A massive terraced village complex in Chihuahua, Mexico, 3000 years before present

Science

Volumn 279, Issue 5357, 1998, Pages 1661-1664

  Hard, Robert J ^a   Roney, John R ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT SAN ANTONIO   (United States)

^b US Department of the Interior Bureau Land Management   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

MAIZE; RADIOCARBON DATE; SETTLEMENT; TERRACE;

AGRICULTURE; ARCHEOLOGY; ARTICLE; BIODIVERSITY; HISTORY; MAIZE; MEXICO; PRIORITY JOURNAL;

MEXICO, CHIHUAHUA STATE;

EID: 0032513320     PISSN: 00368075     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1126/science.279.5357.1661     Document Type: Article

References (64)

1. C. E. Downum, P. R. Fish, S. K. Fish, Kiva 59, 271 (1994); C. E. Downum, ibid. 51, 219 (1986); Anthropol. Pap. Univ. Ariz. 57, 91 (1993); R. H. McGuire and J. McNiff, paper presented at the 14th Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, Las Vegas, NV, 21 April 1990; C. Sauer and D. Brand, Prehistoric Settlements of Sonora with Special Reference to Cerros de Trincheras (Univ. of California Publications in Geography, 5, Univ. of California Press, Berkeley, 1931), pp. 67-108; D. Wilcox, Kiva 43, 11 (1979).
2. C. E. Downum, P. R. Fish, S. K. Fish, Kiva 59, 271 (1994); C. E. Downum, ibid. 51, 219 (1986); Anthropol. Pap. Univ. Ariz. 57, 91 (1993); R. H. McGuire and J. McNiff, paper presented at the 14th Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, Las Vegas, NV, 21 April 1990; C. Sauer and D. Brand, Prehistoric Settlements of Sonora with Special Reference to Cerros de Trincheras (Univ. of California Publications in Geography, 5, Univ. of California Press, Berkeley, 1931), pp. 67-108; D. Wilcox, Kiva 43, 11 (1979).
3. C. E. Downum, P. R. Fish, S. K. Fish, Kiva 59, 271 (1994); C. E. Downum, ibid. 51, 219 (1986); Anthropol. Pap. Univ. Ariz. 57, 91 (1993); R. H. McGuire and J. McNiff, paper presented at the 14th Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, Las Vegas, NV, 21 April 1990; C. Sauer and D. Brand, Prehistoric Settlements of Sonora with Special Reference to Cerros de Trincheras (Univ. of California Publications in Geography, 5, Univ. of California Press, Berkeley, 1931), pp. 67-108; D. Wilcox, Kiva 43, 11 (1979).
4. C. E. Downum, P. R. Fish, S. K. Fish, Kiva 59, 271 (1994); C. E. Downum, ibid. 51, 219 (1986); Anthropol. Pap. Univ. Ariz. 57, 91 (1993); R. H. McGuire and J. McNiff, paper presented at the 14th Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, Las Vegas, NV, 21 April 1990; C. Sauer and D. Brand, Prehistoric Settlements of Sonora with Special Reference to Cerros de Trincheras (Univ. of California Publications in Geography, 5, Univ. of California Press, Berkeley, 1931), pp. 67-108; D. Wilcox, Kiva 43, 11 (1979).
5. C. E. Downum, P. R. Fish, S. K. Fish, Kiva 59, 271 (1994); C. E. Downum, ibid. 51, 219 (1986); Anthropol. Pap. Univ. Ariz. 57, 91 (1993); R. H. McGuire and J. McNiff, paper presented at the 14th Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, Las Vegas, NV, 21 April 1990; C. Sauer and D. Brand, Prehistoric Settlements of Sonora with Special Reference to Cerros de Trincheras (Univ. of California Publications in Geography, 5, Univ. of California Press, Berkeley, 1931), pp. 67-108; D. Wilcox, Kiva 43, 11 (1979).
6. C. E. Downum, P. R. Fish, S. K. Fish, Kiva 59, 271 (1994); C. E. Downum, ibid. 51, 219 (1986); Anthropol. Pap. Univ. Ariz. 57, 91 (1993); R. H. McGuire and J. McNiff, paper presented at the 14th Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, Las Vegas, NV, 21 April 1990; C. Sauer and D. Brand, Prehistoric Settlements of Sonora with Special Reference to Cerros de Trincheras (Univ. of California Publications in Geography, 5, Univ. of California Press, Berkeley, 1931), pp. 67-108; D. Wilcox, Kiva 43, 11 (1979).
7. R. H. McGuire, M. E. Villalpondo, J. P. Holmlund, M. O'Donovan, "Cerros de trincheras mapping project" (Technical report to the National Geographic Society for grant number 4454-91, Washington, PC, 1993).
8. 2 distribution. This and the procedures tor averaging radiocarbon ages are in G. K. Ward and S. R. Wilson, Archaeometry 20, 19 (1978). Calculations were conducted with (4).
9. M. Stuiver and P. J. Reimer, "Radiocarbon Calibration Program Rev. 3.03," Radiocarbon 35 (Quaternary Isotope Laboratory, University of Washington, Seattle, 1993); ibid., p. 215; G. W. Pearson and M. Stuiver, ibid., p. 25. All calculations used radiocarbon ages with two standard deviations.
10. M. Stuiver and P. J. Reimer, "Radiocarbon Calibration Program Rev. 3.03," Radiocarbon 35 (Quaternary Isotope Laboratory, University of Washington, Seattle, 1993); ibid., p. 215; G. W. Pearson and M. Stuiver, ibid., p. 25. All calculations used radiocarbon ages with two standard deviations.
11. M. Stuiver and P. J. Reimer, "Radiocarbon Calibration Program Rev. 3.03," Radiocarbon 35 (Quaternary Isotope Laboratory, University of Washington, Seattle, 1993); ibid., p. 215; G. W. Pearson and M. Stuiver, ibid., p. 25. All calculations used radiocarbon ages with two standard deviations.
12. 2 = 5.99) (3). The pooled mean of the three maize dates is 2930 ± 30 radiocarbon years B.P. Sample NSRL 3985 is a statistical outlier.
13. 2 = 31.4) with a mean of 2890 ± 15 radiocarbon years. The sites and radiocarbon ages (years B.P. ± 1σ) are for Cerro Juanaqueña, see Table 1; in southern Arizona-West End (2735 ± 75) and Fairbank (2815 ± 80, 2800 ± 140) [B. B. Huckell, thesis, University of Arizona (1990)], Cortaro Fan (2790 ± 60) [B. Roth, thesis, University of Arizona (1989)], and Milagro (2930 ± 45, 2915 ± 45, 2910 ± 45, 2780 ± 90, 2775 ± 60) (7); in northeastern Arizona-Three Fir Shelter (2880 ± 140) (8); in southern New Mexico - Fresnal Shelter (2945 ± 55, 2880 ± 60) [M. D. Tagg, Am. Antiq. 61, 311 (1991)] and Tornillo Cave (3175 ± 240) [S. Upham et al., Am. Anthropol. 89, 410 (1987)]; in central New Mexico-Bat Cave (3010 ± 150, 2780 ± 90, 2980 ± 120) [W. H. Wills, Early Prehistoric Agriculture in the American Southwest (School American Research, Santa Fe, NM, 1988)]; and in northwestern New Mexico-Sheep Camp Shelter (2900 ± 230) and LA 18091 (2720 ± 265) [A. H. Simmons, Am. Antiq. 51, 73 (1986)].
14. 2 = 31.4) with a mean of 2890 ± 15 radiocarbon years. The sites and radiocarbon ages (years B.P. ± 1σ) are for Cerro Juanaqueña, see Table 1; in southern Arizona-West End (2735 ± 75) and Fairbank (2815 ± 80, 2800 ± 140) [B. B. Huckell, thesis, University of Arizona (1990)], Cortaro Fan (2790 ± 60) [B. Roth, thesis, University of Arizona (1989)], and Milagro (2930 ± 45, 2915 ± 45, 2910 ± 45, 2780 ± 90, 2775 ± 60) (7); in northeastern Arizona-Three Fir Shelter (2880 ± 140) (8); in southern New Mexico - Fresnal Shelter (2945 ± 55, 2880 ± 60) [M. D. Tagg, Am. Antiq. 61, 311 (1991)] and Tornillo Cave (3175 ± 240) [S. Upham et al., Am. Anthropol. 89, 410 (1987)]; in central New Mexico-Bat Cave (3010 ± 150, 2780 ± 90, 2980 ± 120) [W. H. Wills, Early Prehistoric Agriculture in the American Southwest (School American Research, Santa Fe, NM, 1988)]; and in northwestern New Mexico-Sheep Camp Shelter (2900 ± 230) and LA 18091 (2720 ± 265) [A. H. Simmons, Am. Antiq. 51, 73 (1986)].
15. 2 = 31.4) with a mean of 2890 ± 15 radiocarbon years. The sites and radiocarbon ages (years B.P. ± 1σ) are for Cerro Juanaqueña, see Table 1; in southern Arizona-West End (2735 ± 75) and Fairbank (2815 ± 80, 2800 ± 140) [B. B. Huckell, thesis, University of Arizona (1990)], Cortaro Fan (2790 ± 60) [B. Roth, thesis, University of Arizona (1989)], and Milagro (2930 ± 45, 2915 ± 45, 2910 ± 45, 2780 ± 90, 2775 ± 60) (7); in northeastern Arizona-Three Fir Shelter (2880 ± 140) (8); in southern New Mexico - Fresnal Shelter (2945 ± 55, 2880 ± 60) [M. D. Tagg, Am. Antiq. 61, 311 (1991)] and Tornillo Cave (3175 ± 240) [S. Upham et al., Am. Anthropol. 89, 410 (1987)]; in central New Mexico-Bat Cave (3010 ± 150, 2780 ± 90, 2980 ± 120) [W. H. Wills, Early Prehistoric Agriculture in the American Southwest (School American Research, Santa Fe, NM, 1988)]; and in northwestern New Mexico-Sheep Camp Shelter (2900 ± 230) and LA 18091 (2720 ± 265) [A. H. Simmons, Am. Antiq. 51, 73 (1986)].
16. 2 = 31.4) with a mean of 2890 ± 15 radiocarbon years. The sites and radiocarbon ages (years B.P. ± 1σ) are for Cerro Juanaqueña, see Table 1; in southern Arizona-West End (2735 ± 75) and Fairbank (2815 ± 80, 2800 ± 140) [B. B. Huckell, thesis, University of Arizona (1990)], Cortaro Fan (2790 ± 60) [B. Roth, thesis, University of Arizona (1989)], and Milagro (2930 ± 45, 2915 ± 45, 2910 ± 45, 2780 ± 90, 2775 ± 60) (7); in northeastern Arizona-Three Fir Shelter (2880 ± 140) (8); in southern New Mexico - Fresnal Shelter (2945 ± 55, 2880 ± 60) [M. D. Tagg, Am. Antiq. 61, 311 (1991)] and Tornillo Cave (3175 ± 240) [S. Upham et al., Am. Anthropol. 89, 410 (1987)]; in central New Mexico-Bat Cave (3010 ± 150, 2780 ± 90, 2980 ± 120) [W. H. Wills, Early Prehistoric Agriculture in the American Southwest (School American Research, Santa Fe, NM, 1988)]; and in northwestern New Mexico-Sheep Camp Shelter (2900 ± 230) and LA 18091 (2720 ± 265) [A. H. Simmons, Am. Antiq. 51, 73 (1986)].
17. 2 = 31.4) with a mean of 2890 ± 15 radiocarbon years. The sites and radiocarbon ages (years B.P. ± 1σ) are for Cerro Juanaqueña, see Table 1; in southern Arizona-West End (2735 ± 75) and Fairbank (2815 ± 80, 2800 ± 140) [B. B. Huckell, thesis, University of Arizona (1990)], Cortaro Fan (2790 ± 60) [B. Roth, thesis, University of Arizona (1989)], and Milagro (2930 ± 45, 2915 ± 45, 2910 ± 45, 2780 ± 90, 2775 ± 60) (7); in northeastern Arizona-Three Fir Shelter (2880 ± 140) (8); in southern New Mexico - Fresnal Shelter (2945 ± 55, 2880 ± 60) [M. D. Tagg, Am. Antiq. 61, 311 (1991)] and Tornillo Cave (3175 ± 240) [S. Upham et al., Am. Anthropol. 89, 410 (1987)]; in central New Mexico-Bat Cave (3010 ± 150, 2780 ± 90, 2980 ± 120) [W. H. Wills, Early Prehistoric Agriculture in the American Southwest (School American Research, Santa Fe, NM, 1988)]; and in northwestern New Mexico-Sheep Camp Shelter (2900 ± 230) and LA 18091 (2720 ± 265) [A. H. Simmons, Am. Antiq. 51, 73 (1986)].
18. 2 = 31.4) with a mean of 2890 ± 15 radiocarbon years. The sites and radiocarbon ages (years B.P. ± 1σ) are for Cerro Juanaqueña, see Table 1; in southern Arizona-West End (2735 ± 75) and Fairbank (2815 ± 80, 2800 ± 140) [B. B. Huckell, thesis, University of Arizona (1990)], Cortaro Fan (2790 ± 60) [B. Roth, thesis, University of Arizona (1989)], and Milagro (2930 ± 45, 2915 ± 45, 2910 ± 45, 2780 ± 90, 2775 ± 60) (7); in northeastern Arizona-Three Fir Shelter (2880 ± 140) (8); in southern New Mexico - Fresnal Shelter (2945 ± 55, 2880 ± 60) [M. D. Tagg, Am. Antiq. 61, 311 (1991)] and Tornillo Cave (3175 ± 240) [S. Upham et al., Am. Anthropol. 89, 410 (1987)]; in central New Mexico-Bat Cave (3010 ± 150, 2780 ± 90, 2980 ± 120) [W. H. Wills, Early Prehistoric Agriculture in the American Southwest (School American Research, Santa Fe, NM, 1988)]; and in northwestern New Mexico-Sheep Camp Shelter (2900 ± 230) and LA 18091 (2720 ± 265) [A. H. Simmons, Am. Antiq. 51, 73 (1986)].
19. B. B. Huckell, L. W. Huckell, S. K. Fish, "Investigations at Milagro: A Late Preceramic site in the eastern Tucson Basin," Tech. Rep. No. 94-5 (Center for Desert Archaeology, Tucson, AZ, 1995).
20. F. Smiley, Kiva 60, 165 (1994).
21. 2 = 32.7, P < 0.05) was: 3890 calendar years B.P. (radiocarbon age: 3610 ± 170 years B.P.) from Three Fir Shelter in northeastern Arizona (8).
22. D. Gilpin, Kiva 60, 203 (1994).
23. B. Huckell, Anthropol. Pap. Univ. Ariz. 59 (1995). Huckell has suggested that the Late Archaic period be referred to as the Early Agricultural period whenever maize is present.
24. B. Roth and B. B. Huckell, Kiva 57, 353 (1992).
25. R. S. MacNeish, "Preliminary Investigations of the Archaic in the Region of Las Cruces, New Mexico," Hist. and Nat. Res. Rep. No. 9 (Cultural Resources Management Branch, Fort Bliss, TX, 1993), pp. 167-190.
26. P. S. Martin et al., Fieldiana Anthropol. 40, 148 (1952); R. S. MacNeish, in (73), p. 178; C. F. Berry, thesis, University of Utah (1987).
27. P. S. Martin et al., Fieldiana Anthropol. 40, 148 (1952); R. S. MacNeish, in (73), p. 178; C. F. Berry, thesis, University of Utah (1987).
28. E. S. Turner and T. R. Hester, A Field Guide to Stone Artifacts of Texas Indians (Gulf Publishing, Houston, TX, ed. 2, 1993); S. A. Turpin, in "Papers on Lower Pecos Prehistory," vol. 8 of Studies in Archeology, S. A. Turpin, Ed. (Texas Archeological Research Laboratory, University of Texas, Austin, 1991), pp. 1-49.
29. E. S. Turner and T. R. Hester, A Field Guide to Stone Artifacts of Texas Indians (Gulf Publishing, Houston, TX, ed. 2, 1993); S. A. Turpin, in "Papers on Lower Pecos Prehistory," vol. 8 of Studies in Archeology, S. A. Turpin, Ed. (Texas Archeological Research Laboratory, University of Texas, Austin, 1991), pp. 1-49.
30. B. B. Huckell, J. World Prehistory 10, 336 (1996). Specific Middle Archaic types that might be expected in northwestern Chihuahua include Chiricahua, Pelona, Gypsum, Pinto, San Jose, Pandale, Langtry, Almagre, Val Verde, and Nolan.
31. J. B. Mabry and J. J. Clark, Archaeol. Tucson 8(1), 1 (1994); J. B. Mabry, ibid. 11(3), 1 (1997); D. A. Gregory, ibid., p. 2; J. B. Mabry, ibid., p. 6; A. Ferg, ibid., p. 8; R. J. Silva, ibid., p. 11.
32. J. B. Mabry and J. J. Clark, Archaeol. Tucson 8(1), 1 (1994); J. B. Mabry, ibid. 11(3), 1 (1997); D. A. Gregory, ibid., p. 2; J. B. Mabry, ibid., p. 6; A. Ferg, ibid., p. 8; R. J. Silva, ibid., p. 11.
33. J. B. Mabry and J. J. Clark, Archaeol. Tucson 8(1), 1 (1994); J. B. Mabry, ibid. 11(3), 1 (1997); D. A. Gregory, ibid., p. 2; J. B. Mabry, ibid., p. 6; A. Ferg, ibid., p. 8; R. J. Silva, ibid., p. 11.
34. J. B. Mabry and J. J. Clark, Archaeol. Tucson 8(1), 1 (1994); J. B. Mabry, ibid. 11(3), 1 (1997); D. A. Gregory, ibid., p. 2; J. B. Mabry, ibid., p. 6; A. Ferg, ibid., p. 8; R. J. Silva, ibid., p. 11.
35. J. B. Mabry and J. J. Clark, Archaeol. Tucson 8(1), 1 (1994); J. B. Mabry, ibid. 11(3), 1 (1997); D. A. Gregory, ibid., p. 2; J. B. Mabry, ibid., p. 6; A. Ferg, ibid., p. 8; R. J. Silva, ibid., p. 11.
36. J. B. Mabry and J. J. Clark, Archaeol. Tucson 8(1), 1 (1994); J. B. Mabry, ibid. 11(3), 1 (1997); D. A. Gregory, ibid., p. 2; J. B. Mabry, ibid., p. 6; A. Ferg, ibid., p. 8; R. J. Silva, ibid., p. 11.
37. J. S. Dean and J. C. Ravesloot, in Culture and Contact: Charles C. DiPeso's Gran Chichimeca, A. I. Woosley and J. C. Ravesloot, Eds. (Univ. of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, 1993), pp. 96-98. R. E. Gerald, Artifact 28(3), 59 (1990).
38. J. S. Dean and J. C. Ravesloot, in Culture and Contact: Charles C. DiPeso's Gran Chichimeca, A. I. Woosley and J. C. Ravesloot, Eds. (Univ. of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, 1993), pp. 96-98. R. E. Gerald, Artifact 28(3), 59 (1990).
39. These estimates are based on systematic surface inspection of an 11.2% stratified sample of all upper hill features. All of the metates and 77% of the manos are made from the hill's basalt. The mean depth of wear of the basin metates at the site is 8.4 ± 1.6 cm (n = 26, 95% confidence level).
40. A. Horsfall, in Lithic Studies Among the Contemporary Highland Maya, B. Hayden, Ed. (Univ. of Arizona Press, Tucson, 1987), pp. 342-343.
41. 2 (n = 63, 95% confidence level) [R. J. Hard, in Perspectives on Southwestern Prehistory, P. E. Minnis and C. L. Redman, Eds. (Westview, Boulder, CO, 1990), pp. 135-149].
42. R. J. Hard, R. P. Mauldin, G. R. Raymond, J. Archaeol. Methods Theory 3, 253 (1996).
43. Identifications by K. R. Adams, personal communication; K. R. Adams, in Corn and Culture in the Prehistoric New World, S. Johannessen and C. A. Hastorf, Eds. (Westview, Boulder, CO, 994), pp. 273-302. K. Adams identified two seeds on the basis of charred interior tissue as a seed of a wild species of Cucurbita, such as Cucurbita digitata or foetidissima type. "Type" indicates that the specimen resembles the taxon named, but all local alternatives have not been examined [V. L. Bohrer and K. R. Adams, Ethnobotanical Techniques and Approaches at Salmon Ruin, New Mexico, vol. 8, no. 1, of Contributions to Anthropology (Eastern New Mexico University, Portales, 1977)].
44. Identifications by K. R. Adams, personal communication; K. R. Adams, in Corn and Culture in the Prehistoric New World, S. Johannessen and C. A. Hastorf, Eds. (Westview, Boulder, CO, 994), pp. 273-302. K. Adams identified two seeds on the basis of charred interior tissue as a seed of a wild species of Cucurbita, such as Cucurbita digitata or foetidissima type. "Type" indicates that the specimen resembles the taxon named, but all local alternatives have not been examined [V. L. Bohrer and K. R. Adams, Ethnobotanical Techniques and Approaches at Salmon Ruin, New Mexico, vol. 8, no. 1, of Contributions to Anthropology (Eastern New Mexico University, Portales, 1977)].
45. Identifications by K. Schmidt and J. Nisengard, personal communication.
46. S. Whittlesey and R. Ciolek-Torello, in Early Formative Adaptations in the Southern Southwest, B. J. Roth, Ed. (Prehistory Press, Madison, WI, 1996), pp. 49-64.
47. W. H. Wills, J. World Prehistory 2, 445 (1988).
48. 3 [T. J. Glover, Pocket Reference (Sequoia, Morrison, CO, 1989)]. The replicated terrace wall length, which provides the basis for these estimates, is actually slightly smaller than the average terrace wall length on the prehistoric site (15.0 m long compared with 17.8 m).
49. Comparative labor estimates for a pithouse are as follows: 60 person-days to construct a 5 m by 5 m by 1.5 m deep pithouse with support posts and roof, or 53 person-days for pueblo jacal and masonry construction for the first room of a pueblo suite (a living room and two storage rooms) and 27 days to build each additional attached room suite with shared walls. R. H. Wilshusen, in Dolores Archaeological Program: Supporting Studies: Additive and Reductive Technologies, E. Blinman, C. J. Phagan, R. H. Wilshusen, compilers (U.S. Department of Interior Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, CO, 1988), pp. 599-633. The extrapolation for Cerro Juanaquena terraces does not include any labor estimates for structures built on the terraces.
50. E. W. Haury, in Courses Toward Urban Life, R. J. Braidwood and G. R. Willey, Eds. (Aldine, Chicago, IL, 1962), pp. 106-131; R. I. Ford, J. Ethnobiol. 1, 13 (1981); P. E. Minnis, in Prehistoric Food Production in North America, R. I. Ford, Ed. (Museum of Anthropology Anthropological Papers 75, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 1985), pp. 309-339; R. S. MacNeish, The Origins of Agriculture and Settled Life (Univ. of Oklahoma Press, Norman, 1992); P. E. Minnis, in The Origins of Agriculture: An International Perspective, C. W. Cowan and P. J. Watson, Eds. (Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC, 1992), pp. 121-142; W. H. Wills, in Perspectives on Southwestern Prehistory, P. E. Minnis and C. L. Redman, Eds. (Westview, Boulder, CO, 1990), pp. 319-332.
51. E. W. Haury, in Courses Toward Urban Life, R. J. Braidwood and G. R. Willey, Eds. (Aldine, Chicago, IL, 1962), pp. 106-131; R. I. Ford, J. Ethnobiol. 1, 13 (1981); P. E. Minnis, in Prehistoric Food Production in North America, R. I. Ford, Ed. (Museum of Anthropology Anthropological Papers 75, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 1985), pp. 309-339; R. S. MacNeish, The Origins of Agriculture and Settled Life (Univ. of Oklahoma Press, Norman, 1992); P. E. Minnis, in The Origins of Agriculture: An International Perspective, C. W. Cowan and P. J. Watson, Eds. (Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC, 1992), pp. 121-142; W. H. Wills, in Perspectives on Southwestern Prehistory, P. E. Minnis and C. L. Redman, Eds. (Westview, Boulder, CO, 1990), pp. 319-332.
52. E. W. Haury, in Courses Toward Urban Life, R. J. Braidwood and G. R. Willey, Eds. (Aldine, Chicago, IL, 1962), pp. 106-131; R. I. Ford, J. Ethnobiol. 1, 13 (1981); P. E. Minnis, in Prehistoric Food Production in North America, R. I. Ford, Ed. (Museum of Anthropology Anthropological Papers 75, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 1985), pp. 309-339; R. S. MacNeish, The Origins of Agriculture and Settled Life (Univ. of Oklahoma Press, Norman, 1992); P. E. Minnis, in The Origins of Agriculture: An International Perspective, C. W. Cowan and P. J. Watson, Eds. (Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC, 1992), pp. 121-142; W. H. Wills, in Perspectives on Southwestern Prehistory, P. E. Minnis and C. L. Redman, Eds. (Westview, Boulder, CO, 1990), pp. 319-332.
53. E. W. Haury, in Courses Toward Urban Life, R. J. Braidwood and G. R. Willey, Eds. (Aldine, Chicago, IL, 1962), pp. 106-131; R. I. Ford, J. Ethnobiol. 1, 13 (1981); P. E. Minnis, in Prehistoric Food Production in North America, R. I. Ford, Ed. (Museum of Anthropology Anthropological Papers 75, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 1985), pp. 309-339; R. S. MacNeish, The Origins of Agriculture and Settled Life (Univ. of Oklahoma Press, Norman, 1992); P. E. Minnis, in The Origins of Agriculture: An International Perspective, C. W. Cowan and P. J. Watson, Eds. (Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC, 1992), pp. 121-142; W. H. Wills, in Perspectives on Southwestern Prehistory, P. E. Minnis and C. L. Redman, Eds. (Westview, Boulder, CO, 1990), pp. 319-332.
54. E. W. Haury, in Courses Toward Urban Life, R. J. Braidwood and G. R. Willey, Eds. (Aldine, Chicago, IL, 1962), pp. 106-131; R. I. Ford, J. Ethnobiol. 1, 13 (1981); P. E. Minnis, in Prehistoric Food Production in North America, R. I. Ford, Ed. (Museum of Anthropology Anthropological Papers 75, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 1985), pp. 309-339; R. S. MacNeish, The Origins of Agriculture and Settled Life (Univ. of Oklahoma Press, Norman, 1992); P. E. Minnis, in The Origins of Agriculture: An International Perspective, C. W. Cowan and P. J. Watson, Eds. (Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC, 1992), pp. 121-142; W. H. Wills, in Perspectives on Southwestern Prehistory, P. E. Minnis and C. L. Redman, Eds. (Westview, Boulder, CO, 1990), pp. 319-332.
55. E. W. Haury, in Courses Toward Urban Life, R. J. Braidwood and G. R. Willey, Eds. (Aldine, Chicago, IL, 1962), pp. 106-131; R. I. Ford, J. Ethnobiol. 1, 13 (1981); P. E. Minnis, in Prehistoric Food Production in North America, R. I. Ford, Ed. (Museum of Anthropology Anthropological Papers 75, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 1985), pp. 309-339; R. S. MacNeish, The Origins of Agriculture and Settled Life (Univ. of Oklahoma Press, Norman, 1992); P. E. Minnis, in The Origins of Agriculture: An International Perspective, C. W. Cowan and P. J. Watson, Eds. (Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC, 1992), pp. 121-142; W. H. Wills, in Perspectives on Southwestern Prehistory, P. E. Minnis and C. L. Redman, Eds. (Westview, Boulder, CO, 1990), pp. 319-332.
56. J. B. Mabry et al., "Archaeological investigations of early village sites in the middle Santa Cruz Valley," Anthropological Papers 18 (Center for Desert Archaeology, Tucson, AZ, 1997).
57. The Tumamoc Hill cerro de trincheras site in Tucson, AZ, long considered to have been constructed after ∼1200 calendar years B.P., yielded Late Archaic AMS maize dates, the earliest of which was 2470 ± 270 radiocarbon years B.P. Although, these dates were not clearly associated with trincheras wall construction, they suggest Late Archaic period cerro de trincheras sites may be more widespread [P. R. Fish, S. K. Fish, A. Long, C. Miksicek, Am. Antiq. 51, 564 (1986)].
58. G. Sanchez, J. Carpenter, M. Villalpondo, paper presented at the Conference on the Archaic Prehistory of the North American Southwest, Albuquerque, NM, 24 to 26 October 1996; A. E. Johnson, Am. Antiq. 29, 174 (1963).
59. G. Sanchez, J. Carpenter, M. Villalpondo, paper presented at the Conference on the Archaic Prehistory of the North American Southwest, Albuquerque, NM, 24 to 26 October 1996; A. E. Johnson, Am. Antiq. 29, 174 (1963).
60. R. G. Matson, The Origins of Southwestern Agriculture (Univ. of Arizona Press, Tucson, AZ 1991), pp. 90-124; R. J. Hard, Proceedings of the Ninth Jornada-Mogollon Conference, University of Texas at El Paso and Centro de Investigaciones Aqueologicas, El Paso, TX, 10 to 11 November 1995, R. P. Mauldin, J. D. Leach, S. Ruth, Eds. (Publ. 12, Centro de Investigaciones Arqueologicas, El Paso, TX, 1997); M. E. Whalen, Am. Antiq. 59, 622 (1994).
61. R. G. Matson, The Origins of Southwestern Agriculture (Univ. of Arizona Press, Tucson, AZ 1991), pp. 90-124; R. J. Hard, Proceedings of the Ninth Jornada-Mogollon Conference, University of Texas at El Paso and Centro de Investigaciones Aqueologicas, El Paso, TX, 10 to 11 November 1995, R. P. Mauldin, J. D. Leach, S. Ruth, Eds. (Publ. 12, Centro de Investigaciones Arqueologicas, El Paso, TX, 1997); M. E. Whalen, Am. Antiq. 59, 622 (1994).
62. R. G. Matson, The Origins of Southwestern Agriculture (Univ. of Arizona Press, Tucson, AZ 1991), pp. 90-124; R. J. Hard, Proceedings of the Ninth Jornada-Mogollon Conference, University of Texas at El Paso and Centro de Investigaciones Aqueologicas, El Paso, TX, 10 to 11 November 1995, R. P. Mauldin, J. D. Leach, S. Ruth, Eds. (Publ. 12, Centro de Investigaciones Arqueologicas, El Paso, TX, 1997); M. E. Whalen, Am. Antiq. 59, 622 (1994).
63. L. Nordt, personal communication.
64. Initial mapping and documentation at Cerro Juanaquena were done under the auspices of the project El Sistema Regional de Paquime, directed by M. Whalen and P. E. Minnis. Subsequent investigations were funded by a NSF grant (SBR-97086210), with support from the University of Texas at San Antonio (UTSA) Center for Archaeological Research and a UTSA Faculty Research Award and the U.S. Department of the Interior Bureau of Land Management. The work reported here was conducted under permit from the Consejo de Arqueología, Instituto de Antropología e Historia (INAH). The assistance of Ing J. García Barcena, J. L. Perea González, and the staff of INAH and J. Yellen of NSF is gratefully acknowledged. B. Moses prepared the illustrations.