisone in healthy young volunteers. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1990; 70:1637-43.
120. Escher G, Meyer KV, Vishwanath BS et al. Furosemide inhibits 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase in vitro and in vivo. Endocrinology 1995; 136:1759-65.
121. Zhang YD, Lorenzo B, Reidenberg MM. Inhibition of 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase obtained from guinea pig kidney by furosemide, naringenin and some other compounds. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 1994; 49:81-5.
122. Song D, Lorenzo B, Reidenberg MM. Inhibition of 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase by gossypol and bioflavinoids. J Lab Clin Med 1992; 120:792-7.
123. Les YS, Lorenzo BJ, Koufis T, Reidenberg MM. Grapefruit juice and its flavenoids inhibit 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1996; 59:62-71.
124. Morris DJ, Semafuko WE, Latif SA et al. Detection of glycyrrhetinic acid-like factors (GALFs) in human urine. Hypertension 1992; 20:356-60.
125. Walker BR, Agarwal I, Stewart PM et al. Endogenous inhibitors of 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase in hypertension. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1995; 30:529-33.
126. Souness GW, Latif SA, Laurenzo JL, Morris DJ. 11 alpha- and 11 beta-hydroxyprogesterone, potent inhibitors of 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (isoforms 1 and 2), confer marked mineralocorticoid activity on corticosterone in the ADX rat. Endocrinology 1995; 136:1809-12.
127. Takeda Y, Miyarmori I, Iki K et al. Endogenous renal 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase inhibitory factors in patients with low-renin essential hypertension. Hypertension 1996; 27:197-201.
128. Gaillard RC, Poffet D, Riondel AM, Saurat J. RU 486 inhibits peripheral effects of glucocorticoids in humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1985; 61:1009-11.
129. Grunfeld JP, Eldy L, Movra AM et al. Effects of antiglucocorticoids in glucocorticoid hypertension in the rat. Hypertension 1985; 7:292-9.
130. Ulick S, Wang JZ, Blumenfeld JD, Pickering TG. Cortisol inactivation overload: a mechanism of mineralocorticoid hypertension in the ectopic adrenocorticotropin syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1992; 74:963-7.
131. Goto A, Yamada K, Hazama H et al. Ouadbain-like compound in hypertension associated with ectopic corticotropin syndrome. Hypertension 1996; 38:421-5.
132. Tresham JJ, Coghlan JP, May CN. Evidence against a central pressor mechanism for adrenocortical steroid hypertension in sheep. Clin Exp Hypertens 1996; 18:831-49.
133. Diederich S, Quinkler M, Miller K et al. Human kidney 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase: regulation by adrenocorticotropin? Eur J Endocrinol 1996; 134:301-7.
134. Walker BR, Stewart PM, Shackleton CHL et al. Deficient inactivation of cortisol by 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase in essential hypertension. Clin Endocrinol 1993; 39:221-7.
135. Walker BR, Best R, Shackleton CH et al. Increased vasoconstrictor sensitivity to glucocorticoids in essential hypertension. Hypertension 1996; 27:190-6.
136. Walker BR, Phillips DI, Noon JP et al. Increased glucocorticoid activity in men with cardiovascular risk factors. Hypertension 1998; 31:891-5.
137. Smith RE, Krozowski ZS. 11β-Hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type I enzyme in the hearts of normotensive and spontaneously hypertensive rats. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 1996; 23:642-7.
138. Smith RE, Little PJ, Maguire JA et al. Vascular localization of the 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type II enzyme. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 1996; 23:549-51.
139. Axelrod L. Inhibition of prostacyclin production mediates permissive effects of glucocorticoids on vascular tone. Pertubations of this mechanism contribute to pathogenesis of Cushing's syndrome and Addison's disease. Lancet 1983; i:904-6.
140. Walker BR, Stewart PM, Padfield PL, Edwards CRW. Increased vascular sensitivity to glucocorticoids in essential hypertension: 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase revisited, J Hypertens 1991; 9:1082-3.
141. Walker BR. Abnormal glucocorticoid activity in subjects with risk factors for cardiovascular disease. Endocr Res 1996; 22:701-8.
142. Edwards CR, Benediktsson R, Lindsay RS, Seckl JR. 11β-Hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases: key enzymes in determining tissue-specific glucocorticoid effects. Steroids 1996; 61:263-9.
143. Seckl JR. Glucocorticoids, feto-placental 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2, and the early life origins of adult disease. Steroids 1997; 62:89-94.
144. Dodic M, May CN, Wintour EM, Coghlan JP. An early prenatal exposure to excess glucocorticoid leads to hypertensive offspring in sheep. Clin Sci 1998; 94:149-55.
145. Clark PM. Programming of the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis and the fetal origins of adult disease hypothesis. Eur J Pediatr 1998; 157:S7-10.
146. Benediktsson R, Edwards CR. 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases: tissue-specific dictators of glucocorticoid action. Essays Biochem 1996; 31:23-36.
147. Benediktsson R, Lindsay RS, Noble J et al. Glucocorticoid exposure in utero: new model for adult hypertension. Lancet 1993; 341:339-41.
148. Edwards CRW, Benediktsson R, Lindsay RS, Seckl JR. Dysfunction of placental glucocorticoid barrier: link between fetal environment and adult hypertension? Lancet 1993; 341:355-7.
149. Barker DJP. The fetal origins of hypertension. J Hypertens 1996; 14:1132-43.