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note
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We collected ants for experimental colonies from two sites at each of three cities in southern California: Encinitas (E1 and E2), La Jolla (L1 and L2), and Temecula (T1 and T2). Temecula is about 50 km north of Encinitas, which is 20 km north of La Jolla. Sites within each city were >1 km apart.
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49
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3643122090
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note
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We reared experimental colonies in plastic nest containers (30 cm by 14 cm by 8 cm) lined with fluon and tanglefoot to prevent ants from escaping. Each nest container contained two nest chambers (glass test tubes half full of water and stopped with cotton) covered with aluminum foil to keep them dark. Every other day, we fed experimental colonies scrambled eggs, fresh crickets, and 25% sugar water. Colonies were reared under a light-dark cycle (12 hours each) at 24°C. Before the onset of the experiments, we left the experimental colonies in an undisturbed state for several weeks. At the start of the experiments, food was placed exclusively in a foraging arena (a plastic container the size of the nest containers) connecting colonies within each pair.
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50
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note
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Each colony pair was a unique combination of experimental colonies; pairings were as follows. Aggressive treatment: n = 6; E2 versus L1, T2 versus T1, L1 versus T1, E1 versus T1, E2 versus T1, L2 versus T1. Nonaggressive treatment: n = 9; E1 versus L2, E1 versus T2, E1 versus E2, E1 versus L1, L2 versus T2, T2 versus L1, L2 versus E2, T2 versus E2, L1 versus L2. Control: n = 6; E1 versus E1, E2 versus E2, L1 versus L1, L2 versus L2, T1 versus T1, T2 versus T2. In the aggressive treatment, we maintained two E1 versus T1 colony pairs and used the mean response of these two colony pairs for all analyses. The average distances between the source colonies used within each experimental pair were about 45 km in the aggressive treatment, 44 km in the nonaggressive treatment, and 20 m in the control. For all statistical analyses, we used the response of colony pairs as data points.
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note
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We measured intraspecific aggression using standardized fighting trials (19). For each colony pair, we randomly selected a single worker from each nesting container and placed them together in a 2-dram glass vial with fluon-coated sides for 10 min. We scored the behavioral interactions that ensued in the following categories in order of escalating aggression: ignore = 0 (contacts between individuals where neither ant showed any interest in the other), touch = 1 (contacts that included prolonged antennation), avoid = 2 (contacts that resulted in one or both ants retreating in opposite directions), aggression = 3 (lunging, biting, and pulling legs or antennae), or fight = 4 (prolonged aggression between individuals). For each pair of colonies, we recorded the highest level of aggression observed in each of five trials and used the mean of these trials for all statistical comparisons.
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note
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We performed four separate multivariate analyses of variance (MANOVAs) to compare aggression levels, per capita mortality, per capita foraging activity, and resource retrieval rates among the three experimental categories in this study. For each analysis, we performed an overall MANOVA comparing the three categories (independent variables) across the seven time periods (dependent variables). Within each overall MANOVA, we then performed three pairwise MANOVAs and used the P values from the univariate F tests to test for differences among each pair of treatments. Reported P values are Bonferroni-adjusted (within each overall MANOVA) for three comparisons. See Figs. 1 and 2 for details regarding the dependent variables used in each analysis. All statistical analyses were performed using JMP (SAS Institute, version 3, 1996).
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53
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note
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At 24°C, eggs laid at the start of the study would have developed into workers in about 54 days, within the duration of the study. Natural worker life-spans may exceed 6 months [see (18)].
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note
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We thank J. French, R. Gonzalez, J. Hee, and F. Nekouee for help with the lab work, and M. Levenstein and J. Kadonaga for providing Drosophila. J. Bradbury, M. Dantzker, F. Dyer, K. Marchetti, T. Price, N. Tsutsui, and P. Ward provided valuable discussion and read earlier versions of the manuscript. Supported by USDA postdoctoral fellowship 97-35302-4920 (D.A.H.), the Canon National Parks Science Scholars Program (A.V.S.), and NSF grant DEB-9610306 (T.J.C.).
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