Bangladesh: The beginning of the end of militarised politics?

Contemporary South Asia

Volumn 7, Issue 3, 1998, Pages 283-300

  Hakim, Muhammad A ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CHITTAGONG   (Bangladesh)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CIVIL-MILITARY RELATIONSHIP; DEMOCRACY; POLITICAL CHANGE;

BANGLADESH;

EID: 0032455575     PISSN: 09584935     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/09584939808719845     Document Type: Article

References (64)

1. Talukder Maniruzzaman, Military Withdrawal from Politics (Cambridge: Ballinger, 1987), p 17.
2. Ruth First, The Barrel of a Gun (London: The Penguin Press, 1970), p 4.
3. E. Luttwak, Coup d' État (London: 1968), cited in Gavin Kennedy (ed), The Military in the Third World (London: Gerald Duckworth, 1974), p 24.
4. Kenneth Fidel (ed), Militarism in Developing Countries (New Jersey: Transaction Books, 1975), pp 10-11.
5. Samuel E. Finer, The Man on Horseback: The Role of the Military in Politics (London: Pall Mall, 1962).
6. Ralph Miliband, review article in Political Quarterly, Vol. 34, No 2, 1963, p 219.
7. Samuel P. Huntington, The Soldier and the State: The Theory and Politics of Civil-Military Relations (Cambridge, MA.: Harvard University Press, 1957).
8. Carl G. Hempel, 'The logic of functional analysis', in M. Brodbeck (ed), Reader in the Philosophy of Social Sciences (New York: Macmillan, 1968), p 193.
9. Jose Nun, 'The middle class military coup', in Claudio Veliz (ed), The Politics of Conformity in Latin America (London: Oxford University Press, 1967), pp 66-118.
10. Fidel, op cit, Ref 4, p 3.
11. Talukder Maniruzzaman, 'The future of Bangladesh', in J. Wilson and D. Dalton (eds), The States of South Asia: Problems of National Integration (C. Hurst, 1982), p 289.
12. Talukder Maniruzzaman, 'The fall of the military dictator: 1991 elections and the prospect of civilian rule in Bangladesh', Pacific Affairs, Vol 65, No 2, 1992, p 223.
13. Zillur R. Khan, 'Bangladesh's experiment with parliamentary democracy', Asian Survey, Vol 37, No 6, 1997, p 587.
14. For an account of the ideology and strategy of the radical revolutionary parties and their attitude toward the AL government, see Talukder Maniruzzaman, 'Bangladesh: an unfinished revolution?', Journal of Asian Studies, Vol 34, No 4, 1975, pp 891-911.
15. Talukder Maniruzzaman, 'Bangladesh in 1975: the fall of the Mujib regime and its aftermath', Asian Survey, Vol 16, No 2, 1976, p 122; also see Far Eastern Economic Review, 10 January 1975.
16. Talukder Maniruzzaman, 'Bangladesh in 1975: the fall of the Mujib regime and its aftermath', Asian Survey, Vol 16, No 2, 1976, p 122; also see Far Eastern Economic Review, 10 January 1975.
17. Ibid, p 122.
18. For the nature of electoral irregularities in 1973 parliamentary elections, see Moudud Ahmed, Bangladesh: The Era of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman (Dhaka: University Press Limited, 1984), pp 142-143.
19. Ali Riaz, 'Intervention of military in Bangladesh politics', paper presented at a conference of the Association for Asian Studies (Chicago) 5-8 April 1990, p 10.
20. For details of the coups and countercoups, see Anthony Mascarenhas, Bangladesh: A Legacy of Blood (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1986); and Lawrence Lifschultz, Bangladesh: The Unfinished Revolution (London: Zed Press, 1979).
21. For details of the coups and countercoups, see Anthony Mascarenhas, Bangladesh: A Legacy of Blood (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1986); and Lawrence Lifschultz, Bangladesh: The Unfinished Revolution (London: Zed Press, 1979).
22. For the nature of the politicisation of Bangladesh Army, see Zillur R. Khan, 'Politicisation of Bangladesh army: a response to perceived shortcomings of civilian government', Asian Survey, Vol 21, No 5, 1981, pp 551-564.
23. Ahmed Shafiqul Huque and Muhammad Yeahia Akhter, 'Militarisation and opposition in Bangladesh: parliamentary approval and public reaction', Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics, Vol 27, No 2, 1989, p 174.
24. Zillur R. Khan, 'Bangladesh in 1981: change, stability and leadership', Asian Survey, Vol 22, No 2, 1982, p 168.
25. See Maniruzzaman, op cit, Ref 15, p 125.
26. See The Bangladesh Gazette Extraordinary, 26 September 1975; the Ordinance has been reproduced in Muhammad A. Hakim, Bangladesh Politics: The Shahabuddin Interregnum (Dhaka: University Press, 1993), appendix viii, pp 156-157.
27. See The Bangladesh Gazette Extraordinary, 26 September 1975; the Ordinance has been reproduced in Muhammad A. Hakim, Bangladesh Politics: The Shahabuddin Interregnum (Dhaka: University Press, 1993), appendix viii, pp 156-157.
28. Hasanuzzaman, Shamarik Bahini Ebong Bangladesher Artha Shamajik Bastabata O Rajnity (Dhaka: 1986), p 39, cited in Huque and Akhter, op cit, Ref 21, p 183, fn 6; and B.K. Jahangir, Problematics of Nationalism in Bangladesh (Dhaka: 1986), p 70, cited in Huque and Akhter, op cit, Ref 21, p 183, fn 6.
29. Hasanuzzaman, Shamarik Bahini Ebong Bangladesher Artha Shamajik Bastabata O Rajnity (Dhaka: 1986), p 39, cited in Huque and Akhter, op cit, Ref 21, p 183, fn 6; and B.K. Jahangir, Problematics of Nationalism in Bangladesh (Dhaka: 1986), p 70, cited in Huque and Akhter, op cit, Ref 21, p 183, fn 6.
30. Hasanuzzaman, Shamarik Bahini Ebong Bangladesher Artha Shamajik Bastabata O Rajnity (Dhaka: 1986), p 39, cited in Huque and Akhter, op cit, Ref 21, p 183, fn 6; and B.K. Jahangir, Problematics of Nationalism in Bangladesh (Dhaka: 1986), p 70, cited in Huque and Akhter, op cit, Ref 21, p 183, fn 6.
31. Hasanuzzaman, Shamarik Bahini Ebong Bangladesher Artha Shamajik Bastabata O Rajnity (Dhaka: 1986), p 39, cited in Huque and Akhter, op cit, Ref 21, p 183, fn 6; and B.K. Jahangir, Problematics of Nationalism in Bangladesh (Dhaka: 1986), p 70, cited in Huque and Akhter, op cit, Ref 21, p 183, fn 6.
32. M. Rashiduzzaman, 'Bangladesh in 1977: dilemmas of the military rulers', Asian Survey, Vol 18, No 2, 1978, p 130.
33. For an account of the irregularities in the referendum, presidential and parliamentary elections, see Enayetur Rahim, 'Electoral politics in Bangladesh: 1975-88', in Rafiuddin Ahmed (ed), Religion, Nationalism and Politics in Bangladesh (New Delhi: South Asian Publishers, 1990), pp 94-117.
34. According to a Bengali weekly, there have been 26 coup attempts to topple the Zia government. See, Khabar (Dhaka), 26 October 1980, cited in Azizul Haque, 'Bangladesh in 1980: strains and stresses - opposition in the doldrums', Asian Survey, Vol 21, No 2, 1981, p 191, fn 5. The number of attempted coups, as mentioned in the weekly and cited by Haque, appears to be an exaggeration. In different garrisons there had been instances of sporadic violence as reaction to the misdeeds and cruel behaviour of the officers. Counting such incidents as coup attempts will be a misrepresentation of facts. Nevertheless, the number of coup attempts to topple Zia was well above a dozen.
35. According to a Bengali weekly, there have been 26 coup attempts to topple the Zia government. See, Khabar (Dhaka), 26 October 1980, cited in Azizul Haque, 'Bangladesh in 1980: strains and stresses - opposition in the doldrums', Asian Survey, Vol 21, No 2, 1981, p 191, fn 5. The number of attempted coups, as mentioned in the weekly and cited by Haque, appears to be an exaggeration. In different garrisons there had been instances of sporadic violence as reaction to the misdeeds and cruel behaviour of the officers. Counting such incidents as coup attempts will be a misrepresentation of facts. Nevertheless, the number of coup attempts to topple Zia was well above a dozen.
36. Khan, op cit, Ref 22, p 165.
37. For detailed analysis of the abortive coup in which Zia was killed, see Mascarenhas, op cit, Ref 19.
38. For full text of Ershad's first address to the nation over radio and television, see Bangladesh Observer (Dhaka), 25 March 1982.
39. See, Hasanuzzaman, Bangladesh: Rushtra O Sarkarer Shamarikikaran (Dhaka: University Press, 1991), p 41.
40. Huque and Akhter, op cit, Ref 21, p 184, fn 11.
41. See, for example, Rahim, op cit, Ref 28.
42. Bangladesh Observer (Dhaka), 29 November 1981, quoted in Zillur R. Khan, Martial Law to Martial Law: Leadership Crisis in Bangladesh (Dhaka: University Press, 1984), p 227.
43. Bangladesh Observer (Dhaka), 29 November 1981, quoted in Zillur R. Khan, Martial Law to Martial Law: Leadership Crisis in Bangladesh (Dhaka: University Press, 1984), p 227.
44. In the fourth parliament a revised version of the bill, without the military contents of the original one, was introduced and passed on 9 May 1988. For an excellent discussion on the original bill and public reaction to it, see Huque and Akhter, op cit, Ref 21, pp 172-184.
45. For full text of the joint declaration of the three alliances, see Holiday (Dhaka), 23 November 1990; the declaration has been reproduced in Hakim, op cit, Ref 24, appendix v, pp 128-130.
46. For full text of the joint declaration of the three alliances, see Holiday (Dhaka), 23 November 1990; the declaration has been reproduced in Hakim, op cit, Ref 24, appendix v, pp 128-130.
47. Far Eastern Economic Review, 13 December 1990, cited in Bhuiyan Monoar Kabir, 'Politico-economic limitations and the fall of the military-authoritarian government in Bangladesh', Armed Forces and Society, Vol 21, No 4, 1995, p 561.
48. Far Eastern Economic Review, 13 December 1990, cited in Bhuiyan Monoar Kabir, 'Politico-economic limitations and the fall of the military-authoritarian government in Bangladesh', Armed Forces and Society, Vol 21, No 4, 1995, p 561.
49. Khan, op cit, Ref 13, p 585.
50. The source of this and all subsequent election data is the Election Commission, Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh.
51. For parliamentary and extra-parliamentary politics centring the reversion to parliamentary system, see Muhammad A. Hakim, 'Twelfth constitutional amendment: Bangladesh's reversion to parliamentary system', Asian Profile, Vol 20, No 3, 1992, pp 251-261.
52. For the nature of irregularities in the sixth parliamentary polls, see Ittefaq (Dhaka), Sangbad (Dhaka), and Janakantha (Dhaka), 15, 16 and 17 February 1997; for reaction of foreign press and governments to the sixth parliamentary elections, see The Co-ordinating Council for Human Rights in Bangladesh (CCHRB), Election Observation Report (Dhaka: June 1996), pp 34-35.
53. For the nature of irregularities in the sixth parliamentary polls, see Ittefaq (Dhaka), Sangbad (Dhaka), and Janakantha (Dhaka), 15, 16 and 17 February 1997; for reaction of foreign press and governments to the sixth parliamentary elections, see The Co-ordinating Council for Human Rights in Bangladesh (CCHRB), Election Observation Report (Dhaka: June 1996), pp 34-35.
54. Dhaka Courier, 24 May 1996.
55. For details of allegations and counter-allegations and the resentment of the NCG, see Dhaka Courier, 24 May 1996, p 19, and 31 May 1996, pp 8-9.
56. For details of allegations and counter-allegations and the resentment of the NCG, see Dhaka Courier, 24 May 1996, p 19, and 31 May 1996, pp 8-9.
57. For details of insurgency in Chittagong Hill Tracts, see Syed Nazmul Islam, 'The Chittagong Hill Tracts in Bangladesh: integrational crisis between centre and periphery', Asian Survey, Vol 21, No 12, 1981, pp 1211-1222; Syed Aziz-al Ahsan and Bhumitra Chakma, 'Problems of national integration in Bangladesh', Asian Survey, Vol 29, No 10, 1989, pp 959-970; and Aftab Ahmed, 'Ethnicity and insurgency in Chittagong Hill Tracts region: a study of the crisis of political integration in Bangladesh', Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics, Vol 31, No 3, 1993, pp 32-66.
58. For details of insurgency in Chittagong Hill Tracts, see Syed Nazmul Islam, 'The Chittagong Hill Tracts in Bangladesh: integrational crisis between centre and periphery', Asian Survey, Vol 21, No 12, 1981, pp 1211-1222; Syed Aziz-al Ahsan and Bhumitra Chakma, 'Problems of national integration in Bangladesh', Asian Survey, Vol 29, No 10, 1989, pp 959-970; and Aftab Ahmed, 'Ethnicity and insurgency in Chittagong Hill Tracts region: a study of the crisis of political integration in Bangladesh', Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics, Vol 31, No 3, 1993, pp 32-66.
59. For details of insurgency in Chittagong Hill Tracts, see Syed Nazmul Islam, 'The Chittagong Hill Tracts in Bangladesh: integrational crisis between centre and periphery', Asian Survey, Vol 21, No 12, 1981, pp 1211-1222; Syed Aziz-al Ahsan and Bhumitra Chakma, 'Problems of national integration in Bangladesh', Asian Survey, Vol 29, No 10, 1989, pp 959-970; and Aftab Ahmed, 'Ethnicity and insurgency in Chittagong Hill Tracts region: a study of the crisis of political integration in Bangladesh', Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics, Vol 31, No 3, 1993, pp 32-66.
60. Talukder Maniruzzaman, 'Administrative reforms and politics within the bureaucracy in Bangladesh', Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics, Vol 17, No 1, 1979, p 48.
61. M. Rashiduzzaman, 'Political unrest and democracy in Bangladesh', Asian Survey, Vol 37, No 3, 1997, p 262.
62. For the role of government employees in the movement for Khaleda's resignation, see Dhaka Courier, 29 March 1996, p 11.
63. Samuel P. Huntington, The Third Wave: Democratization in Late Twentieth Century (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991).
64. First, op cit, Ref 2, p 22.