Recent trends in forestry and conservation of biodiversity in China

China Quarterly

Volumn , Issue 156, 1998, Pages 911-934

  Harkness, James ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BIODIVERSITY; CONSERVATION; ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT; FORESTRY;

CHINA;

EID: 0032467013     PISSN: 00094439     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/s0305741000051390     Document Type: Article

References (122)

1. National Environmental Protection Agency (NEPA), China Country Study on Biological Diversity (draft) (Beijing: NEPA, 12 June 1996), pp. 108-117.
2. Peter Raven, "Biodiversity and the future of China," Pacific Science Association Information Bulletin, Vol. 47, Nos. 1-2 (1995), pp. 1-8.
3. Kong Fanwen, Dai Guangcui, Gao Lan and He Naihui, "Forest environment resource accounting and economic compensation policy," Forestry Economics, Vol. 1, No. 1 (1996), pp. 32-44.
4. Zhao Yining and Huangpu Pingli, "Yi ke shu ye buneng zaikanle" ("Don't even cut one more tree"), Liaowang xinwen zhoukan (Outlook Weekly), No. 18 (1998), p. 23.
5. Ministry of Forestry, Afforestation and Forest Management Section and China Forestry Association (eds.), Quanguo xinchailin yantaohui wenji (Proceedings of the National Fuelwood Forest Symposium) (Beijing: Zhongguo linye chubanshe, 1995), p. 3.
6. S. D. Richardson, Forests and Forestry in China (Washington, DC: Island Press, 1990), p. 14.
7. Qu Geping and Li Jinchang, China Population and Environment (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienne, 1994), p. 58.
8. Ibid. p. 58; Zhao Yining and Huangpu Pingli, "Don't even cut one more tree," p. 23.
9. Ibid. p. 58; Zhao Yining and Huangpu Pingli, "Don't even cut one more tree," p. 23.
10. A scholarly work of the second century B.C. deplores over-harvesting and includes proposals for rational management of forests. Nicholas K. Menzies, Forest and Land Management in Imperial China (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994), p. 33.
11. These include the small one-horned rhinocerous (Rhinocerous inermis), white-lipped macaque (Pygathrix nenaeus) and Xinjiang tiger (Panthera tigris lecoqi). The authors also include a list of 33 large mammals that they believe will become extinct during the next century Yu Changqing and Xing Lin, "Wo guo binwei shoulei xianzhuang ji baohu duice" ("Status and conservation strategy of endangered mammals in China"), in Biodiversity Committee, Chinese Academy of Sciences and Department for Wildlife and Forest Plant Protection, Ministry of Forestry (eds.), Shengwu duoyangxing jinzhan (Advances in Biodiversity Research) (Beijing: Chinese Sciences and Technology Press, 1995), pp. 172-78.
12. The figure was 6% as of 1993. John Mackinnon, Meng Sha, Catherine Cheung, Geoff Carey, Zhu Xiang and David Melville, A Biodiversity Review of China (Hong Kong: WWF International China Programme, 1996), p. 23.
13. Vaclav Smil, China's Environmental Crisis: An Inquiry into the Limits of National Development (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1993), pp. 59-60; Richardson, Forests and Forestry in China, p. 95.
14. Vaclav Smil, China's Environmental Crisis: An Inquiry into the Limits of National Development (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1993), pp. 59-60; Richardson, Forests and Forestry in China, p. 95.
15. Richardson, Forests and Forestry in China; Lester Ross, Forest Policy in China (unpublished PhD dissertation, Department of Political Science, University of Michigan, 1980).
16. Richardson, Forests and Forestry in China; Lester Ross, Forest Policy in China (unpublished PhD dissertation, Department of Political Science, University of Michigan, 1980).
17. Zuo Ting, "Forest structure change in Yunnan, China, since the 1950s: two villages investigation" (unpublished paper, Yunnan Academy of Social Sciences, December 1994).
18. Quoted in Wildlife and Forest Plants Protection Department, Ministry of Forestry, China's National Nature Reserves (Beijing: Arts and Photography Publishing House, 1994), p. 11. Conservation of biodiversity in modern China has largely been confined to the establishment and management of protected areas. The extent and effectiveness of efforts outside of protected areas has been very limited. There is a list of protected species, but monitoring of hunting and the wildlife trade is weak. A survey of two market towns in Yunnan found 21 protected wildlife species for sale. (See Zhao Qikun, Ma Shilai, Ma Xiaofeng, Zhu Jianguo and Ji Weizhi, "Wildlife in the frontier markets at the tri-border region in Yunnan" (unpublished paper, Kunming Institute of Zoology, 1997).)
19. Quoted in Wildlife and Forest Plants Protection Department, Ministry of Forestry, China's National Nature Reserves (Beijing: Arts and Photography Publishing House, 1994), p. 11. Conservation of biodiversity in modern China has largely been confined to the establishment and management of protected areas. The extent and effectiveness of efforts outside of protected areas has been very limited. There is a list of protected species, but monitoring of hunting and the wildlife trade is weak. A survey of two market towns in Yunnan found 21 protected wildlife species for sale. (See Zhao Qikun, Ma Shilai, Ma Xiaofeng, Zhu Jianguo and Ji Weizhi, "Wildlife in the frontier markets at the tri-border region in Yunnan" (unpublished paper, Kunming Institute of Zoology, 1997).)
20. Mackinnon, et al. A Biodiversity Review of China, p. 23.
21. Li Jinchang, Kong Fanwen, Ren Yong, Wang Xin and Feng Dongfang, Yuanmu dingjia ji ziyuan hesuan chubu yanjiu (Initial Study on Log-Pricing and Forest Resources Accounting) (Beijing: Policy Research Centre for Environment and Economy, NEPA, 1995) (Chinese and English).
22. Hong Deyuan and Li Zhenyu, "Biodiversity and its conservation and management in the Hindu-Kush Himalaya region of China," in Pei Shengji (ed.), Banking on Biodiversity: Report on the Regional Consultation in Biodiversity Assessment in the Hindu-Kush Himalayas (Kathmandu: International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development, 1996), pp. 131-180, especially 155.
23. Qu Geping, Women xuyao yichang biange (We Need A Transformation) (Changchun: Jilin People's Publishing House, 1997), pp. 3-6.
24. Wang Yuqing, "Natural conservation regions in China," Ambio, Vol. 16, No. 6 (1987), pp. 326-331.
25. Wildlife and Forest Plants Protection Department, China's National Nature Reserves, p. 12. Most reserves are administered by the Ministry of Forestry, but the State Environment Protection Administration (SEPA, known as NEPA until March 1998), the Ministry of Agriculture and several other agencies also manage some reserves.
26. Mackinnon, et al. A Biodiversity Review of China, p. 6.
27. Richardson, Forests and Forestry in China, p. 115. Richardson notes the difficulty of enforcing such rules, but points out that "the lengths to which they go indicate the concern."
28. Zhang Zhida (ed.), Quanguo shi da linye shengtai jianshe gongcheng (Ten National Ecological Forest Projects) (Beijing: China Forestry Press, 1997).
29. Qiao Fangbin, Lindiquanshu bianhua he linyede fazhan: Yunnan linqude shizheng yanjiu (The Evolution of Forest Land Tenure and the Forest Development: The Case of Yunnan) (unpublished MA thesis, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, 1997). As of 1990, however, Richardson quotes forestry officials as reporting that only 30% of the officially reported plantation areas could be regarded as successful. (See Richardson, Forests and Forestry in China, p. 95.)
30. Qiao Fangbin, Lindiquanshu bianhua he linyede fazhan: Yunnan linqude shizheng yanjiu (The Evolution of Forest Land Tenure and the Forest Development: The Case of Yunnan) (unpublished MA thesis, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, 1997). As of 1990, however, Richardson quotes forestry officials as reporting that only 30% of the officially reported plantation areas could be regarded as successful. (See Richardson, Forests and Forestry in China, p. 95.)
31. "China now ranks first in the world in both the speed and scale of afforestation ..." in "Afforestation tops priority list among former loggers," China Daily, 10 June 1998, p. 3.
32. Richardson, Forests and Forestry in China, p. 23.
33. Li Jinchang, Kong Fanwen, Ren Yong, Wang Xin and Feng Dongfang, Log-Pricing and Forest Resources Accounting, p. 10.
34. Wang Long, "Nature reserves need a better management," China Environment News, January 1993, p. 5.
35. NEPA, China Country Study on Biological Diversity, p. 236.
36. Yan Xun, "Zhongguo shcngwu duoyangxing baohu he ziran baohuqu" ("Biodiversity conservation and nature reserves in China"), in Chinese Society of Forestry and Canadian Institute of Forestry (eds.), Mianxiang 21 shiji de linye guoji xueshu taolunhui lunwenji (International Symposium of Forestry Towards the 21st Century) (Beijing: 1997), pp. 115-120
37. Han Niannong and Guo Zhifeng, "Reserves face crisis," China Environment News, No. 63 (1994), p. 1.
38. Ma Naixi, "Zhongguo ziran baohuqu de kexue guanli wenti" ("Problems of scientific management in China's nature reserves"), in Li Bosheng and Dan Zhiyong (eds.), Luman Yazhou: diyi jie dongya diqu guojia gongyuan yu baohuqu huiyi ji CNPPA/IUCN di 41 jie gongzuohuiyi wenji (The Greening of East Asia: Proceedings of the First East Asian Conference on National Parks and Protected Areas and 41st CNPPA/IUCN Working Meeting) (Beijing: China Environmental Science Press, 1994), pp. 412-17.
39. Author interview, autumn 1997. Detailed citations from interviews or field notes available on request.
40. Ministry of Forestry, Zhongguo linye nianjian 1995 (China Forestry Yearbook 1995) (Beijing: China Forestry Press 1996), p. 63. The Ministry of Forestry offers concessional loans for certain development projects inside reserves.
41. "Pollution threatens nature reserves," China Daily, 6 June 1998.
42. NEPA, China Country Study on Biological Diversity, p. 142; Gao Jianxin, "Bogeda shengwuquan baohuqude xianzhuang, wenti ji baohu duice" ("Status, problems and protection countermeasures in Bogeda Biosphere Reserve"), in Li Bosheng and Dan Zhiyong (eds.), The Greening of East Asia, pp. 284-88. Also Guan Fengli, "Guanyu Changbaishan ziran baohuqu youxiao guanli tujing de tantao" ("An inquiry into effective management techniques for Changbaishan Nature Reserve"), in Li Bosheng and Dan Zhiyong (eds.), The Greening of East Asia, pp. 440-444. China's mega-fauna are shy, mostly solitary inhabitants of inhospitable mountains and dense forests, so there is no possibility of developing the high-profit safari tourism which has been so successful in Eastern and Southern Africa. The notable exception to this is the Chang Tang in Tibet, where large herds of wild ungulates remain, but it would be difficult to develop tourism on a large scale there due to the altitude and tremendous distances involved.
43. NEPA, China Country Study on Biological Diversity, p. 142; Gao Jianxin, "Bogeda shengwuquan baohuqude xianzhuang, wenti ji baohu duice" ("Status, problems and protection countermeasures in Bogeda Biosphere Reserve"), in Li Bosheng and Dan Zhiyong (eds.), The Greening of East Asia, pp. 284-88. Also Guan Fengli, "Guanyu Changbaishan ziran baohuqu youxiao guanli tujing de tantao" ("An inquiry into effective management techniques for Changbaishan Nature Reserve"), in Li Bosheng and Dan Zhiyong (eds.), The Greening of East Asia, pp. 440-444. China's mega-fauna are shy, mostly solitary inhabitants of inhospitable mountains and dense forests, so there is no possibility of developing the high-profit safari tourism which has been so successful in Eastern and Southern Africa. The notable exception to this is the Chang Tang in Tibet, where large herds of wild ungulates remain, but it would be difficult to develop tourism on a large scale there due to the altitude and tremendous distances involved.
44. NEPA, China Country Study on Biological Diversity, p. 142; Gao Jianxin, "Bogeda shengwuquan baohuqude xianzhuang, wenti ji baohu duice" ("Status, problems and protection countermeasures in Bogeda Biosphere Reserve"), in Li Bosheng and Dan Zhiyong (eds.), The Greening of East Asia, pp. 284-88. Also Guan Fengli, "Guanyu Changbaishan ziran baohuqu youxiao guanli tujing de tantao" ("An inquiry into effective management techniques for Changbaishan Nature Reserve"), in Li Bosheng and Dan Zhiyong (eds.), The Greening of East Asia, pp. 440-444. China's mega-fauna are shy, mostly solitary inhabitants of inhospitable mountains and dense forests, so there is no possibility of developing the high-profit safari tourism which has been so successful in Eastern and Southern Africa. The notable exception to this is the Chang Tang in Tibet, where large herds of wild ungulates remain, but it would be difficult to develop tourism on a large scale there due to the altitude and tremendous distances involved.
45. Qian Zhenyue, "Sichuan fengjing mingshengqu de baohu yu kaifa" ("Protection and development of Sichuan's scenic spots"), in Li Bosheng and Dan Zhiyong (eds.), The Greening of East Asia, pp. 272-74; also author's notes and interviews.
46. Han Nianyong and Guo Zhifeng, "Reserves face crisis."
47. Zhou Shiqiang, "Wolong ziran baohuqu de gongneng fenqu ji youxiao guanli yanjiu" ("Functional zones and effective management research in Wolong Giant Panda Reserve") in Li Bosheng and Dan Zhiyong (eds.), Greening of East Asia, p. 435-39.
48. "Pollution threatens nature reserves," China Daily, 6 June 1998.
49. Interview, autumn 1997.
50. Wang Wanying, "A community-based strategy for the conservation and development of the Caohai Nature Reserve, Weining county, Guizhou province, P. R. China" (unpublished ms. thesis, Asian Institute of Management, Manila, The Philippines, 1996), p. 20.
51. Author's field notes, Yunnan, November 1995.
52. Author's field notes, Yunnan, January 1996. For discussion of the theoretical implications of common property versus state institutions for management of natural resources, see Elinor Ostrom, Governing the Commons: the Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990). Also Margaret McKean, "Is there a role for common property arrangements in privatization reforms?" presented at the international Conference on Chinese Rural Collectives and Voluntary Organizations: Between State Organizations and Private Interest (University of Leiden: Sinological Institute, 9-13 January 1995).
53. Author's field notes, Yunnan, January 1996. For discussion of the theoretical implications of common property versus state institutions for management of natural resources, see Elinor Ostrom, Governing the Commons: the Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990). Also Margaret McKean, "Is there a role for common property arrangements in privatization reforms?" presented at the international Conference on Chinese Rural Collectives and Voluntary Organizations: Between State Organizations and Private Interest (University of Leiden: Sinological Institute, 9-13 January 1995).
54. James Harkness, comments during experts' panel, "Workshop on conservation and elopment at Caohai Nature Reserve," (unpublished, Weining county, Guizhou province, 2-7 December 1997).
55. At a wetland reserve in Heilongjiang province, for example, jurisdiction is shared with five provincial departments and local governments. Protection staff have the right to punish poachers, but the fish, water, aquatic plants and subsoil which make up the habitat are not under their control. See James Harkness, "Common property, extractive economies and conservation in China: social change and sustainability at the Zhalong Nature Reserve," a paper presented at the First Conference of the International Association for the Study of Common Property (Duke University, October 1990).
56. Xie Zhixin, "Zhongguo nanfang ziran baohuqu de kunrao yu qi duice" ("Dilemmas of southern China's nature reserves and their countermeasures"), in Li Bosheng and Dan Zhiyong (eds.), The Greening of East Asia, pp. 251-59
57. NEPA, China Biodiversity Conservation Action Plan (Beijing: NEPA, 1994), p. 31-32.
58. The chief threat to the Suoluo (Tree Fern) National Nature Reserve is illegal felling by a nearby state logging company. See Fan Zuxiang, oral report at "Workshop on conservation and development at Caohai Nature Reserve" (Weining county, Guizhou province, 2-7 December 1997).
59. Provincial tourism bureau officials built a hotel inside of Lugu Lake Nature Reserve, ignoring objections by reserve staff and undermining efforts to prevent illegal logging by local people. Author's field notes, November 1996.
60. NEPA, China Biodiversity Conservation Action Plan, p. 32; Tom Korski, "Farmer gets life for tree cutting," South China Morning Post, 4 November 1996; Seth Faison, "China vows to punish wildlife poachers," International Herald Tribune, 16 February 1998.
61. NEPA, China Biodiversity Conservation Action Plan, p. 32; Tom Korski, "Farmer gets life for tree cutting," South China Morning Post, 4 November 1996; Seth Faison, "China vows to punish wildlife poachers," International Herald Tribune, 16 February 1998.
62. NEPA, China Biodiversity Conservation Action Plan, p. 32; Tom Korski, "Farmer gets life for tree cutting," South China Morning Post, 4 November 1996; Seth Faison, "China vows to punish wildlife poachers," International Herald Tribune, 16 February 1998.
63. Mackinnon et al. A Biodiversity Review of China.
64. The extreme example of this phenomenon is Hainan province. Originally almost completely forested, the island's forest cover was reduced to 7.9% by 1981. Although there are 47 forest reserves on Hainan, the Ministry of Forestry/WWF team recommended re-evaluating or de-listing half of them, citing their small size and poor condition. A depressingly typical evaluation of one reserve reads, "no forest, no conservation value." See Mackinnon et al. A Biodiversity Review of China, pp. 441-461.
65. Li Yucai (ed.), Mianxiang 21 shiji de linye fazhan zhanlüe (Forestry Strategies Toward the 21st Century) (Beijing: China Forestry Press, 1996), p. 22.
66. Collective forest farms in the south-east, many of which harvest timber primarily for the market, are a major exception to this characterization. See Zhang Guangzhi, Li Keliang and Song Xushan (eds.), Nanfang jitilinqu jingji lun (On the Economics of Southern Collective Forests) (Beijing: Zhongguo linye chubanshe, 1992).
67. Li Yucai (ed.), Forestry Strategies Toward the 21st Century, p. 23.
68. Richardson's concerns stem principally from the vagueness and inconsistency of measurement terms, as well as the lack of data. Smil finds official figures to be exaggerated at best, and in many cases fraudulent. Rozelle et al., on the other hand, claim that "statistics on the status of China forests may be the most complete" available for any of the country's natural resources. Chinese forestry analysts tend to fall between these positions, accepting official figures as accurate enough for assessing trends while recognizing that they "are watered down to some extent," (you yiding de shuifen) and it is in this spirit that official statistics are included in the present paper. Richardson, Forests and Forestry in China, pp. 106-107; Smil, China's Environmental Crisis, pp. 59-64; Scott Rozelle, Huang Jikun and Zhang Linxiu, "Poverty, population and environmental degradation in China" (unpublished paper, January 1997), p. 5.
69. Richardson's concerns stem principally from the vagueness and inconsistency of measurement terms, as well as the lack of data. Smil finds official figures to be exaggerated at best, and in many cases fraudulent. Rozelle et al., on the other hand, claim that "statistics on the status of China forests may be the most complete" available for any of the country's natural resources. Chinese forestry analysts tend to fall between these positions, accepting official figures as accurate enough for assessing trends while recognizing that they "are watered down to some extent," (you yiding de shuifen) and it is in this spirit that official statistics are included in the present paper. Richardson, Forests and Forestry in China, pp. 106-107; Smil, China's Environmental Crisis, pp. 59-64; Scott Rozelle, Huang Jikun and Zhang Linxiu, "Poverty, population and environmental degradation in China" (unpublished paper, January 1997), p. 5.
70. Richardson's concerns stem principally from the vagueness and inconsistency of measurement terms, as well as the lack of data. Smil finds official figures to be exaggerated at best, and in many cases fraudulent. Rozelle et al., on the other hand, claim that "statistics on the status of China forests may be the most complete" available for any of the country's natural resources. Chinese forestry analysts tend to fall between these positions, accepting official figures as accurate enough for assessing trends while recognizing that they "are watered down to some extent," (you yiding de shuifen) and it is in this spirit that official statistics are included in the present paper. Richardson, Forests and Forestry in China, pp. 106-107; Smil, China's Environmental Crisis, pp. 59-64; Scott Rozelle, Huang Jikun and Zhang Linxiu, "Poverty, population and environmental degradation in China" (unpublished paper, January 1997), p. 5.
71. Richardson, Forests and Forestry in China, p. 89.
72. These are 1993 figures. Li Yucai (ed.), Forestry Strategies Toward the 21st Century, pp. 4, 19.
73. Yin Runsheng, An Empirical Analysis of Rural Forestry Reform in China, 1978-1990 (unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Georgia, 1994), p. 37.
74. Ibid. p. 19. A synopsis of World Bank-supported forestry projects in China states that, "natural forests ... account for 95% of standing wood volume." See Anonymous, "Briefing note: World Bank forestry projects," (1997), p. 1. Another recent report states that 88% of the wood harvested in the state sector comes from natural forests. Ministry of Forestry of the People's Republic of China, "Guoyou linqu tianranlin ziyuan baohu gongcheng jihua" ("Plan for a project to protect natural forest resources of state forest areas") (October 1997), p. 15.
75. Ibid. p. 19. A synopsis of World Bank-supported forestry projects in China states that, "natural forests ... account for 95% of standing wood volume." See Anonymous, "Briefing note: World Bank forestry projects," (1997), p. 1. Another recent report states that 88% of the wood harvested in the state sector comes from natural forests. Ministry of Forestry of the People's Republic of China, "Guoyou linqu tianranlin ziyuan baohu gongcheng jihua" ("Plan for a project to protect natural forest resources of state forest areas") (October 1997), p. 15.
76. Ibid. p. 19. A synopsis of World Bank-supported forestry projects in China states that, "natural forests ... account for 95% of standing wood volume." See Anonymous, "Briefing note: World Bank forestry projects," (1997), p. 1. Another recent report states that 88% of the wood harvested in the state sector comes from natural forests. Ministry of Forestry of the People's Republic of China, "Guoyou linqu tianranlin ziyuan baohu gongcheng jihua" ("Plan for a project to protect natural forest resources of state forest areas") (October 1997), p. 15.
77. Li Jinchang et al. Log-Pricing and Forest Resources Accounting, pp. 10-11.
78. Li Yucai (ed.), Forestry Strategies Toward the 21st Century, pp. 161-65.
79. Ministry of Forestry of the People's Republic of China, "Plan for a project to protect natural forest resources of state forest areas," p. 4.
80. Ibid. p. 1-5.
81. Author interview, Beijing, autumn 1997.
82. Logging was halted in the area in 1994 and it is awaiting designation by the State Council as a national nature reserve. Funds from the General Environment Facility are being used to finance an experimental "enterprise restructuring" plan for the Changqing Forestry Bureau that includes replacement-level logging in the buffer zone, establishment of new forest-based enterprises, and relocation and re-training of some loggers. Pan Wenshi, Qinling daxiongmao de ziran bihusuo (The Natural Refuge of the Giant Panda in the Qinling Mountains) (Beijing: Beijing University Press, 1998); The World Bank, "Global environment facility: People's Republic of China nature reserves management project" (project document: May 1995); author's field notes, June 1994.
83. Logging was halted in the area in 1994 and it is awaiting designation by the State Council as a national nature reserve. Funds from the General Environment Facility are being used to finance an experimental "enterprise restructuring" plan for the Changqing Forestry Bureau that includes replacement-level logging in the buffer zone, establishment of new forest-based enterprises, and relocation and re-training of some loggers. Pan Wenshi, Qinling daxiongmao de ziran bihusuo (The Natural Refuge of the Giant Panda in the Qinling Mountains) (Beijing: Beijing University Press, 1998); The World Bank, "Global environment facility: People's Republic of China nature reserves management project" (project document: May 1995); author's field notes, June 1994.
84. NEPA, China Biodiversity Conservation Action Plan, p. 60.
85. The Ministry eventually agreed to compensate the county budget for the lost income, but surrounding counties are now reported to have stepped up logging in an effort to gain ministerial attention; U.S. Embassy-China, "Saving the snub-nosed monkey: student environmental action in China" (unpublished report, Beijing, November 1996).
86. Author's interview, autumn 1997.
87. Ministry of Forestry, China Forestry Yearbook 1995, p. 110. Qiao Fangbin, The Evolution of Forest Land Tenure and the Forest Development, p. 44.
88. Ministry of Forestry, China Forestry Yearbook 1995, p. 110. Qiao Fangbin, The Evolution of Forest Land Tenure and the Forest Development, p. 44.
89. Hong Deyuan and Li Zhenyu, "Biodiversity and its conservation and management in the Hindu-Kush Himalaya region of China," p. 154.
90. Personal communication, Frank Voorhies, April 1997.
91. Scott Rozelle, Vince Bezinger, Jikun Huang and Li Guo, "The rise of forests and the fall of diversity: assessing the role of tenure, policy and markets" (paper presented at the MacArthur Foundation Workshop on Biodiversity in the Himalayan Region, Kunming, China, 7-10 April 1997); Qiao Fangbin, The Evolution of Forest Land Tenure and the Forest Development, p. 45.
92. Scott Rozelle, Vince Bezinger, Jikun Huang and Li Guo, "The rise of forests and the fall of diversity: assessing the role of tenure, policy and markets" (paper presented at the MacArthur Foundation Workshop on Biodiversity in the Himalayan Region, Kunming, China, 7-10 April 1997); Qiao Fangbin, The Evolution of Forest Land Tenure and the Forest Development, p. 45.
93. Mulberry leaves are used to raise silkworms and oil is extracted from eucalyptus leaves. The leaves of both species can be harvested within a few years of planting. Worries about tenure instability are manifested not only in the preference for establishment of cash tree crops, but also in a willingness to cut timber species at a younger age. For further discussions of forest and tree tenure, see Tang Hongqi and Du Shouhu (eds.), Lindi linmu quanshu yu shehui linye (Forest and Tree Tenure and Social Forestry) (Chengdu: Chengdu keji daxue chubanshe, 1995).
94. Most of these are imposed by local governments, making them the forestry sector component of the "peasant's burden" (nongmin fudan). See Rene Koppelman, Chun K. Lai, Patrick B. Durst and Janice Naewboonien (eds.), Asia-Pacific Agroforestry Profiles (second edition, Bangkok: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 1996), pp. 90-95; Li Guangming and Liao Feng, "Yunnan mucai shichang tansuo" ("An exploration of the timber market in Yunnan") in He Pikun (ed.), Shehui linye: yanjiu, tansuo (Social Forestry: Research and Explorations) (Kunming: Yunnan keji chubanshe, 1995), pp. 133- 38; Li Yucai (ed.), Forestry Strategies for the 21st Century, p. 367.
95. Most of these are imposed by local governments, making them the forestry sector component of the "peasant's burden" (nongmin fudan). See Rene Koppelman, Chun K. Lai, Patrick B. Durst and Janice Naewboonien (eds.), Asia-Pacific Agroforestry Profiles (second edition, Bangkok: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 1996), pp. 90-95; Li Guangming and Liao Feng, "Yunnan mucai shichang tansuo" ("An exploration of the timber market in Yunnan") in He Pikun (ed.), Shehui linye: yanjiu, tansuo (Social Forestry: Research and Explorations) (Kunming: Yunnan keji chubanshe, 1995), pp. 133-38; Li Yucai (ed.), Forestry Strategies for the 21st Century, p. 367.
96. Most of these are imposed by local governments, making them the forestry sector component of the "peasant's burden" (nongmin fudan). See Rene Koppelman, Chun K. Lai, Patrick B. Durst and Janice Naewboonien (eds.), Asia-Pacific Agroforestry Profiles (second edition, Bangkok: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 1996), pp. 90-95; Li Guangming and Liao Feng, "Yunnan mucai shichang tansuo" ("An exploration of the timber market in Yunnan") in He Pikun (ed.), Shehui linye: yanjiu, tansuo (Social Forestry: Research and Explorations) (Kunming: Yunnan keji chubanshe, 1995), pp. 133- 38; Li Yucai (ed.), Forestry Strategies for the 21st Century, p. 367.
97. Author's interview notes, January 1995. See also Ke Wenzhong, "Ecologists promote varied afforestation," China Environment News (English edition), 15 May 1997, p. 5. A similar but even more rapid loss of diversity is occurring among domesticated crops. In response to marketization and government programmes, farmers are abandoning traditional varieties created through generations of selection in favour of higher-yielding or subsidized hybrids.
98. Owners of orchards generally restrict grazing, fuel wood collection and other activities by others. Shelterbelt plantations have similar, if sometimes less strictly enforced, restrictions.
99. Ministry of Forestry, Afforestation and Forest Management Section, and China forestry Association, Proceedings of the National Fuelwood Forest Symposium, p. 7.
100. Smil, China's Environmental Crisis, p. 106.
101. Given its importance for rural livelihoods and the amount of wood involved, the fuelwood issue is given relatively little scholarly or governmental attention in China, aside from occasional campaigns to introduce more efficient stoves.
102. Ministry of Forestry of the People's Republic of China, "Plan for a project to protect natural forest resources of state forest areas," p. 11.
103. Ibid. pp. 29, 57.
104. Renmin ribao, 15 March 1998, p. 1. Zhao Yining and Huangpu Pingli, "Don't even cut one more tree."
105. Renmin ribao, 15 March 1998, p. 1. Zhao Yining and Huangpu Pingli, "Don't even cut one more tree."
106. Xiang Hong and Chao Yang, "Zhishui xian zhishan, zhishan xianzhiqiong" ("To control flooding, first control mountains; to control mountains, first control poverty"), Qingian zhoumo (Youth Weekend), 28 August 1998, p. 3.
107. Shi Kunshan, Li Zhiyong, Lin Fenming and Zheng Rui, China's Country Report on forestry (Asia-Pacific Forestry Sector Outlook Study) (Rome and Bangkok: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 1997), pp. 53-54.
108. CCICED, "Second annual report of the biodiversity working group," in Proceedings: The Third Meeting of the China Council for International Cooperation on Environment and development (Beijing: Environmental Science Press, 1995), p. 53.
109. NEPA, China Biodiversity Conservation Action Plan (draft, 1994), p. 29.
110. Ibid. p. 51.
111. Research on resource accounting began in the 1980s, and has generally focused on attaching monetary values to ecological and other normally non-monetized services (such as scenic beauty) provided by natural forests. See for example, Kong et al. Log-Pricing and Forest Resources Accounting, p. 42; China Council for International Co-operation on Environment and Sustainable Development Biodiversity Working Group, "First report of Phase Two" (unpublished report, Beijing, 1997), pp. 2-5.
112. Research on resource accounting began in the 1980s, and has generally focused on attaching monetary values to ecological and other normally non-monetized services (such as scenic beauty) provided by natural forests. See for example, Kong et al. Log-Pricing and Forest Resources Accounting, p. 42; China Council for International Co-operation on Environment and Sustainable Development Biodiversity Working Group, "First report of Phase Two" (unpublished report, Beijing, 1997), pp. 2-5.
113. Chen Yalin, "Ziran baohuqu guanlizhong jingji shouduan de yingyong fenxi" ("Analysis of the use of economic measures in the management of nature reserves"), in Li Bosheng and Dan Zhiyong (eds.), The Greening of East Asia, pp. 428-431.
114. Also NEPA, China Country Study on Biological Diversity, pp. 168, 213.
115. Ministry of Forestry, "General environmental facility - China nature reserve management project: the second NGO/donor meeting document" (unpublished report, 26 February 1998); Lai Qingkui, "Conflict management and community forestry: a case of the Nangun River Nature Reserve, Yunnan, China," in J. Fox, L. Fisher and C. Cook (eds.), Conflict and Collaboration: the Eighth Workshop on Community Management of Forest Lands (Honolulu: Program on Environment, The East-West Center, 1997), pp. 116-135. Wang Wanying, "A community-based strategy for the CNR Office for the Conservation and Development of the Caohai Nature Reserve, Weining county, Guizhou province, P. R. China" (unpublished ms. thesis, Asian Institute of Management, 1996).
116. Ministry of Forestry, "General environmental facility - China nature reserve management project: the second NGO/donor meeting document" (unpublished report, 26 February 1998); Lai Qingkui, "Conflict management and community forestry: a case of the Nangun River Nature Reserve, Yunnan, China," in J. Fox, L. Fisher and C. Cook (eds.), Conflict and Collaboration: the Eighth Workshop on Community Management of Forest Lands (Honolulu: Program on Environment, The East-West Center, 1997), pp. 116-135. Wang Wanying, "A community-based strategy for the CNR Office for the Conservation and Development of the Caohai Nature Reserve, Weining county, Guizhou province, P. R. China" (unpublished ms. thesis, Asian Institute of Management, 1996).
117. Ministry of Forestry, "General environmental facility - China nature reserve management project: the second NGO/donor meeting document" (unpublished report, 26 February 1998); Lai Qingkui, "Conflict management and community forestry: a case of the Nangun River Nature Reserve, Yunnan, China," in J. Fox, L. Fisher and C. Cook (eds.), Conflict and Collaboration: the Eighth Workshop on Community Management of Forest Lands (Honolulu: Program on Environment, The East-West Center, 1997), pp. 116-135. Wang Wanying, "A community-based strategy for the CNR Office for the Conservation and Development of the Caohai Nature Reserve, Weining county, Guizhou province, P. R. China" (unpublished ms. thesis, Asian Institute of Management, 1996).
118. Farmer management of forests has been a major theme in Linye yu shehui (Forestry and Society), a bi-monthly publication of the Institute of Scientific and Technical Information of the Chinese Academy of Forestry; Pei Shengji, Xu Jianchu, Chen Sanyang and Long Chunlin, Xishuangbanna lunxie nongye shengtai xitong shengwu duoyangxing yanjiu lunwen bagaoji (Collected Research Papers on Biodiversity in Swidden Agroecosystems in Xishuangbanna) (Kunming: Yunnan Education Press, 1997); Yin Shaoting, Yige chongman zhengyide wenhuashengtaixitong: Yunnan daogenghuozhongyanjiu (A Controversial Cultural-Ecological System: Research on Slash and Burn in Yunnan) (Kunming: Yunnan People's Press, 1991).
119. Farmer management of forests has been a major theme in Linye yu shehui (Forestry and Society), a bi-monthly publication of the Institute of Scientific and Technical Information of the Chinese Academy of Forestry; Pei Shengji, Xu Jianchu, Chen Sanyang and Long Chunlin, Xishuangbanna lunxie nongye shengtai xitong shengwu duoyangxing yanjiu lunwen bagaoji (Collected Research Papers on Biodiversity in Swidden Agroecosystems in Xishuangbanna) (Kunming: Yunnan Education Press, 1997); Yin Shaoting, Yige chongman zhengyide wenhuashengtaixitong: Yunnan daogenghuozhongyanjiu (A Controversial Cultural-Ecological System: Research on Slash and Burn in Yunnan) (Kunming: Yunnan People's Press, 1991).
120. The very vocal public opposition to the Three Gorges Project in the late 1980s and early 1990s, including a campaign within the NPC which led one-third of the delegates to oppose or abstain from voting on the project, is the most famous case in point. James Harkness, "The politics of technical decision-making in post-Mao China: the case of the Three Gorges project" (unpublished ms. thesis, Cornell University, 1993).
121. Ma Xianchong, "Public participation in environmental management in China," in Xie Baodong and Li Hanying (eds.), Environmental Management, Public Policies and Public Participation (Beijing: China Environmental Science Press, 1995), pp. 96-102.
122. "Fish farmers win pollution payout," South China Morning Post, 24 September 1996.