Human reproduction and the rise of welfare states: An economic-demographic approach to welfare state formation in the United States and Sweden

Scandinavian Economic History Review

Volumn 46, Issue 2, 1998, Pages 97-116

  Sommestad, Lena ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

DEMOGRAPHIC TREND; FERTILITY; HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY; PLANNING HISTORY; SOCIAL POLICY; TWENTIETH CENTURY; WELFARE PROVISION;

SWEDEN; UNITED STATES;

EID: 0032453427     PISSN: 03585522     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/03585522.1998.10414742     Document Type: Article

References (178)

1. Valuable comments were made by Lars Pettersson and others at the Swedish Economic History Meeting, Umeå University, June 1996. I am also grateful to Christina Bergqvist, Daniel A. Cornford, Bo Malmberg, Lynn Karlsson, Grey Osterud, Wendy Sarvasy, and an anonymous referee of SEHR, for their helpful comments. With regard to the gender dimension of welfare state formation, I have have earlier provided a more detailed analysis in Welfare State Attitudes to the Male Breadwinning System: The United States and Sweden in Comparative Perspective, International Review of Social History, vol. 42, 1997, supplement 5 (The Rise and Decline of the Male Breadwinner Family? Ed. Angélique Janssens), 153-174.
2. Valuable comments were made by Lars Pettersson and others at the Swedish Economic History Meeting, Umeå University, June 1996. am also grateful to Christina Bergqvist, Daniel A. Cornford, Bo Malmberg, Lynn Karlsson, Grey Osterud, Wendy Sarvasy, and an anonymous referee of SEHR, for their helpful comments. With regard to the gender dimension of welfare state formation, I have have earlier provided a more detailed analysis in Welfare State Attitudes to the Male Breadwinning System: The United States and Sweden in Comparative Perspective, International Review of Social History, vol. 42, 1997, supplement 5 (The Rise and Decline of the Male Breadwinner Family? Ed. Angélique Janssens), 153-174.
3. Valuable comments were made by Lars Pettersson and others at the Swedish Economic History Meeting, Umeå University, June 1996. I am also grateful to Christina Bergqvist, Daniel A. Cornford, Bo Malmberg, Lynn Karlsson, Grey Osterud, Wendy Sarvasy, and an anonymous referee of SEHR, for their helpful comments. With regard to the gender dimension of welfare state formation, I have have earlier provided a more detailed analysis in Welfare State Attitudes to the Male Breadwinning System: The United States and Sweden in Comparative Perspective, International Review of Social History, vol. 42, 1997, supplement 5 (The Rise and Decline of the Male Breadwinner Family? Ed. Angélique Janssens), 153-174.
4. For example, Esping-Andersen, Gøsta, The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism. Cambridge: Polity Press 1990; Pampel, Fred C. & Williamson, John B., Age, Class, Politics and the Welfare State. Cambridge: Cambridge UP 1992; and Skocpol, Theda, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States. Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard UP 1992.
5. For example, Esping-Andersen, Gøsta, The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism. Cambridge: Polity Press 1990; Pampel, Fred C. & Williamson, John B., Age, Class, Politics and the Welfare State. Cambridge: Cambridge UP 1992; and Skocpol, Theda, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States. Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard UP 1992.
6. For example, Esping-Andersen, Gøsta, The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism. Cambridge: Polity Press 1990; Pampel, Fred C. & Williamson, John B., Age, Class, Politics and the Welfare State. Cambridge: Cambridge UP 1992; and Skocpol, Theda, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States. Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard UP 1992.
7. For theoretical overviews, see, for example, Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers, 11-40; Pampel, Fred C. & Williamson John B., Old Age Security in Comparative Perspective. New York and Oxford: Oxford UP 1993, 5-19.
8. For theoretical overviews, see, for example, Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers, 11-40; Pampel, Fred C. & Williamson John B., Old Age Security in Comparative Perspective. New York and Oxford: Oxford UP 1993, 5-19.
9. Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers, 41-62.
10. I use the term "social-democratic" to refer to the Swedish welfare-state model and the term "liberal" to refer to the American model, following the classificatory scheme developed by Esping-Andersen, The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism, 1-2, 18-21.
11. For a feminist critique of the limitations of Esping-Andersen's approach, see, for example, Lewis, Jane, Gender and the Development of Welfare Regimes, Journal of European Social Policy, 1992:2, 160-162.
12. For example Ohlsson, Rolf, Det svenska välfärdssamhällets framväxt - tacka kvinnorna för det, Socialvetenskaplig tidskrift, 1995:1, 4-25;
13. Pampel &. Williamson, Age, Class, Politics and the Welfare State, 5-9, 165-168;
14. and by the same authors, Old Age Security, 5-7, 12-16.
15. See, for example, Cova, Anne, French feminism and maternity: theories and policies 1890-1918, in Maternity and Gender Policies: Women and the Rise of the European Welfare States 1880s-1950s, Eds. Gisela Bock and Pat Thane. London: Routledge 1991, 119-137; Lindert, Peter H., The Rise of Social Spending, 1880-1930, Explorations in Economic History, vol. 31, 1994, 6-7, 16-28.
16. See, for example, Cova, Anne, French feminism and maternity: theories and policies 1890-1918, in Maternity and Gender Policies: Women and the Rise of the European Welfare States 1880s-1950s, Eds. Gisela Bock and Pat Thane. London: Routledge 1991, 119-137; Lindert, Peter H., The Rise of Social Spending, 1880-1930, Explorations in Economic History, vol. 31, 1994, 6-7, 16-28.
17. Compare Robertson, A. F., Beyond the Family: The Social Organization of Human Reproduction. Cambridge: Polity Press, 1991, 1-5.
18. The relationship between age structure and economic performance has been analysed in Lindh, Thomas & Malmberg, Bo, Human Capital, Age Structure, and Growth in the OECD, 1950-1990, forthcoming, in Journal of Population Economics. See also Taylor, Alan M., External Dependence, Demographic Burdens, and Argentine Economic Decline After the Belle Époque, Journal of Economic History, vol. 52, 1992:4, 907-936; Higgins, Matthew & Wiliamson, Jeffrey G., Age Structure Dynamics in Asia and Dependence on Foreign Capital, Population and Development Review, vol. 23, June 1997:2, 261-293.
19. The relationship between age structure and economic performance has been analysed in Lindh, Thomas & Malmberg, Bo, Human Capital, Age Structure, and Growth in the OECD, 1950-1990, forthcoming, in Journal of Population Economics. See also Taylor, Alan M., External Dependence, Demographic Burdens, and Argentine Economic Decline After the Belle Époque, Journal of Economic History, vol. 52, 1992:4, 907-936; Higgins, Matthew & Wiliamson, Jeffrey G., Age Structure Dynamics in Asia and Dependence on Foreign Capital, Population and Development Review, vol. 23, June 1997:2, 261-293.
20. The relationship between age structure and economic performance has been analysed in Lindh, Thomas & Malmberg, Bo, Human Capital, Age Structure, and Growth in the OECD, 1950-1990, forthcoming, in Journal of Population Economics. See also Taylor, Alan M., External Dependence, Demographic Burdens, and Argentine Economic Decline After the Belle Époque, Journal of Economic History, vol. 52, 1992:4, 907-936; Higgins, Matthew & Wiliamson, Jeffrey G., Age Structure Dynamics in Asia and Dependence on Foreign Capital, Population and Development Review, vol. 23, June 1997:2, 261-293.
21. By contrast, other much-discussed welfare-state dimensions, such as ethnic and racial distinctions, are of secondary importance in this specific theoretical setting.
22. For the regional and ethnic dimensions of early American welfare-state formation, see Boris, Eileen, The Racialized Gendered State: Constructions of Citizenship in the United States, Social Politics 2, 1995:2, 160-180; Mink, Gwendolyn, The Lady and the Tramp: Gender, Race, and the Origins of the American Welfare State, Women, the State and Welfare, Ed. Linda Gordon. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press 1990, 92-122.
23. For the regional and ethnic dimensions of early American welfare-state formation, see Boris, Eileen, The Racialized Gendered State: Constructions of Citizenship in the United States, Social Politics 2, 1995:2, 160-180; Mink, Gwendolyn, The Lady and the Tramp: Gender, Race, and the Origins of the American Welfare State, Women, the State and Welfare, Ed. Linda Gordon. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press 1990, 92-122.
24. Levine, Daniel, Poverty and Society: The Growth of the American Welfare State in International Comparison. New Brunswick: Rutgers UP 1988, 15.
25. Leiby, James, A History of Social Welfare and Social Work in the United States. New York: Columbia UP 1978, 9, 23, 33; Williamson, Jeffrey G. & Lindert, Peter H., American Inequality: A Macroeconomic History. New York etc.: Academic Press 1980, 9.
26. Leiby, James, A History of Social Welfare and Social Work in the United States. New York: Columbia UP 1978, 9, 23, 33; Williamson, Jeffrey G. & Lindert, Peter H., American Inequality: A Macroeconomic History. New York etc.: Academic Press 1980, 9.
27. Cott Nancy F., The Bonds of Womanhood: "Women's sphere" in New England, 1780-1835. New Haven and London: Yale UP 1977; Ryan, Mary P., Cradle of the Middle Class: The Family in Oneida County, New York, 1790-1865. Cambridge etc.: Cambridge UP, 1981.
28. Cott Nancy F., The Bonds of Womanhood: "Women's sphere" in New England, 1780-1835. New Haven and London: Yale UP 1977; Ryan, Mary P., Cradle of the Middle Class: The Family in Oneida County, New York, 1790-1865. Cambridge etc.: Cambridge UP, 1981.
29. Maddison, Angus, Dynamic Forces in Capitalist Development: A long-run comparative view. Oxford and New York: Oxford UP 1991, 6-7, table 1.1.
30. Williamson & Lindert, American Inequality, 36-53, 62-63, 67-82, 94-95, 98-112, 119-126, 130-132; Lindert, The Rise of Social Spending, 26-28.
31. Williamson & Lindert, American Inequality, 36-53, 62-63, 67-82, 94-95, 98-112, 119-126, 130-132; Lindert, The Rise of Social Spending, 26-28.
32. Amott Teresa L. & Matthaei, Julie A., Race, Gender and Work: A Muliticultural Economic History of Women in the United States. Boston: South End Press 1991, 297-307; Kessler-Harris, Alice, Out to Work: A History of Wage-Earning Women in the United States. Oxford etc.: Oxford UP 1982, 108-141; Jensen, Joan, Promise to the Land: Essays on Rural Women. Albuquerque: New Mexico UP 1991, 11-21.
33. Amott Teresa L. & Matthaei, Julie A., Race, Gender and Work: A Muliticultural Economic History of Women in the United States. Boston: South End Press 1991, 297-307; Kessler-Harris, Alice, Out to Work: A History of Wage-Earning Women in the United States. Oxford etc.: Oxford UP 1982, 108-141; Jensen, Joan, Promise to the Land: Essays on Rural Women. Albuquerque: New Mexico UP 1991, 11-21.
34. Amott Teresa L. & Matthaei, Julie A., Race, Gender and Work: A Muliticultural Economic History of Women in the United States. Boston: South End Press 1991, 297-307; Kessler-Harris, Alice, Out to Work: A History of Wage-Earning Women in the United States. Oxford etc.: Oxford UP 1982, 108-141; Jensen, Joan, Promise to the Land: Essays on Rural Women. Albuquerque: New Mexico UP 1991, 11-21.
35. Kessler-Harris, Alice, A Woman's Wage. Lexington: UP of Kentucky 1990, 57-80.
36. Levine, Poverty and Society, 151-179; Muncy, Robyn, Creating a Female Dominion in American Reform 1890-1935. New York: Oxford UP 1991, 3-37; Kessler-Harris, Alice, Gendered Interventions: Exploring the Historical Roots of U.S. Social Policy, The Japanese Journal of American Studies, 1993-1994: 5.
37. Levine, Poverty and Society, 151-179; Muncy, Robyn, Creating a Female Dominion in American Reform 1890-1935. New York: Oxford UP 1991, 3-37; Kessler-Harris, Alice, Gendered Interventions: Exploring the Historical Roots of U.S. Social Policy, The Japanese Journal of American Studies, 1993-1994: 5.
38. Levine, Poverty and Society, 151-179; Muncy, Robyn, Creating a Female Dominion in American Reform 1890-1935. New York: Oxford UP 1991, 3-37; Kessler-Harris, Alice, Gendered Interventions: Exploring the Historical Roots of U.S. Social Policy, The Japanese Journal of American Studies, 1993-1994: 5.
39. Brenner, Robert H., American Philanthropy, 2nd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1988, 72-135.
40. Katz, Michael B., In the Shadow of the Poorhouse: A Social History of Welfare in America. New York: Basic Books 1986, 113-205; Levine, Poverty and Society, 151-179; Patterson, James T., America's Struggle Against Poverty 1900-1980. Cambridge and London: Harvard UP 1981, 20-34; Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers, 3-11, 226-229. Among the few successful programmes enacted before the New Deal was Workmen's Compensation, a very specific insurance programme dealing with industrial injury, which was passed by 42 states between 1911 and 1920. Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers, 9, 285-286.
41. Katz, Michael B., In the Shadow of the Poorhouse: A Social History of Welfare in America. New York: Basic Books 1986, 113-205; Levine, Poverty and Society, 151-179; Patterson, James T., America's Struggle Against Poverty 1900-1980. Cambridge and London: Harvard UP 1981, 20-34; Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers, 3-11, 226-229. Among the few successful programmes enacted before the New Deal was Workmen's Compensation, a very specific insurance programme dealing with industrial injury, which was passed by 42 states between 1911 and 1920. Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers, 9, 285-286.
42. Katz, Michael B., In the Shadow of the Poorhouse: A Social History of Welfare in America. New York: Basic Books 1986, 113-205; Levine, Poverty and Society, 151-179; Patterson, James T., America's Struggle Against Poverty 1900-1980. Cambridge and London: Harvard UP 1981, 20-34; Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers, 3-11, 226-229. Among the few successful programmes enacted before the New Deal was Workmen's Compensation, a very specific insurance programme dealing with industrial injury, which was passed by 42 states between 1911 and 1920. Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers, 9, 285-286.
43. Katz, Michael B., In the Shadow of the Poorhouse: A Social History of Welfare in America. New York: Basic Books 1986, 113-205; Levine, Poverty and Society, 151-179; Patterson, James T., America's Struggle Against Poverty 1900-1980. Cambridge and London: Harvard UP 1981, 20-34; Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers, 3-11, 226-229. Among the few successful programmes enacted before the New Deal was Workmen's Compensation, a very specific insurance programme dealing with industrial injury, which was passed by 42 states between 1911 and 1920. Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers, 9, 285-286.
44. Katz, Michael B., In the Shadow of the Poorhouse: A Social History of Welfare in America. New York: Basic Books 1986, 113-205; Levine, Poverty and Society, 151-179; Patterson, James T., America's Struggle Against Poverty 1900-1980. Cambridge and London: Harvard UP 1981, 20-34; Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers, 3-11, 226-229. Among the few successful programmes enacted before the New Deal was Workmen's Compensation, a very specific insurance programme dealing with industrial injury, which was passed by 42 states between 1911 and 1920. Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers, 9, 285-286.
45. Baker, Paula, The Domestication of Politics: Women and American Society, 1780-1920, Women, the State and Welfare, Ed. Linda Gordon. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press 1990, 55-91; Brenner, American Philanthropy, 72-84; Levine, Poverty and Society, 28-36; Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers, 8-10, 95-96, 321-372.
46. Baker, Paula, The Domestication of Politics: Women and American Society, 1780-1920, Women, the State and Welfare, Ed. Linda Gordon. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press 1990, 55-91; Brenner, American Philanthropy, 72-84; Levine, Poverty and Society, 28-36; Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers, 8-10, 95-96, 321-372.
47. Baker, Paula, The Domestication of Politics: Women and American Society, 1780-1920, Women, the State and Welfare, Ed. Linda Gordon. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press 1990, 55-91; Brenner, American Philanthropy, 72-84; Levine, Poverty and Society, 28-36; Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers, 8-10, 95-96, 321-372.
48. Baker, Paula, The Domestication of Politics: Women and American Society, 1780-1920, Women, the State and Welfare, Ed. Linda Gordon. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press 1990, 55-91; Brenner, American Philanthropy, 72-84; Levine, Poverty and Society, 28-36; Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers, 8-10, 95-96, 321-372.
49. Levine, Poverty and Society, 15-23.
50. Gordon, Linda, Social Insurance and Public Assistance: The Influence of Gender in Welfare Thought in the United States, 1890-1935, American Historical Review, vol. 97, 1992, 19-54; Kessler-Harris, Gendered Interventions, 3-22; Nelson, Barbara J., The Origins of the the Two-Channel Welfare State: Workmen's Compensation and Mothers' Aid, and Sapiro, Virginia, The Gender Basis of American Social Policy, both in Women, the State and Welfare, Ed. Linda Gordon. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press 1990, 36-54, 123-151.
51. Gordon, Linda, Social Insurance and Public Assistance: The Influence of Gender in Welfare Thought in the United States, 1890-1935, American Historical Review, vol. 97, 1992, 19-54; Kessler-Harris, Gendered Interventions, 3-22; Nelson, Barbara J., The Origins of the the Two-Channel Welfare State: Workmen's Compensation and Mothers' Aid, and Sapiro, Virginia, The Gender Basis of American Social Policy, both in Women, the State and Welfare, Ed. Linda Gordon. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press 1990, 36-54, 123-151.
52. Gordon, Linda, Social Insurance and Public Assistance: The Influence of Gender in Welfare Thought in the United States, 1890-1935, American Historical Review, vol. 97, 1992, 19-54; Kessler-Harris, Gendered Interventions, 3-22; Nelson, Barbara J., The Origins of the the Two-Channel Welfare State: Workmen's Compensation and Mothers' Aid, and Sapiro, Virginia, The Gender Basis of American Social Policy, both in Women, the State and Welfare, Ed. Linda Gordon. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press 1990, 36-54, 123-151.
53. Simon, Julian L., The Economic Consequences of Immigration. Oxford: Blackwell in association with The Cato Institute 1989, 22-31.
54. In the first decade of the twentieth century, immigration accounted for almost 40 per cent of total population increase in the United States. Simon, Consequences of Immigration, 26.
55. As in other countries, birth rates (total live births per 1 000 population) declined in the United States during the early twentieth century, although comparatively slowly and from a high level. In 1910, the total birth rate was 30.1, by 1920 it had fallen to 27.7 and by 1930 to 21.3. See Historical Statistics of the United States: Colonial Times to 1957. A Statistical Abstract Supplement. Washington DC: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census 1960, Series B:19, 23; European Historical Statistics 1750-1975, Ed. B. R. Mitchell, 2nd rev. ed. London and Basingstoke: Macmillan 1981, 124-130 (table B:6).
56. As in other countries, birth rates (total live births per 1 000 population) declined in the United States during the early twentieth century, although comparatively slowly and from a high level. In 1910, the total birth rate was 30.1, by 1920 it had fallen to 27.7 and by 1930 to 21.3. See Historical Statistics of the United States: Colonial Times to 1957. A Statistical Abstract Supplement. Washington DC: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census 1960, Series B:19, 23; European Historical Statistics 1750-1975, Ed. B. R. Mitchell, 2nd rev. ed. London and Basingstoke: Macmillan 1981, 124-130 (table B:6).
57. Patterson, America's Struggle, 21-22.
58. Simon, Consequences of Immigration, 31-34. In 1910 the share of the US population over 65 years of age was only 4.3 per cent, increasing to 4.6 percent in 1920, 5.4 percent in 1930, and 6.8 per cent in 1940. Historical Statistics of the United States, 8 (Series A:20) and 10 (Series A:84).
59. Simon, Consequences of Immigration, 31-34. In 1910 the share of the US population over 65 years of age was only 4.3 per cent, increasing to 4.6 percent in 1920, 5.4 percent in 1930, and 6.8 per cent in 1940. Historical Statistics of the United States, 8 (Series A:20) and 10 (Series A:84).
60. Brody, David, Labor, Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups, Ed. Stephen Thernstrom. Cambridge: Harvard UP 1980, 609, 612-616; Davis, Mike, Why the US Working Class is Different, New Left Review, vol. 123, 1980, 15-44; Kolko, Gabriel, Main Currents in Modern American History, New York etc.: Harper & Row 1976, 67-99, quotation 69.
61. Brody, David, Labor, Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups, Ed. Stephen Thernstrom. Cambridge: Harvard UP 1980, 609, 612-616; Davis, Mike, Why the US Working Class is Different, New Left Review, vol. 123, 1980, 15-44; Kolko, Gabriel, Main Currents in Modern American History, New York etc.: Harper & Row 1976, 67-99, quotation 69.
62. Brody, David, Labor, Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups, Ed. Stephen Thernstrom. Cambridge: Harvard UP 1980, 609, 612-616; Davis, Mike, Why the US Working Class is Different, New Left Review, vol. 123, 1980, 15-44; Kolko, Gabriel, Main Currents in Modern American History, New York etc.: Harper & Row 1976, 67-99, quotation 69.
63. In 1910 there were 106 men per 100 women in the United States. In the following decades the sex composition became more balanced, but women did not outnumber men until 1940. See Historical Statistics of the United States, 8 (Series 22-24), and 62 (Series 134); Simon, Consequences of Immigration, 31-34.
64. In 1910 there were 106 men per 100 women in the United States. In the following decades the sex composition became more balanced, but women did not outnumber men until 1940. See Historical Statistics of the United States, 8 (Series 22-24), and 62 (Series 134); Simon, Consequences of Immigration, 31-34.
65. Muncy, Creating a Female Dominion, 95.
66. Watson Frank Dekker, The Charity Organization Movement in the United States: A Study in American Philanthropy, Diss., University of Pensylvania. New York 1922, 65-443; Patterson, America's Struggle, 32.
67. Watson Frank Dekker, The Charity Organization Movement in the United States: A Study in American Philanthropy, Diss., University of Pensylvania. New York 1922, 65-443; Patterson, America's Struggle, 32.
68. Cohen, Lizabeth, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939. Cambridge: Cambridge UP 1990, 56-75.
69. She discerns "the possibilities for a generous and caring American welfare state inherent in the maternalist breakthroughs of the Progressive Era and the 1920s". Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers, 524.
70. Berkowitz, Edward D., America's Welfare State: From Roosevelt to Reagan. Baltimore: John Hopkins UP 1991 96-97; Kessler-Harris, Alice, The Paradox of Motherhood. Night Work Restrictions in the United States, Protecting Women: Labor Legislation in Europe, the United States, and Australia, 1880-1920 Eds. Ulla Wikander, Alice Kessler-Harris and Jane Lewis. Urbana: University of Illinois Press 1995, 337; Koven, Seth & Michel, Sonya, Womanly Duties: Maternalist Politics and the Origins of Welfare States in France, Germany, Great Britain and the United States, 1880-1920, The American Historical Review, Vol. 95, 1990, 1085-1107; Michel, Sonya, The Limits of Maternalism: Policies Towards American Wage-Earning Mothers during the Progressive Era, Mothers of a New World. Maternalist Politics and the Origins of Welfare States, Eds. Seth Koven and Sonya Michel. New York-Routledge 1993, 277-320; Wennemo, Irene, Sharing the Costs of Children: Studies on the Development of Family Support In the OECD Countries. Stockholm: Swedish Institute for Social Research 1994, 41-42.
71. Berkowitz, Edward D., America's Welfare State: From Roosevelt to Reagan. Baltimore: John Hopkins UP 1991 96-97; Kessler-Harris, Alice, The Paradox of Motherhood. Night Work Restrictions in the United States, Protecting Women: Labor Legislation in Europe, the United States, and Australia, 1880-1920 Eds. Ulla Wikander, Alice Kessler-Harris and Jane Lewis. Urbana: University of Illinois Press 1995, 337; Koven, Seth & Michel, Sonya, Womanly Duties: Maternalist Politics and the Origins of Welfare States in France, Germany, Great Britain and the United States, 1880-1920, The American Historical Review, Vol. 95, 1990, 1085-1107; Michel, Sonya, The Limits of Maternalism: Policies Towards American Wage-Earning Mothers during the Progressive Era, Mothers of a New World. Maternalist Politics and the Origins of Welfare States, Eds. Seth Koven and Sonya Michel. New York-Routledge 1993, 277-320; Wennemo, Irene, Sharing the Costs of Children: Studies on the Development of Family Support In the OECD Countries. Stockholm: Swedish Institute for Social Research 1994, 41-42.
72. Berkowitz, Edward D., America's Welfare State: From Roosevelt to Reagan. Baltimore: John Hopkins UP 1991 96-97; Kessler-Harris, Alice, The Paradox of Motherhood. Night Work Restrictions in the United States, Protecting Women: Labor Legislation in Europe, the United States, and Australia, 1880-1920 Eds. Ulla Wikander, Alice Kessler-Harris and Jane Lewis. Urbana: University of Illinois Press 1995, 337; Koven, Seth & Michel, Sonya, Womanly Duties: Maternalist Politics and the Origins of Welfare States in France, Germany, Great Britain and the United States, 1880-1920, The American Historical Review, Vol. 95, 1990, 1085-1107; Michel, Sonya, The Limits of Maternalism: Policies Towards American Wage-Earning Mothers during the Progressive Era, Mothers of a New World. Maternalist Politics and the Origins of Welfare States, Eds. Seth Koven and Sonya Michel. New York-Routledge 1993, 277-320; Wennemo, Irene, Sharing the Costs of Children: Studies on the Development of Family Support In the OECD Countries. Stockholm: Swedish Institute for Social Research 1994, 41-42.
73. Berkowitz, Edward D., America's Welfare State: From Roosevelt to Reagan. Baltimore: John Hopkins UP 1991 96-97; Kessler-Harris, Alice, The Paradox of Motherhood. Night Work Restrictions in the United States, Protecting Women: Labor Legislation in Europe, the United States, and Australia, 1880-1920 Eds. Ulla Wikander, Alice Kessler-Harris and Jane Lewis. Urbana: University of Illinois Press 1995, 337; Koven, Seth & Michel, Sonya, Womanly Duties: Maternalist Politics and the Origins of Welfare States in France, Germany, Great Britain and the United States, 1880-1920, The American Historical Review, Vol. 95, 1990, 1085-1107; Michel, Sonya, The Limits of Maternalism: Policies Towards American Wage-Earning Mothers during the Progressive Era, Mothers of a New World. Maternalist Politics and the Origins of Welfare States, Eds. Seth Koven and Sonya Michel. New York-Routledge 1993, 277-320; Wennemo, Irene, Sharing the Costs of Children: Studies on the Development of Family Support In the OECD Countries. Stockholm: Swedish Institute for Social Research 1994, 41-42.
74. Berkowitz, Edward D., America's Welfare State: From Roosevelt to Reagan. Baltimore: John Hopkins UP 1991 96-97; Kessler-Harris, Alice, The Paradox of Motherhood. Night Work Restrictions in the United States, Protecting Women: Labor Legislation in Europe, the United States, and Australia, 1880-1920 Eds. Ulla Wikander, Alice Kessler-Harris and Jane Lewis. Urbana: University of Illinois Press 1995, 337; Koven, Seth & Michel, Sonya, Womanly Duties: Maternalist Politics and the Origins of Welfare States in France, Germany, Great Britain and the United States, 1880-1920, The American Historical Review, Vol. 95, 1990, 1085-1107; Michel, Sonya, The Limits of Maternalism: Policies Towards American Wage-Earning Mothers during the Progressive Era, Mothers of a New World. Maternalist Politics and the Origins of Welfare States, Eds. Seth Koven and Sonya Michel. New York-Routledge 1993, 277-320; Wennemo, Irene, Sharing the Costs of Children: Studies on the Development of Family Support In the OECD Countries. Stockholm: Swedish Institute for Social Research 1994, 41-42.
75. Muncy, Creating a Female Dominion, 97.
76. See, for example, Dwork, Deborah, War is Good for Babies and Other Young Children: A History of the Infant and Child Welfare Movement in England 1898-1918. London and New York: Tavistock 1987, 3-21.
77. It is interesting to note that the Sheppard-Towner Act was soon threatened in the booming post-war economy. Opposition against Sheppard-Towner rose from the mid-twenties, and in 1927 the Senate decided that the act should be repealed from 1929. Only when the Depression again challenged the supposed normalcy of economic affluence could an interest in child and maternal welfare reappear on the federal political agenda. New child welfare programmes were thus included within the Social Security Act of 1935 and the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938. See Muncy, Creating a Female Dominion, 93-157.
78. Old age security was part of the Social Security Act of 1935. See Simon, Consequences of Immigration, 31-35; Berkowitz, America's Welfare State, 15-28. It should be noted that several states had their own pension programmes before the launching of the Social Security Act of 1935. In addition, a few federal pensions schemes, including Civil War pensions, had also been passed earlier. See Levine, Poverty and Society, 165-166, 230-231; Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers, 102-151.
79. Old age security was part of the Social Security Act of 1935. See Simon, Consequences of Immigration, 31-35; Berkowitz, America's Welfare State, 15-28. It should be noted that several states had their own pension programmes before the launching of the Social Security Act of 1935. In addition, a few federal pensions schemes, including Civil War pensions, had also been passed earlier. See Levine, Poverty and Society, 165-166, 230-231; Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers, 102-151.
80. Old age security was part of the Social Security Act of 1935. See Simon, Consequences of Immigration, 31-35; Berkowitz, America's Welfare State, 15-28. It should be noted that several states had their own pension programmes before the launching of the Social Security Act of 1935. In addition, a few federal pensions schemes, including Civil War pensions, had also been passed earlier. See Levine, Poverty and Society, 165-166, 230-231; Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers, 102-151.
81. Old age security was part of the Social Security Act of 1935. See Simon, Consequences of Immigration, 31-35; Berkowitz, America's Welfare State, 15-28. It should be noted that several states had their own pension programmes before the launching of the Social Security Act of 1935. In addition, a few federal pensions schemes, including Civil War pensions, had also been passed earlier. See Levine, Poverty and Society, 165-166, 230-231; Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers, 102-151.
82. Esping-Andersen, Gøsta, Jämlikhet, effektivitet och makt: Socialdemokratisk välfärdspolitik, Socialdemokratins samhälle. SAP och Sverige under 100 år, Eds. Klaus Misgeld et al. Stockholm: Tiden 1988, 224.
83. Maddison, Dynamic Forces, 6-7, table 1.1. The estimations refer to 1913.
84. Historical Statistics of Sweden, vol. I. Stockholm: Statistiska Centralbyrån 1955, 45-46, 68 (table B:2, B:21).
85. Esping-Andersen, Jämlikhet, effektivitet, makt, 224; Olsson, Sven E., Social Policy and Welfare State in Sweden. Lund: Arkiv förlag 1990, 112-113.
86. Esping-Andersen, Jämlikhet, effektivitet, makt, 224; Olsson, Sven E., Social Policy and Welfare State in Sweden. Lund: Arkiv förlag 1990, 112-113.
87. In 1908, the top decile of income earners controlled 44 per cent of registered incomes, see Kuhnle, Stein, The Beginnings of the Nordic Welfare States: Similarities and Differences, Supplement, Special Congress Issue: The Nordic Welfare States, Acta Sociologica, vol. 21, 1978, 17-20 (data from 1908). For the middle class, see Söderberg, Tom, Två sekel svensk medelklass: Från gustaviansk tid till nutid. Stockholm: Bonniers 1972, 243, table 11 (data from 1910).
88. In 1908, the top decile of income earners controlled 44 per cent of registered incomes, see Kuhnle, Stein, The Beginnings of the Nordic Welfare States: Similarities and Differences, Supplement, Special Congress Issue: The Nordic Welfare States, Acta Sociologica, vol. 21, 1978, 17-20 (data from 1908). For the middle class, see Söderberg, Tom, Två sekel svensk medelklass: Från gustaviansk tid till nutid. Stockholm: Bonniers 1972, 243, table 11 (data from 1910).
89. According to the statistical investigations carried out by Ålderdomsförsäkringskommittén (The Old Age Security Committee) in 1907 and 1908, 80 per cent of the Swedish male population aged 16-68 (excluding state employees) earned less than 1200 SKr ($ 320) a year. The majority, 63 per cent, earned less than 800 SKr ($ 213) a year. Among women aged 16-68, incomes were even lower. The great majority (88 per cent excluding state employees) earned less than 800 SKr ($ 213) a year. Ålderdomsförsäkringskommittén, vol. I, Stockholm 1912, 66-68.
90. Historical Statistics of Sweden, 21 (table A: 14); Jörberg, Lennart, Structural Change and Economic Growth: Sweden in the 19th Century, The Industrial Revolution in Europe: The Industrial Revolutions, vol 5, Ed. P. K. O'Brien, The Economic History Society. Oxford and Cambridge: Blackwell 1994, 411-454.
91. Historical Statistics of Sweden, 21 (table A: 14); Jörberg, Lennart, Structural Change and Economic Growth: Sweden in the 19th Century, The Industrial Revolution in Europe: The Industrial Revolutions, vol 5, Ed. P. K. O'Brien, The Economic History Society. Oxford and Cambridge: Blackwell 1994, 411-454.
92. In 1920, 36.3 per cent of Swedish adult women were registered as gainfully employed, as compared to 19.5 per cent of all adult European American women. If farm wives - who were not registered as gainfully employed in the Swedish census - are included, the gainful employment rate of women in Sweden was even higher, 54 per cent in 1920. For a more detailed discussion of gainful employment rates in the United States and Sweden, see Sommestad, Welfare State Attitudes, 166.
93. Hellspong, Mats & Löfgren, Orvar, Land och stad: Svenska samhällstyper och livsformer från medeltid till nutid. Stockholm: Liber förlag 1974, 243-247; Kälvemark (Ohlander), Ann-Sofie, Utvandring och självständighet: Några synpunkter på den kvinnliga emigrationen från Sverige, Historisk tidskrift, 1983:2, 140-174; Sommestad, Lena, Jordbrukets kvinnor i den svenska modellen, Historisk tidskrift, 1995:4, 11-520; Olsson, Lars, Den vita piskan: Om mjölkningens könsarbetsdelning under den agrara kapitalismen, Dagsverken: 13 essäer i arbetets historia, Eds. Alf O. Johansson et al. Lund: Historiska Media 1995, 49-66.
94. Hellspong, Mats & Löfgren, Orvar, Land och stad: Svenska samhällstyper och livsformer från medeltid till nutid. Stockholm: Liber förlag 1974, 243-247; Kälvemark (Ohlander), Ann-Sofie, Utvandring och självständighet: Några synpunkter på den kvinnliga emigrationen från Sverige, Historisk tidskrift, 1983:2, 140-174; Sommestad, Lena, Jordbrukets kvinnor i den svenska modellen, Historisk tidskrift, 1995:4, 11-520; Olsson, Lars, Den vita piskan: Om mjölkningens könsarbetsdelning under den agrara kapitalismen, Dagsverken: 13 essäer i arbetets historia, Eds. Alf O. Johansson et al. Lund: Historiska Media 1995, 49-66.
95. Hellspong, Mats & Löfgren, Orvar, Land och stad: Svenska samhällstyper och livsformer från medeltid till nutid. Stockholm: Liber förlag 1974, 243-247; Kälvemark (Ohlander), Ann-Sofie, Utvandring och självständighet: Några synpunkter på den kvinnliga emigrationen från Sverige, Historisk tidskrift, 1983:2, 140-174; Sommestad, Lena, Jordbrukets kvinnor i den svenska modellen, Historisk tidskrift, 1995:4, 11-520; Olsson, Lars, Den vita piskan: Om mjölkningens könsarbetsdelning under den agrara kapitalismen, Dagsverken: 13 essäer i arbetets historia, Eds. Alf O. Johansson et al. Lund: Historiska Media 1995, 49-66.
96. Hellspong, Mats & Löfgren, Orvar, Land och stad: Svenska samhällstyper och livsformer från medeltid till nutid. Stockholm: Liber förlag 1974, 243-247; Kälvemark (Ohlander), Ann-Sofie, Utvandring och självständighet: Några synpunkter på den kvinnliga emigrationen från Sverige, Historisk tidskrift, 1983:2, 140-174; Sommestad, Lena, Jordbrukets kvinnor i den svenska modellen, Historisk tidskrift, 1995:4, 11-520; Olsson, Lars, Den vita piskan: Om mjölkningens könsarbetsdelning under den agrara kapitalismen, Dagsverken: 13 essäer i arbetets historia, Eds. Alf O. Johansson et al. Lund: Historiska Media 1995, 49-66.
97. According to the census data, only 3.9 per cent of Swedish married women were gainfully employed in 1920. As noted above, this figure excludes farm women from the work force (SOS 1920: V, 68). An overview of family patterns and women's work in Sweden in the early twentieth century is given in Sommestad, Lena, Från mejerska till mejerist. En studie av mejeriyrkets maskuliniserings-process. Lund: Arkiv förlag 1992, 238-244.
98. The national loss of human resources was substantial, considering that the total Swedish population in 1900 amounted to only 5.1 million. Historical Statistics of Sweden, 63 (table B:16), and 64-65 (table B:17), and 68 (table B:21). For an overview of Swedish emigration, see Carlsson, Sten, Chronology and Composition of Swedish Emigration to America, From Sweden to America: A History of the Migration, Eds. Harald Runblom and Hans Norman. Minneapolis: Norwegian UP 1976, 114-148.
99. The national loss of human resources was substantial, considering that the total Swedish population in 1900 amounted to only 5.1 million. Historical Statistics of Sweden, 63 (table B:16), and 64-65 (table B:17), and 68 (table B:21). For an overview of Swedish emigration, see Carlsson, Sten, Chronology and Composition of Swedish Emigration to America, From Sweden to America: A History of the Migration, Eds. Harald Runblom and Hans Norman. Minneapolis: Norwegian UP 1976, 114-148.
100. During the period 1861 to 1915, 65 per cent of emigrants were 15-29 years old. Historical Statistics of Sweden, 71 (table B:4).
101. Historical Statistics of Sweden, 22 (table A:16); Historical Statistics of the United States, 8 (Series A:20) and 10 (Series A:84).
102. Historical Statistics of Sweden, 22 (table A:16); Historical Statistics of the United States, 8 (Series A:20) and 10 (Series A:84).
103. During the period 1851 to 1915, men constituted 55 per cent of emigrants. Historical Statistics of Sweden, 72 (table B:25). For the situation of women in a Swedish region of emigration, see Matovic, Margareta, Maids in Motion: Swedish Women in Dalsland, Peasant Maids - City Women. From the European Countryside to Urban America, Ed. Christiane Harzig. Ithaca: Cornell UP 1997, 99-142.
104. During the period 1851 to 1915, men constituted 55 per cent of emigrants. Historical Statistics of Sweden, 72 (table B:25). For the situation of women in a Swedish region of emigration, see Matovic, Margareta, Maids in Motion: Swedish Women in Dalsland, Peasant Maids - City Women. From the European Countryside to Urban America, Ed. Christiane Harzig. Ithaca: Cornell UP 1997, 99-142.
105. Historical Statistics of Sweden, 5 (table A:4); Historical Statistics of the United States, 8 (Series A:22-24).
106. Historical Statistics of Sweden, 5 (table A:4); Historical Statistics of the United States, 8 (Series A:22-24).
107. Historical Statistics of Sweden, 28 (table A:20), and Historical Statistics of the United States, 15 (Series A:225). The Swedish marriage rate refers to women aged 15 and over, while the American figure refers to women aged 14 and over.
108. Historical Statistics of Sweden, 28 (table A:20), and Historical Statistics of the United States, 15 (Series A:225). The Swedish marriage rate refers to women aged 15 and over, while the American figure refers to women aged 14 and over.
109. Qvist, Gunnar, Konsten att blifva en god flicka: Kvinnohistoriska uppsatser. Stockholm: Liber förlag 1978, 102.
110. For data on income distribution, see Persson, Joakim, Convergence in Per Capita Income and Migration across the Swedish Counties 1906-1990, Seminar Paper No. 601, Stockholm: Institute for International Economic Studies 1995, 12; Wages, Cost of Living and National Income in Sweden 1860-1930, vol. II., London: King & Son 1935, 308-309; and Ålderdomsförsäkringskommittén, vol. IV. Stockholm 1912, 332-333 (table 11). Additional information in Elmér, Åke, Från fattigsverige till välfärdsstaten. Stockholm: Aldus/Bonniers 1969, 46-49; Höjer, Karl J., Den svenska socialpolitiken: En översikt. Stockholm: Norstedts 1968, 9-10; Jansson, Torkel, The Age of Associations. Principles and Forms of Organization between Corporations and Mass Organizations: A comparative Nordic Survey from A Swedish Viewpoint, Scandinavan Journal of History, vol. 13, 1988:4, 326-327, 334-339; Oredsson, Sverker, Samhällelig eller enskild fattigvård? En linje i debatten inför 1871 års fattigsvårdslagstiftning, Scandia, vol. 37, 1971, 175-215; Qvarsell, Roger, Mellan familj, arbetsgivare och stat. En idéhistorisk essä om det sociala arbetets organisering under två århundraden, Medmänsklighet att hyra? Åtta forskare om ideell verksamhet, Ed. Erik Amnå. Stockholm: Libris 1995, 19-22; Romlid, Christina, Makt, motstånd och förändring. Vårdens historia speglad genom det svenska barnmorskeväsendet 1663-1908. Stockholm: Vårdförbund 1998, 237-264.
111. For data on income distribution, see Persson, Joakim, Convergence in Per Capita Income and Migration across the Swedish Counties 1906-1990, Seminar Paper No. 601, Stockholm: Institute for International Economic Studies 1995, 12; Wages, Cost of Living and National Income in Sweden 1860-1930, vol. II., London: King & Son 1935, 308-309; and Ålderdomsförsäkringskommittén, vol. IV. Stockholm 1912, 332-333 (table 11). Additional information in Elmér, Åke, Från fattigsverige till välfärdsstaten. Stockholm: Aldus/Bonniers 1969, 46-49; Höjer, Karl J., Den svenska socialpolitiken: En översikt. Stockholm: Norstedts 1968, 9-10; Jansson, Torkel, The Age of Associations. Principles and Forms of Organization between Corporations and Mass Organizations: A comparative Nordic Survey from A Swedish Viewpoint, Scandinavan Journal of History, vol. 13, 1988:4, 326-327, 334-339; Oredsson, Sverker, Samhällelig eller enskild fattigvård? En linje i debatten inför 1871 års fattigsvårdslagstiftning, Scandia, vol. 37, 1971, 175-215; Qvarsell, Roger, Mellan familj, arbetsgivare och stat. En idéhistorisk essä om det sociala arbetets organisering under två århundraden, Medmänsklighet att hyra? Åtta forskare om ideell verksamhet, Ed. Erik Amnå. Stockholm: Libris 1995, 19-22; Romlid, Christina, Makt, motstånd och förändring. Vårdens historia speglad genom det svenska barnmorskeväsendet 1663-1908. Stockholm: Vårdförbund 1998, 237-264.
112. For data on income distribution, see Persson, Joakim, Convergence in Per Capita Income and Migration across the Swedish Counties 1906-1990, Seminar Paper No. 601, Stockholm: Institute for International Economic Studies 1995, 12; Wages, Cost of Living and National Income in Sweden 1860-1930, vol. II., London: King & Son 1935, 308-309; and Ålderdomsförsäkringskommittén, vol. IV. Stockholm 1912, 332-333 (table 11). Additional information in Elmér, Åke, Från fattigsverige till välfärdsstaten. Stockholm: Aldus/Bonniers 1969, 46-49; Höjer, Karl J., Den svenska socialpolitiken: En översikt. Stockholm: Norstedts 1968, 9-10; Jansson, Torkel, The Age of Associations. Principles and Forms of Organization between Corporations and Mass Organizations: A comparative Nordic Survey from A Swedish Viewpoint, Scandinavan Journal of History, vol. 13, 1988:4, 326-327, 334-339; Oredsson, Sverker, Samhällelig eller enskild fattigvård? En linje i debatten inför 1871 års fattigsvårdslagstiftning, Scandia, vol. 37, 1971, 175-215; Qvarsell, Roger, Mellan familj, arbetsgivare och stat. En idéhistorisk essä om det sociala arbetets organisering under två århundraden, Medmänsklighet att hyra? Åtta forskare om ideell verksamhet, Ed. Erik Amnå. Stockholm: Libris 1995, 19-22; Romlid, Christina, Makt, motstånd och förändring. Vårdens historia speglad genom det svenska barnmorskeväsendet 1663-1908. Stockholm: Vårdförbund 1998, 237-264.
113. For data on income distribution, see Persson, Joakim, Convergence in Per Capita Income and Migration across the Swedish Counties 1906-1990, Seminar Paper No. 601, Stockholm: Institute for International Economic Studies 1995, 12; Wages, Cost of Living and National Income in Sweden 1860-1930, vol. II., London: King & Son 1935, 308-309; and Ålderdomsförsäkringskommittén, vol. IV. Stockholm 1912, 332-333 (table 11). Additional information in Elmér, Åke, Från fattigsverige till välfärdsstaten. Stockholm: Aldus/Bonniers 1969, 46-49; Höjer, Karl J., Den svenska socialpolitiken: En översikt. Stockholm: Norstedts 1968, 9-10; Jansson, Torkel, The Age of Associations. Principles and Forms of Organization between Corporations and Mass Organizations: A comparative Nordic Survey from A Swedish Viewpoint, Scandinavan Journal of History, vol. 13, 1988:4, 326-327, 334-339; Oredsson, Sverker, Samhällelig eller enskild fattigvård? En linje i debatten inför 1871 års fattigsvårdslagstiftning, Scandia, vol. 37, 1971, 175-215; Qvarsell, Roger, Mellan familj, arbetsgivare och stat. En idéhistorisk essä om det sociala arbetets organisering under två århundraden, Medmänsklighet att hyra? Åtta forskare om ideell verksamhet, Ed. Erik Amnå. Stockholm: Libris 1995, 19-22; Romlid, Christina, Makt, motstånd och förändring. Vårdens historia speglad genom det svenska barnmorskeväsendet 1663-1908. Stockholm: Vårdförbund 1998, 237-264.
114. For data on income distribution, see Persson, Joakim, Convergence in Per Capita Income and Migration across the Swedish Counties 1906-1990, Seminar Paper No. 601, Stockholm: Institute for International Economic Studies 1995, 12; Wages, Cost of Living and National Income in Sweden 1860-1930, vol. II., London: King & Son 1935, 308-309; and Ålderdomsförsäkringskommittén, vol. IV. Stockholm 1912, 332-333 (table 11). Additional information in Elmér, Åke, Från fattigsverige till välfärdsstaten. Stockholm: Aldus/Bonniers 1969, 46-49; Höjer, Karl J., Den svenska socialpolitiken: En översikt. Stockholm: Norstedts 1968, 9-10; Jansson, Torkel, The Age of Associations. Principles and Forms of Organization between Corporations and Mass Organizations: A comparative Nordic Survey from A Swedish Viewpoint, Scandinavan Journal of History, vol. 13, 1988:4, 326-327, 334-339; Oredsson, Sverker, Samhällelig eller enskild fattigvård? En linje i debatten inför 1871 års fattigsvårdslagstiftning, Scandia, vol. 37, 1971, 175-215; Qvarsell, Roger, Mellan familj, arbetsgivare och stat. En idéhistorisk essä om det sociala arbetets organisering under två århundraden, Medmänsklighet att hyra? Åtta forskare om ideell verksamhet, Ed. Erik Amnå. Stockholm: Libris 1995, 19-22; Romlid, Christina, Makt, motstånd och förändring. Vårdens historia speglad genom det svenska barnmorskeväsendet 1663-1908. Stockholm: Vårdförbund 1998, 237-264.
115. For data on income distribution, see Persson, Joakim, Convergence in Per Capita Income and Migration across the Swedish Counties 1906-1990, Seminar Paper No. 601, Stockholm: Institute for International Economic Studies 1995, 12; Wages, Cost of Living and National Income in Sweden 1860-1930, vol. II., London: King & Son 1935, 308-309; and Ålderdomsförsäkringskommittén, vol. IV. Stockholm 1912, 332-333 (table 11). Additional information in Elmér, Åke, Från fattigsverige till välfärdsstaten. Stockholm: Aldus/Bonniers 1969, 46-49; Höjer, Karl J., Den svenska socialpolitiken: En översikt. Stockholm: Norstedts 1968, 9-10; Jansson, Torkel, The Age of Associations. Principles and Forms of Organization between Corporations and Mass Organizations: A comparative Nordic Survey from A Swedish Viewpoint, Scandinavan Journal of History, vol. 13, 1988:4, 326-327, 334-339; Oredsson, Sverker, Samhällelig eller enskild fattigvård? En linje i debatten inför 1871 års fattigsvårdslagstiftning, Scandia, vol. 37, 1971, 175-215; Qvarsell, Roger, Mellan familj, arbetsgivare och stat. En idéhistorisk essä om det sociala arbetets organisering under två århundraden, Medmänsklighet att hyra? Åtta forskare om ideell verksamhet, Ed. Erik Amnå. Stockholm: Libris 1995, 19-22; Romlid, Christina, Makt, motstånd och förändring. Vårdens historia speglad genom det svenska barnmorskeväsendet 1663-1908. Stockholm: Vårdförbund 1998, 237-264.
116. For data on income distribution, see Persson, Joakim, Convergence in Per Capita Income and Migration across the Swedish Counties 1906-1990, Seminar Paper No. 601, Stockholm: Institute for International Economic Studies 1995, 12; Wages, Cost of Living and National Income in Sweden 1860-1930, vol. II., London: King & Son 1935, 308-309; and Ålderdomsförsäkringskommittén, vol. IV. Stockholm 1912, 332-333 (table 11). Additional information in Elmér, Åke, Från fattigsverige till välfärdsstaten. Stockholm: Aldus/Bonniers 1969, 46-49; Höjer, Karl J., Den svenska socialpolitiken: En översikt. Stockholm: Norstedts 1968, 9-10; Jansson, Torkel, The Age of Associations. Principles and Forms of Organization between Corporations and Mass Organizations: A comparative Nordic Survey from A Swedish Viewpoint, Scandinavan Journal of History, vol. 13, 1988:4, 326-327, 334-339; Oredsson, Sverker, Samhällelig eller enskild fattigvård? En linje i debatten inför 1871 års fattigsvårdslagstiftning, Scandia, vol. 37, 1971, 175-215; Qvarsell, Roger, Mellan familj, arbetsgivare och stat. En idéhistorisk essä om det sociala arbetets organisering under två århundraden, Medmänsklighet att hyra? Åtta forskare om ideell verksamhet, Ed. Erik Amnå. Stockholm: Libris 1995, 19-22; Romlid, Christina, Makt, motstånd och förändring. Vårdens historia speglad genom det svenska barnmorskeväsendet 1663-1908. Stockholm: Vårdförbund 1998, 237-264.
117. For data on income distribution, see Persson, Joakim, Convergence in Per Capita Income and Migration across the Swedish Counties 1906-1990, Seminar Paper No. 601, Stockholm: Institute for International Economic Studies 1995, 12; Wages, Cost of Living and National Income in Sweden 1860-1930, vol. II., London: King & Son 1935, 308-309; and Ålderdomsförsäkringskommittén, vol. IV. Stockholm 1912, 332-333 (table 11). Additional information in Elmér, Åke, Från fattigsverige till välfärdsstaten. Stockholm: Aldus/Bonniers 1969, 46-49; Höjer, Karl J., Den svenska socialpolitiken: En översikt. Stockholm: Norstedts 1968, 9-10; Jansson, Torkel, The Age of Associations. Principles and Forms of Organization between Corporations and Mass Organizations: A comparative Nordic Survey from A Swedish Viewpoint, Scandinavan Journal of History, vol. 13, 1988:4, 326-327, 334-339; Oredsson, Sverker, Samhällelig eller enskild fattigvård? En linje i debatten inför 1871 års fattigsvårdslagstiftning, Scandia, vol. 37, 1971, 175-215; Qvarsell, Roger, Mellan familj, arbetsgivare och stat. En idéhistorisk essä om det sociala arbetets organisering under två århundraden, Medmänsklighet att hyra? Åtta forskare om ideell
118. For data on income distribution, see Persson, Joakim, Convergence in Per Capita Income and Migration across the Swedish Counties 1906-1990, Seminar Paper No. 601, Stockholm: Institute for International Economic Studies 1995, 12; Wages, Cost of Living and National Income in Sweden 1860-1930, vol. II., London: King & Son 1935, 308-309; and Ålderdomsförsäkringskommittén, vol. IV. Stockholm 1912, 332-333 (table 11). Additional information in Elmér, Åke, Från fattigsverige till välfärdsstaten. Stockholm: Aldus/Bonniers 1969, 46-49; Höjer, Karl J., Den svenska socialpolitiken: En översikt. Stockholm: Norstedts 1968, 9-10; Jansson, Torkel, The Age of Associations. Principles and Forms of Organization between Corporations and Mass Organizations: A comparative Nordic Survey from A Swedish Viewpoint, Scandinavan Journal of History, vol. 13, 1988:4, 326-327, 334-339; Oredsson, Sverker, Samhällelig eller enskild fattigvård? En linje i debatten inför 1871 års fattigsvårdslagstiftning, Scandia, vol. 37, 1971, 175-215; Qvarsell, Roger, Mellan familj, arbetsgivare och stat. En idéhistorisk essä om det sociala arbetets organisering under två århundraden, Medmänsklighet att hyra? Åtta forskare om ideell verksamhet, Ed. Erik Amnå. Stockholm: Libris 1995, 19-22; Romlid, Christina, Makt, motstånd och förändring. Vårdens historia speglad genom det svenska barnmorskeväsendet 1663-1908. Stockholm: Vårdförbund 1998, 237-264.
119. Edebalk, Per Gunnar, Fattigvårdsfolket och pensionsstriden 1912/13, Socialvetenskaplig tidskrift, 1995:3, 266-267, 269; Lindqvist, Rafael, Från folkrörelse till välfärdsbyråkrati: Det svenska sjukförsäkringssystemets utveckling 1900-1990. Lund: Arkiv förlag 1990, 39-55; Ohrlander, Kajsa, I barnens och nationens intresse: Socialliberal reformpolitik 1903-1930. Stockholm: Wiksell International 1992, 148-152; Olsson, Social Policy, 109; Sveriges Officiella Statistik: Allmän hälso- och sjukvård år 1912. Stockholm 1914, 84-89, table I.
120. Edebalk, Per Gunnar, Fattigvårdsfolket och pensionsstriden 1912/13, Socialvetenskaplig tidskrift, 1995:3, 266-267, 269; Lindqvist, Rafael, Från folkrörelse till välfärdsbyråkrati: Det svenska sjukförsäkringssystemets utveckling 1900-1990. Lund: Arkiv förlag 1990, 39-55; Ohrlander, Kajsa, I barnens och nationens intresse: Socialliberal reformpolitik 1903-1930. Stockholm: Wiksell International 1992, 148-152; Olsson, Social Policy, 109; Sveriges Officiella Statistik: Allmän hälso- och sjukvård år 1912. Stockholm 1914, 84-89, table I.
121. Edebalk, Per Gunnar, Fattigvårdsfolket och pensionsstriden 1912/13, Socialvetenskaplig tidskrift, 1995:3, 266-267, 269; Lindqvist, Rafael, Från folkrörelse till välfärdsbyråkrati: Det svenska sjukförsäkringssystemets utveckling 1900-1990. Lund: Arkiv förlag 1990, 39-55; Ohrlander, Kajsa, I barnens och nationens intresse: Socialliberal reformpolitik 1903-1930. Stockholm: Wiksell International 1992, 148-152; Olsson, Social Policy, 109; Sveriges Officiella Statistik: Allmän hälso- och sjukvård år 1912. Stockholm 1914, 84-89, table I.
122. Edebalk, Per Gunnar, Fattigvårdsfolket och pensionsstriden 1912/13, Socialvetenskaplig tidskrift, 1995:3, 266-267, 269; Lindqvist, Rafael, Från folkrörelse till välfärdsbyråkrati: Det svenska sjukförsäkringssystemets utveckling 1900-1990. Lund: Arkiv förlag 1990, 39-55; Ohrlander, Kajsa, I barnens och nationens intresse: Socialliberal reformpolitik 1903-1930. Stockholm: Wiksell International 1992, 148-152; Olsson, Social Policy, 109; Sveriges Officiella Statistik: Allmän hälso- och sjukvård år 1912. Stockholm 1914, 84-89, table I.
123. Edebalk, Per Gunnar, Fattigvårdsfolket och pensionsstriden 1912/13, Socialvetenskaplig tidskrift, 1995:3, 266-267, 269; Lindqvist, Rafael, Från folkrörelse till välfärdsbyråkrati: Det svenska sjukförsäkringssystemets utveckling 1900-1990. Lund: Arkiv förlag 1990, 39-55; Ohrlander, Kajsa, I barnens och nationens intresse: Socialliberal reformpolitik 1903-1930. Stockholm: Wiksell International 1992, 148-152; Olsson, Social Policy, 109; Sveriges Officiella Statistik: Allmän hälso- och sjukvård år 1912. Stockholm 1914, 84-89, table I.
124. It is telling that to the extent that social problems in rural districts were addressed through voluntary inititatives at all, this was typically done by men, who acted in close connection with the public sphere of local self-government. See Jansson, The Age of Associations, in particular 337.
125. Among all the persons assessed for taxes in 1908, including the taxes on real estate, the average income in Stockholm was 2713 SKr (£ 149), as compared to 777 SKr (£ 43) in the countryside. Ålderdomsförsäkringskommittén, IV, 314-315 (table 10), and 332-333 (table 11). Compare Persson, Convergence in Per Capita Income, 33, Figure 1. For demographic development in Stockholm, see Historical Statistics of Sweden, 17 and 19 (table A:12). Philanthropy is dealt with in Barn i stan från sekelskifte till åttiotal, Ed. Helena M. Henschen. Stockholm: Tiden 1983, 86-90; På tröskeln till välfärden: Välgörenhetsformer och arenor i Norden 1800-1930, Eds. Marja Taussi Sjöberg and Tinne Vammen. Stockholm: Carlssons 1995; Åberg, Ingrid, Revivalism, Philanthropy and Emancipation: Women's Liberation and Organization in the Early Nineteenth Century, Scandinavian Journal of History, vol. 13, 1988, 399-420.
126. Among all the persons assessed for taxes in 1908, including the taxes on real estate, the average income in Stockholm was 2713 SKr (£ 149), as compared to 777 SKr (£ 43) in the countryside. Ålderdomsförsäkringskommittén, IV, 314-315 (table 10), and 332-333 (table 11). Compare Persson, Convergence in Per Capita Income, 33, Figure 1. For demographic development in Stockholm, see Historical Statistics of Sweden, 17 and 19 (table A:12). Philanthropy is dealt with in Barn i stan från sekelskifte till åttiotal, Ed. Helena M. Henschen. Stockholm: Tiden 1983, 86-90; På tröskeln till välfärden: Välgörenhetsformer och arenor i Norden 1800-1930, Eds. Marja Taussi Sjöberg and Tinne Vammen. Stockholm: Carlssons 1995; Åberg, Ingrid, Revivalism, Philanthropy and Emancipation: Women's Liberation and Organization in the Early Nineteenth Century, Scandinavian Journal of History, vol. 13, 1988, 399-420.
127. Among all the persons assessed for taxes in 1908, including the taxes on real estate, the average income in Stockholm was 2713 SKr (£ 149), as compared to 777 SKr (£ 43) in the countryside. Ålderdomsförsäkringskommittén, IV, 314-315 (table 10), and 332-333 (table 11). Compare Persson, Convergence in Per Capita Income, 33, Figure 1. For demographic development in Stockholm, see Historical Statistics of Sweden, 17 and 19 (table A:12). Philanthropy is dealt with in Barn i stan från sekelskifte till åttiotal, Ed. Helena M. Henschen. Stockholm: Tiden 1983, 86-90; På tröskeln till välfärden: Välgörenhetsformer och arenor i Norden 1800-1930, Eds. Marja Taussi Sjöberg and Tinne Vammen. Stockholm: Carlssons 1995; Åberg, Ingrid, Revivalism, Philanthropy and Emancipation: Women's Liberation and Organization in the Early Nineteenth Century, Scandinavian Journal of History, vol. 13, 1988, 399-420.
128. Among all the persons assessed for taxes in 1908, including the taxes on real estate, the average income in Stockholm was 2713 SKr (£ 149), as compared to 777 SKr (£ 43) in the countryside. Ålderdomsförsäkringskommittén, IV, 314-315 (table 10), and 332-333 (table 11). Compare Persson, Convergence in Per Capita Income, 33, Figure 1. For demographic development in Stockholm, see Historical Statistics of Sweden, 17 and 19 (table A:12). Philanthropy is dealt with in Barn i stan från sekelskifte till åttiotal, Ed. Helena M. Henschen. Stockholm: Tiden 1983, 86-90; På tröskeln till välfärden: Välgörenhetsformer och arenor i Norden 1800-1930, Eds. Marja Taussi Sjöberg and Tinne Vammen. Stockholm: Carlssons 1995; Åberg, Ingrid, Revivalism, Philanthropy and Emancipation: Women's Liberation and Organization in the Early Nineteenth Century, Scandinavian Journal of History, vol. 13, 1988, 399-420.
129. Among all the persons assessed for taxes in 1908, including the taxes on real estate, the average income in Stockholm was 2713 SKr (£ 149), as compared to 777 SKr (£ 43) in the countryside. Ålderdomsförsäkringskommittén, IV, 314-315 (table 10), and 332-333 (table 11). Compare Persson, Convergence in Per Capita Income, 33, Figure 1. For demographic development in Stockholm, see Historical Statistics of Sweden, 17 and 19 (table A:12). Philanthropy is dealt with in Barn i stan från sekelskifte till åttiotal, Ed. Helena M. Henschen. Stockholm: Tiden 1983, 86-90; På tröskeln till välfärden: Välgörenhetsformer och arenor i Norden 1800-1930, Eds. Marja Taussi Sjöberg and Tinne Vammen. Stockholm: Carlssons 1995; Åberg, Ingrid, Revivalism, Philanthropy and Emancipation: Women's Liberation and Organization in the Early Nineteenth Century, Scandinavian Journal of History, vol. 13, 1988, 399-420.
130. Among all the persons assessed for taxes in 1908, including the taxes on real estate, the average income in Stockholm was 2713 SKr (£ 149), as compared to 777 SKr (£ 43) in the countryside. Ålderdomsförsäkringskommittén, IV, 314-315 (table 10), and 332-333 (table 11). Compare Persson, Convergence in Per Capita Income, 33, Figure 1. For demographic development in Stockholm, see Historical Statistics of Sweden, 17 and 19 (table A:12). Philanthropy is dealt with in Barn i stan från sekelskifte till åttiotal, Ed. Helena M. Henschen. Stockholm: Tiden 1983, 86-90; På tröskeln till välfärden: Välgörenhetsformer och arenor i Norden 1800-1930, Eds. Marja Taussi Sjöberg and Tinne Vammen. Stockholm: Carlssons 1995; Åberg, Ingrid, Revivalism, Philanthropy and Emancipation: Women's Liberation and Organization in the Early Nineteenth Century, Scandinavian Journal of History, vol. 13, 1988, 399-420.
131. Gustafsson, Bo, Den tysta revolutionen, Den svenska modellen, Eds. Per Thullberg and Kjell Östberg. Lund: Studentlitteratur 1994, 144-160;
132. Norlander, Kerstin, Den kollektivistiska husmoderligheten. Södra KFUK och fabriksarbeterskorna i Stockholm 1887-1930, På tröskeln till välfärden: Välgörenhetsformer och arenor i Norden 1800-1930, Eds. Marja Taussi Sjöberg and Tinne Vammen. Stockholm: Carlssons 1995, 104-107;
133. Qvarsell, Mellan familj, arbetsgivare och stat, 30-35;
134. Weiner Gena, De räddade barnen: Om fattiga barn, mödrar och fäder och deras möte med filantropin i Hagalund 1900-1940. Uppsala: Hjelm 1995, 262-297.
135. Kälvemark (Ohlander), Ann-Sofie, Swedish Emigration Policy in an International Perspective, 1840-1925, From Sweden to America: A History of the Migration, Eds. Harald Runblom and Hans Norman. Minneapolis: Norwegian UP 1976, 106-112; Sundbärg, Gustav, Den svenska och europeiska folköknings- och omflyttningspolitiken i sina hufvuddrag, Emigrationsutredningen, Bilaga IV: Utvandringsstatistik. Stockholm 1910; Stråth, Bo, Industriborgerskapets roll i den svenska samhällsomvandlingen, Formeringen av industrisamfunnet i Norden fram til 1920, Eds. Knut Kjeldstadli et al., TMV skriftserieS. Oslo University: Senter for teknologi of menneskelige verdier 1994, 29-46.
136. Kälvemark (Ohlander), Ann-Sofie, Swedish Emigration Policy in an International Perspective, 1840-1925, From Sweden to America: A History of the Migration, Eds. Harald Runblom and Hans Norman. Minneapolis: Norwegian UP 1976, 106-112; Sundbärg, Gustav, Den svenska och europeiska folköknings- och omflyttningspolitiken i sina hufvuddrag, Emigrationsutredningen, Bilaga IV: Utvandringsstatistik. Stockholm 1910; Stråth, Bo, Industriborgerskapets roll i den svenska samhällsomvandlingen, Formeringen av industrisamfunnet i Norden fram til 1920, Eds. Knut Kjeldstadli et al., TMV skriftserieS. Oslo University: Senter for teknologi of menneskelige verdier 1994, 29-46.
137. Kälvemark (Ohlander), Ann-Sofie, Swedish Emigration Policy in an International Perspective, 1840-1925, From Sweden to America: A History of the Migration, Eds. Harald Runblom and Hans Norman. Minneapolis: Norwegian UP 1976, 106-112; Sundbärg, Gustav, Den svenska och europeiska folköknings- och omflyttningspolitiken i sina hufvuddrag, Emigrationsutredningen, Bilaga IV: Utvandringsstatistik. Stockholm 1910; Stråth, Bo, Industriborgerskapets roll i den svenska samhällsomvandlingen, Formeringen av industrisamfunnet i Norden fram til 1920, Eds. Knut Kjeldstadli et al., TMV skriftserieS. Oslo University: Senter for teknologi of menneskelige verdier 1994, 29-46.
138. Walter Korpi, Den svenska arbetarrörelsens förutsättningar och strategier. Den svenska modellen, Eds. Per Thullberg and Kjell Östberg. Lund: Studentlitteratur 1994, 16-19; Stråth, Industriborg-erskapets roll, 32-36, 43-46. With regard to wage levels, see Ljungberg, Jonas, The Impact of the Great Emigration on the Swedish Economy, Scandinavian Economic History Review, vol. XLV, 1997:2, 159-189, and Hatton, Timothy J. & Williamson, Jeffrey G., The Age of Mass Migration: Causes and Economic Impact. New York and Oxford: Oxford UP 1998, 190-199.
139. Walter Korpi, Den svenska arbetarrörelsens förutsättningar och strategier. Den svenska modellen, Eds. Per Thullberg and Kjell Östberg. Lund: Studentlitteratur 1994, 16-19; Stråth, Industriborg-erskapets roll, 32-36, 43-46. With regard to wage levels, see Ljungberg, Jonas, The Impact of the Great Emigration on the Swedish Economy, Scandinavian Economic History Review, vol. XLV, 1997:2, 159-189, and Hatton, Timothy J. & Williamson, Jeffrey G., The Age of Mass Migration: Causes and Economic Impact. New York and Oxford: Oxford UP 1998, 190-199.
140. Walter Korpi, Den svenska arbetarrörelsens förutsättningar och strategier. Den svenska modellen, Eds. Per Thullberg and Kjell Östberg. Lund: Studentlitteratur 1994, 16-19; Stråth, Industriborg-erskapets roll, 32-36, 43-46. With regard to wage levels, see Ljungberg, Jonas, The Impact of the Great Emigration on the Swedish Economy, Scandinavian Economic History Review, vol. XLV, 1997:2, 159-189, and Hatton, Timothy J. & Williamson, Jeffrey G., The Age of Mass Migration: Causes and Economic Impact. New York and Oxford: Oxford UP 1998, 190-199.
141. Walter Korpi, Den svenska arbetarrörelsens förutsättningar och strategier. Den svenska modellen, Eds. Per Thullberg and Kjell Östberg. Lund: Studentlitteratur 1994, 16-19; Stråth, Industriborg-erskapets roll, 32-36, 43-46. With regard to wage levels, see Ljungberg, Jonas, The Impact of the Great Emigration on the Swedish Economy, Scandinavian Economic History Review, vol. XLV, 1997:2, 159-189, and Hatton, Timothy J. & Williamson, Jeffrey G., The Age of Mass Migration: Causes and Economic Impact. New York and Oxford: Oxford UP 1998, 190-199.
142. See Olsson, Social Policy, 109.
143. Ohrlander, I barnens och nationens intresse, 62-91; Orhlander, Kajsa, Moderniserande kvinnlighet - gammal manlighet: Socialpolitiska betydelser av genus i formeringen av den tidiga svenska välfärdsstaten 1900-1914, Arkiv, 1995: 63-64, 50-67.
144. Ohrlander, I barnens och nationens intresse, 62-91; Orhlander, Kajsa, Moderniserande kvinnlighet - gammal manlighet: Socialpolitiska betydelser av genus i formeringen av den tidiga svenska välfärdsstaten 1900-1914, Arkiv, 1995: 63-64, 50-67.
145. Lewis, Jane & Aström, Gertrude, Equality, Difference and State Welfare: Labor Market and Family Policies in Sweden, Feminist Studies, vol. 18, 1992, 59-87; Ohlander, Ann-Sofie, The Invisible Child? The struggle for a Social Democratic family policy in Sweden, 1900-1960s, Maternity and Gender Policies: Women and the Rise of the European Welfare States 1880s-1950s, Eds. Gisela Bock and Pat Thane. London: Routledge 1991, 60-72; Ohrlander, I barnens och nationens intresse, 62-91; Orhlander, Moderniserande kvinnlighet, 50-67; Weiner, De räddade barnen, 12-25, 123-261.
146. Lewis, Jane & Aström, Gertrude, Equality, Difference and State Welfare: Labor Market and Family Policies in Sweden, Feminist Studies, vol. 18, 1992, 59-87; Ohlander, Ann-Sofie, The Invisible Child? The struggle for a Social Democratic family policy in Sweden, 1900-1960s, Maternity and Gender Policies: Women and the Rise of the European Welfare States 1880s-1950s, Eds. Gisela Bock and Pat Thane. London: Routledge 1991, 60-72; Ohrlander, I barnens och nationens intresse, 62-91; Orhlander, Moderniserande kvinnlighet, 50-67; Weiner, De räddade barnen, 12-25, 123-261.
147. Lewis, Jane & Aström, Gertrude, Equality, Difference and State Welfare: Labor Market and Family Policies in Sweden, Feminist Studies, vol. 18, 1992, 59-87; Ohlander, Ann-Sofie, The Invisible Child? The struggle for a Social Democratic family policy in Sweden, 1900-1960s, Maternity and Gender Policies: Women and the Rise of the European Welfare States 1880s-1950s, Eds. Gisela Bock and Pat Thane. London: Routledge 1991, 60-72; Ohrlander, I barnens och nationens intresse, 62-91; Orhlander, Moderniserande kvinnlighet, 50-67; Weiner, De räddade barnen, 12-25, 123-261.
148. Lewis, Jane & Aström, Gertrude, Equality, Difference and State Welfare: Labor Market and Family Policies in Sweden, Feminist Studies, vol. 18, 1992, 59-87; Ohlander, Ann-Sofie, The Invisible Child? The struggle for a Social Democratic family policy in Sweden, 1900-1960s, Maternity and Gender Policies: Women and the Rise of the European Welfare States 1880s-1950s, Eds. Gisela Bock and Pat Thane. London: Routledge 1991, 60-72; Ohrlander, I barnens och nationens intresse, 62-91; Orhlander, Moderniserande kvinnlighet, 50-67; Weiner, De räddade barnen, 12-25, 123-261.
149. Lewis, Jane & Aström, Gertrude, Equality, Difference and State Welfare: Labor Market and Family Policies in Sweden, Feminist Studies, vol. 18, 1992, 59-87; Ohlander, Ann-Sofie, The Invisible Child? The struggle for a Social Democratic family policy in Sweden, 1900-1960s, Maternity and Gender Policies: Women and the Rise of the European Welfare States 1880s-1950s, Eds. Gisela Bock and Pat Thane. London: Routledge 1991, 60-72; Ohrlander, I barnens och nationens intresse, 62-91; Orhlander, Moderniserande kvinnlighet, 50-67; Weiner, De räddade barnen, 12-25, 123-261.
150. Berge, Anders, Socialpolitik och normgivning i Sverige 1871-1913, Arkiv, 1995:63-64, quotation 81.
151. Berge, Socialpolitik och normgivning, 76-89; Olsson, Social Policy, 83-89, 93-97; Edebalk, Fattigvårdsfolket och pensionsstriden, 266-275.
152. Berge, Socialpolitik och normgivning, 76-89; Olsson, Social Policy, 83-89, 93-97; Edebalk, Fattigvårdsfolket och pensionsstriden, 266-275.
153. Berge, Socialpolitik och normgivning, 76-89; Olsson, Social Policy, 83-89, 93-97; Edebalk, Fattigvårdsfolket och pensionsstriden, 266-275.
154. Abukhanfusa, Kerstin, Piskan och moroten: Om könens tilldelning av skyldigheter och rättigheter i det svenska socialföräkringssystemet 1913-1980. Stockholm: Carlssons 1987, 28-45; Ålderdomsförsäkringskommittén, 65-66, 79-81.
155. Abukhanfusa, Kerstin, Piskan och moroten: Om könens tilldelning av skyldigheter och rättigheter i det svenska socialföräkringssystemet 1913-1980. Stockholm: Carlssons 1987, 28-45; Ålderdomsförsäkringskommittén, 65-66, 79-81.
156. Karlsson, Lynn, The Beginning of a 'Masculine Renaissance': The Debate on the 1909 Prohibition against Women's Night Work in Sweden, Protecting Women: Labor Legislation in Europe, the United States, and Australia, 1880-1920, Eds. Ulla Wikander, Alice Kessler-Harris and Jane Lewis. Urbana: University of Illinois Press 1995, 252-253.
157. Elmér, Åke, Folkpensioneringen i Sverige. Malmö: Gleerups 1960, 49-54; SFS 1918:449, § 6 and § 33.
158. Elmér, Åke, Folkpensioneringen i Sverige. Malmö: Gleerups 1960, 49-54; SFS 1918:449, § 6 and § 33.
159. Nyberg, Anita, Barnomsorgen: Ett kvinligt nollsummespel eller? Medmänsklighet att hyra? Åtta forshare om ideell verksamhet, Ed. Erik Amnå. Stockholm: Libris 1995, 47-82.
160. Carlsson, Allan, The Swedish Experiment in Family Politics: The Myrdals and the Interwar Population Crisis. New Brunswick and London: Transaction Publishers 1990, 6-26; Hatje, Ann-Katrin, Befolkningsfrågan och välfärden: Debatten om familjepolitik och nativitetsökning under 1930- och 1940-talen. Stockholm: Allmänna förlaget 1974, 7-8. The statistics are from Historical Statistics of Sweden, I, 45-46 (table B:2).
161. Carlsson, Allan, The Swedish Experiment in Family Politics: The Myrdals and the Interwar Population Crisis. New Brunswick and London: Transaction Publishers 1990, 6-26; Hatje, Ann-Katrin, Befolkningsfrågan och välfärden: Debatten om familjepolitik och nativitetsökning under 1930- och 1940-talen. Stockholm: Allmänna förlaget 1974, 7-8. The statistics are from Historical Statistics of Sweden, I, 45-46 (table B:2).
162. Carlsson, Allan, The Swedish Experiment in Family Politics: The Myrdals and the Interwar Population Crisis. New Brunswick and London: Transaction Publishers 1990, 6-26; Hatje, Ann-Katrin, Befolkningsfrågan och välfärden: Debatten om familjepolitik och nativitetsökning under 1930- och 1940-talen. Stockholm: Allmänna förlaget 1974, 7-8. The statistics are from Historical Statistics of Sweden, I, 45-46 (table B:2).
163. Carlsson, The Swedish Experiment, 172-173; Hatje, Befolkningsfrågan och välfärden, 32-37, 237-245; Myrdal, Gunnar, Population: A Problem for Democracy. Cambridge, Mass. 1940, 3-225.
164. Carlsson, The Swedish Experiment, 172-173; Hatje, Befolkningsfrågan och välfärden, 32-37, 237-245; Myrdal, Gunnar, Population: A Problem for Democracy. Cambridge, Mass. 1940, 3-225.
165. Carlsson, The Swedish Experiment, 172-173; Hatje, Befolkningsfrågan och välfärden, 32-37, 237-245; Myrdal, Gunnar, Population: A Problem for Democracy. Cambridge, Mass. 1940, 3-225.
166. Carlsson, The Swedish Experiment, 89; Hirdman, Yvonne, Den socialistiska hemmafrun och andra kvinnohistorier. Stockholm: Carlssons 1992, 70-112; Maddison, Dynamic Forces, 190 (table A:2) and 234 (table B:3).
167. Carlsson, The Swedish Experiment, 89; Hirdman, Yvonne, Den socialistiska hemmafrun och andra kvinnohistorier. Stockholm: Carlssons 1992, 70-112; Maddison, Dynamic Forces, 190 (table A:2) and 234 (table B:3).
168. Carlsson, The Swedish Experiment, 89; Hirdman, Yvonne, Den socialistiska hemmafrun och andra kvinnohistorier. Stockholm: Carlssons 1992, 70-112; Maddison, Dynamic Forces, 190 (table A:2) and 234 (table B:3).
169. Hobson, Barbara, Feminist Strategies and Gendered Discoursese in Welfare States: Married Women's Right to Work in the United States and Sweden, Mothers of a New World: Maternalist Politics and the Origins of Welfare States, Eds. Seth Koven and Sonya Michel. New York: Routledge 1993, 396-429;
170. Lewis, Gender and the Development of Welfare Regimes, 163-165; Mitchell, European Historical Statistics, 34 (table B:1), 52 (table B:2), 123, 130 (table B:6), 149, 153 (table B:9). For a more comprehensive study of the United Kingdom, see Pedersen, Susan, Family Dependence, and the Origins of the Welfare State: Britain and France 1914-1945. Cambridge: Cambridge UP 1993. According to Maddison, Dynamic Forces, 6-7, table 1.1., the British per capita income in 1913 was 83 per cent of the American figure.
171. Lewis, Gender and the Development of Welfare Regimes, 163-165; Mitchell, European Historical Statistics, 34 (table B:1), 52 (table B:2), 123, 130 (table B:6), 149, 153 (table B:9). For a more comprehensive study of the United Kingdom, see Pedersen, Susan, Family Dependence, and the Origins of the Welfare State: Britain and France 1914-1945. Cambridge: Cambridge UP 1993. According to Maddison, Dynamic Forces, 6-7, table 1.1., the British per capita income in 1913 was 83 per cent of the American figure.
172. Lewis, Gender and the Development of Welfare Regimes, 163-165; Mitchell, European Historical Statistics, 34 (table B:1), 52 (table B:2), 123, 130 (table B:6), 149, 153 (table B:9). For a more comprehensive study of the United Kingdom, see Pedersen, Susan, Family Dependence, and the Origins of the Welfare State: Britain and France 1914-1945. Cambridge: Cambridge UP 1993. According to Maddison, Dynamic Forces, 6-7, table 1.1., the British per capita income in 1913 was 83 per cent of the American figure.
173. Lewis, Gender and the Development of Welfare Regimes, 163-165; Mitchell, European Historical Statistics, 34 (table B:1), 52 (table B:2), 123, 130 (table B:6), 149, 153 (table B:9). For a more comprehensive study of the United Kingdom, see Pedersen, Susan, Family Dependence, and the Origins of the Welfare State: Britain and France 1914-1945. Cambridge: Cambridge UP 1993. According to Maddison, Dynamic Forces, 6-7, table 1.1., the British per capita income in 1913 was 83 per cent of the American figure.
174. Bussemaker, Jet & van Kersbergen, Kees, Gender and Welfare States: Some Theoretical Reflections, Gendering Welfare States, Ed. Diane Sainsbury. London: Sage Publications 1994, 21-23; Cox, Robert H., The Development of the Dutch Welfare State: From Workers' Insurance to Universal Entitlement. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press 1993, chapter 1; Lewis, Gender and the Development of Welfare Regimes, 165-168; Mitchell, European Historical Statistics, 30, 32 (table B:1), 53, 65 (table B:2), 125, 127 (table B:6); Pedersen, Family Dependence, passim.
175. Bussemaker, Jet & van Kersbergen, Kees, Gender and Welfare States: Some Theoretical Reflections, Gendering Welfare States, Ed. Diane Sainsbury. London: Sage Publications 1994, 21-23; Cox, Robert H., The Development of the Dutch Welfare State: From Workers' Insurance to Universal Entitlement. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press 1993, chapter 1; Lewis, Gender and the Development of Welfare Regimes, 165-168; Mitchell, European Historical Statistics, 30, 32 (table B:1), 53, 65 (table B:2), 125, 127 (table B:6); Pedersen, Family Dependence, passim.
176. Bussemaker, Jet & van Kersbergen, Kees, Gender and Welfare States: Some Theoretical Reflections, Gendering Welfare States, Ed. Diane Sainsbury. London: Sage Publications 1994, 21-23; Cox, Robert H., The Development of the Dutch Welfare State: From Workers' Insurance to Universal Entitlement. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press 1993, chapter 1; Lewis, Gender and the Development of Welfare Regimes, 165-168; Mitchell, European Historical Statistics, 30, 32 (table B:1), 53, 65 (table B:2), 125, 127 (table B:6); Pedersen, Family Dependence, passim.
177. Bussemaker, Jet & van Kersbergen, Kees, Gender and Welfare States: Some Theoretical Reflections, Gendering Welfare States, Ed. Diane Sainsbury. London: Sage Publications 1994, 21-23; Cox, Robert H., The Development of the Dutch Welfare State: From Workers' Insurance to Universal Entitlement. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press 1993, chapter 1; Lewis, Gender and the Development of Welfare Regimes, 165-168; Mitchell, European Historical Statistics, 30, 32 (table B:1), 53, 65 (table B:2), 125, 127 (table B:6); Pedersen, Family Dependence, passim.
178. Bussemaker, Jet & van Kersbergen, Kees, Gender and Welfare States: Some Theoretical Reflections, Gendering Welfare States, Ed. Diane Sainsbury. London: Sage Publications 1994, 21-23; Cox, Robert H., The Development of the Dutch Welfare State: From Workers' Insurance to Universal Entitlement. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press 1993, chapter 1; Lewis, Gender and the Development of Welfare Regimes, 165-168; Mitchell, European Historical Statistics, 30, 32 (table B:1), 53, 65 (table B:2), 125, 127 (table B:6); Pedersen, Family Dependence, passim.