Globalisation and environmental resistance politics

Third World Quarterly

Volumn 19, Issue 5, 1998, Pages 847-872

  Mittelman, James H ^a  

^a AMERICAN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ENVIRONMENTALISM; GEOPOLITICS; GLOBALIZATION; SOCIAL MOVEMENT;

AFRICA; ASIA;

EID: 0032452067     PISSN: 01436597     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/01436599814064     Document Type: Article

References (89)

1. A preliminary and abbreviated version of this article, without the cross-regional analysis or much of the theoretical discussion, appears as my 'Resisting globalisation: environmental politics in Eastern Asia', in Kris Olds et al (eds), Globalisation and the Asia-Pacific: Contested Territories, London: Routledge, 1999. The editorial team for that book - Kris Olds, Peter Dickin, Philip Kelly, Lily Kong and Henry Yeung - contributed importantly to this work.
2. Vandana Shiva, 'Resources', in Wolfgang Sachs (ed), The Development Dictionary: A Guide to Knowledge as Power, London: Zed Books, 1992, pp 211, 216.
3. James N Rosenau, Along the Domestic-Foreign Frontier: Exploring Governance in a Turbulent World, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997, pp 190-191.
4. Robert W Hefner, (ed), Market Cultures: Society and Values in the New Asian Capitalisms, Boulder, CO: Steven Yearley, Sociology, Environmentalism, Globalizatian: Reinventing the Globe, London: Sage, 1996; Westview Press, 1998; Heng Pek Koon, 'Robert Kuok and the Chinese Business Network in Eastern Asia: a study in sino-capitalism', in Timothy Brook & Hy V Luong (eds), Culture and Economy: The Shaping of Capitalism in Eastern Asia, Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 1997 pp 155-86; Gary Hamilton, (ed). Business Networks and Economic Development in East and Southeast Asia, Hong Kong: University of Hong Kong Centre of Asian Studies Occasional Papers and Monographs No 99, 1991; and S Gordon Redding, The Spirit of Chinese Capitalism, Berlin and New York: Walter and Gruyter, 1990.
5. Robert W Hefner, (ed), Market Cultures: Society and Values in the New Asian Capitalisms, Boulder, CO: Steven Yearley, Sociology, Environmentalism, Globalizatian: Reinventing the Globe, London: Sage, 1996; Westview Press, 1998; Heng Pek Koon, 'Robert Kuok and the Chinese Business Network in Eastern Asia: a study in sino-capitalism', in Timothy Brook & Hy V Luong (eds), Culture and Economy: The Shaping of Capitalism in Eastern Asia, Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 1997 pp 155-86; Gary Hamilton, (ed). Business Networks and Economic Development in East and Southeast Asia, Hong Kong: University of Hong Kong Centre of Asian Studies Occasional Papers and Monographs No 99, 1991; and S Gordon Redding, The Spirit of Chinese Capitalism, Berlin and New York: Walter and Gruyter, 1990.
6. Robert W Hefner, (ed), Market Cultures: Society and Values in the New Asian Capitalisms, Boulder, CO: Steven Yearley, Sociology, Environmentalism, Globalizatian: Reinventing the Globe, London: Sage, 1996; Westview Press, 1998; Heng Pek Koon, 'Robert Kuok and the Chinese Business Network in Eastern Asia: a study in sino-capitalism', in Timothy Brook & Hy V Luong (eds), Culture and Economy: The Shaping of Capitalism in Eastern Asia, Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 1997 pp 155-86; Gary Hamilton, (ed). Business Networks and Economic Development in East and Southeast Asia, Hong Kong: University of Hong Kong Centre of Asian Studies Occasional Papers and Monographs No 99, 1991; and S Gordon Redding, The Spirit of Chinese Capitalism, Berlin and New York: Walter and Gruyter, 1990.
7. Robert W Hefner, (ed), Market Cultures: Society and Values in the New Asian Capitalisms, Boulder, CO: Steven Yearley, Sociology, Environmentalism, Globalizatian: Reinventing the Globe, London: Sage, 1996; Westview Press, 1998; Heng Pek Koon, 'Robert Kuok and the Chinese Business Network in Eastern Asia: a study in sino-capitalism', in Timothy Brook & Hy V Luong (eds), Culture and Economy: The Shaping of Capitalism in Eastern Asia, Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 1997 pp 155-86; Gary Hamilton, (ed). Business Networks and Economic Development in East and Southeast Asia, Hong Kong: University of Hong Kong Centre of Asian Studies Occasional Papers and Monographs No 99, 1991; and S Gordon Redding, The Spirit of Chinese Capitalism, Berlin and New York: Walter and Gruyter, 1990.
8. Robert W Hefner, (ed), Market Cultures: Society and Values in the New Asian Capitalisms, Boulder, CO: Steven Yearley, Sociology, Environmentalism, Globalizatian: Reinventing the Globe, London: Sage, 1996; Westview Press, 1998; Heng Pek Koon, 'Robert Kuok and the Chinese Business Network in Eastern Asia: a study in sino-capitalism', in Timothy Brook & Hy V Luong (eds), Culture and Economy: The Shaping of Capitalism in Eastern Asia, Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 1997 pp 155-86; Gary Hamilton, (ed). Business Networks and Economic Development in East and Southeast Asia, Hong Kong: University of Hong Kong Centre of Asian Studies Occasional Papers and Monographs No 99, 1991; and S Gordon Redding, The Spirit of Chinese Capitalism, Berlin and New York: Walter and Gruyter, 1990.
9. James H Mittelman, (ed) Globalization: Critical Reflections, Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1996; and Mittelman At the Mercy of Globalization, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000.
10. James H Mittelman, (ed) Globalization: Critical Reflections, Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1996; and Mittelman At the Mercy of Globalization, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000.
11. When I began this journey, I regarded it as an academic project, but found that it took on practical and personal significance. An irony in recording my findings is that I did so in Hanoi, where I temporarily became an environmental refugee escaping the effects of choking haze that blanketed six countries and reached 'hazardous' levels on the official air pollution index in 1997. Ostensibly caused by uncontrolled forest fires in Indonesia, drought brought about by El Niño patterns in the oceans, and winds that swept the smoke into neighbouring countries, including Malaysia where I was living, the problem also had other causes the slash-and-burn techniques practised by transnational agribusiness, the lack of a political will to deal with some of the domestic sources of pollution in countries engaged in high-speed economic growth, and the fact that special interests outside and inside the state thwart strong remedial action. The immediate impact of the environmental crisis was deaths linked to respiratory illnesses, a welter of ancillary health problems overcrowding the hospitals, accidents attributable to poor visibility, and enormous direct economic costs, especially in tourism, agriculture, education and industries that had to cut back or pay fines. Plainly, the magnitude of this crisis reached major regional and global proportions. A salutary effect of the haze was that it alerted the public to the systemic consequences of unbridled economic growth and of looking exclusively or primarily to government for solutions. Embryonic yet mounting are the signs of disgruntlement and political resistance in the face of the roles that the market and the state have played in trespassing against nature, which has given manifest signals that its limits have been violated.
12. In keeping with conventional practice, I use the term 'NGO', but with reservations. NGO is an unfortunate construct since, by definition, it is a negation, and the frame of reference is solely the state. In fact, with globalisation and neoliberal pressures to reduce the scope of the state, the work of many NGOS now substitutes for activities previously performed by the state. Additionally, some NGOS are financially supported by the state and interstate organisations. In short, globalisation blurs the lines between government and 'nongovernmental organisations'.
13. Farieda Khan, "Rewriting South Africa's conservation history - the role of the Native Farmers Association'. Journal of Southern African Studies 20(4), 1994 pp 499-516.
14. June Carruthers, The Kruger National Park: A Social and Political History, Pietermaritzburg: University of Natal Press, 1995: and Farieda Khan, 'Beyond the white rhino: confronting the South African land question', African Wildlife, 44(6), 1990, pp 321-324.
15. June Carruthers, The Kruger National Park: A Social and Political History, Pietermaritzburg: University of Natal Press, 1995: and Farieda Khan, 'Beyond the white rhino: confronting the South African land question', African Wildlife, 44(6), 1990, pp 321-324.
16. Khan, 'Rewritng South Africa's conservation history'.
17. Christine B N Chin & James H Mittelman, 'Conceptualising resistance to globalisation', New Political Economy, 2(1), 1997, pp 25-37.
18. Antonio Gramsci, Selections from the Prison Notebooks, trans and ed by Quentin Hoare & Geoffrey Nowell Smith, London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1971.
19. Karl Polanyi, The Great Transformation: The Political and Economic Origins of Our Time, Boston: Beacon Press, 1957.
20. James C Scott, Domination and the Arts of Resistance: Hidden Transcripts, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1990.
21. Aihwa Ong, Spirits of Resistance and Capitalist Discipline: Factory Women in Malaysia, Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1987.
22. In this vein, Adas concludes his research findings on peasant resistance with a helpful formulation: 'Avoidance protest in its many forms can protect, win specific concessions or exact revenge, but it cannot reform in major ways or transform unjust socio-political systems. Only modes of confrontational protest can achieve the latter'. Michael Adas, 'From footdragging to flight: the evasive history of peasant avoidance protest in South and South-east Asia', Journal of Peasant Studies 13(7), 1986, pp 83-86.
23. Peter Harries-Jones, Abraham Rotstein & Peter Timmerman. 'Nature's veto: UNCED and the debate over the earth', unpublished paper, 1992. This phrasing embodies a departure from the dualism contained in the distinction between humankind and nature.
24. For example, Margaret E Keck and Kathryn Sikkink, Activist Beyond Borders: Advocacy Networks in International Politics, Ithaca NY, Cornell University Press, 1998. R B J Walker, 'Social movements/world politics', Millennium: Journal of International Studies 23(3), 1994, pp 669-700; Leslie Sklair, 'Global sociology and global environmental change', in M. Redclift & T. Benton (eds), Social Theory and the Global Environment, London: Routledge, 1994, pp 205-227; Leslie Sklair, 'Social movements and global capitalism: the transnational capitalist class in action', Review of International Political Economy 4(3), 1997, pp 554-538; and Martin Shaw, 'Civil society and global politics: beyond a social movements approach", Millennium, 23(3), 1994 pp, 647-667.
25. For example, Margaret E Keck and Kathryn Sikkink, Activist Beyond Borders: Advocacy Networks in International Politics, Ithaca NY, Cornell University Press, 1998. R B J Walker, 'Social movements/world politics', Millennium: Journal of International Studies 23(3), 1994, pp 669-700; Leslie Sklair, 'Global sociology and global environmental change', in M. Redclift & T. Benton (eds), Social Theory and the Global Environment, London: Routledge, 1994, pp 205-227; Leslie Sklair, 'Social movements and global capitalism: the transnational capitalist class in action', Review of International Political Economy 4(3), 1997, pp 554-538; and Martin Shaw, 'Civil society and global politics: beyond a social movements approach", Millennium, 23(3), 1994 pp, 647-667.
26. For example, Margaret E Keck and Kathryn Sikkink, Activist Beyond Borders: Advocacy Networks in International Politics, Ithaca NY, Cornell University Press, 1998. R B J Walker, 'Social movements/world politics', Millennium: Journal of International Studies 23(3), 1994, pp 669-700; Leslie Sklair, 'Global sociology and global environmental change', in M. Redclift & T. Benton (eds), Social Theory and the Global Environment, London: Routledge, 1994, pp 205-227; Leslie Sklair, 'Social movements and global capitalism: the transnational capitalist class in action', Review of International Political Economy 4(3), 1997, pp 554-538; and Martin Shaw, 'Civil society and global politics: beyond a social movements approach", Millennium, 23(3), 1994 pp, 647-667.
27. For example, Margaret E Keck and Kathryn Sikkink, Activist Beyond Borders: Advocacy Networks in International Politics, Ithaca NY, Cornell University Press, 1998. R B J Walker, 'Social movements/world politics', Millennium: Journal of International Studies 23(3), 1994, pp 669-700; Leslie Sklair, 'Global sociology and global environmental change', in M. Redclift & T. Benton (eds), Social Theory and the Global Environment, London: Routledge, 1994, pp 205-227; Leslie Sklair, 'Social movements and global capitalism: the transnational capitalist class in action', Review of International Political Economy 4(3), 1997, pp 514-538; and Martin Shaw, 'Civil society and global politics: beyond a social movements approach", Millennium, 23(3), 1994 pp, 647-667.
28. For example, Margaret E Keck and Kathryn Sikkink, Activist Beyond Borders: Advocacy Networks in International Politics, Ithaca NY, Cornell University Press, 1998. R B J Walker, 'Social movements/world politics', Millennium: Journal of International Studies 23(3), 1994, pp 669-700; Leslie Sklair, 'Global sociology and global environmental change', in M. Redclift & T. Benton (eds), Social Theory and the Global Environment, London: Routledge, 1994, pp 205-227; Leslie Sklair, 'Social movements and global capitalism: the transnational capitalist class in action', Review of International Political Economy 4(3), 1997, pp 554-538; and Martin Shaw, 'Civil society and global politics: beyond a social movements approach", Millennium, 23(3), 1994 pp, 647-667.
29. Polanyi, The Great Transformations p 167, emphasis added.
30. Ibid, p 157.
31. Mitchell Bernard, 'Ecology, political economy and the counter-movement: Karl Polanyi and the second great transformation', in Stephen Gill and James H. Mittelman (eds), Innovation and Transformation in International Studies, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997 pp 75-89.
32. The Great Transformation was originally published in 1944.
33. Fred Block & Margaret R. Somers, 'Beyond the economistic fallacy: the holistic social science of Karl Polanyi'. in Theda Skocpol (ed), Vision and Method in Historical Sociology, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984, pp 47-184.
34. Karl Polanyi, Primitive, Archaic and Modern Economies: Essays of Karl Polanyi, ed. G Dalton, New York: Anchor, 1968.
35. Karl Polanyi, The Livelihood of Man, ed Harry W Pearson, New York: Academic Press, 1997, pp 19, emphasis in the original.
36. Interview with the Woman's Committee of the Freedom from Debt Coalition, Manila, 13 March 1996.
37. Virginia D Nazarea-Sandoval, Local Knowledge and Agricultural Decision Making in the Philippines: Class, Gender, and Resistance, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1995.
38. Interviews with Romulo A del Castillo, Professor of Forest Resources and Director, University of the Philippines, Los Baños Agroforestry Program, Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines, 11 March 1996; and Lucrecio L Rebugio, Professor and Dean, College of Forestry, University of the Philippines, Los Baños Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines, 11 March 1996.
39. Nancy Lee Peluso, Rich Forests, Poor People: Resource Control and Resistance in Java, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992, pp 13; and James C Scott, Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1985.
40. Nancy Lee Peluso, Rich Forests, Poor People: Resource Control and Resistance in Java, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992, pp 13; and James C Scott, Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1985.
41. Peluso, Rick Forests, Poor People, pp 13, 16-17, and Scott, Weapons of the Weak.
42. Peluso, Rick Forests, Poor People, pp 13, 16-17, and Scott, Weapons of the Weak.
43. Ronnie Lipschutz, 'Restructuring world politics: the emergence of global civil society', Millennium, 21(3), 1992, pp 389-420.
44. Paul Wapner, Environmental Activism and World Civic Politics, Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1996.
45. Gramsci, Selections from the Prison Notebooks, p 208.
46. Isagani R Serrano, 'Civil society in the Asia-Pacific Region', in CIVICUS: World Alliance for Citizen Participation (ed), Citizens: Strengthening Global Civil Society, Washington, DC: CIVICUS, 1994, p 309.
47. Interview with Ho Hua Chow, Senior Lecturer, Department of Philosophy, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 5 December 1997.
48. Ho Hua Chow, 'A value orientation for nature preservation in Singapore", Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 1997, 44, pp 91-107; Garry Rodan, "Theorising political opposition in East and Southeast-Asia', in Rodan (ed), Political Oppositions in Industrialising Asia, London: Routledge, 1996 pp 106-107; and Lily Kong,' "Environment" as a social concern: democratizing public arenas in Singapore?', Sojourn, 9(2), 1994, pp 277-287.
49. Ho Hua Chow, 'A value orientation for nature preservation in Singapore", Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 1997, 44, pp 91-107; Garry Rodan, "Theorising political opposition in East and Southeast-Asia', in Rodan (ed), Political Oppositions in Industrialising Asia, London: Routledge, 1996 pp 106-107; and Lily Kong,' "Environment" as a social concern: democratizing public arenas in Singapore?', Sojourn, 9(2), 1994, pp 277-287.
50. Ho Hua Chow, 'A value orientation for nature preservation in Singapore", Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 1997, 44, pp 91-107; Garry Rodan, "Theorising political opposition in East and Southeast-Asia', in Rodan (ed), Political Oppositions in Industrialising Asia, London: Routledge, 1996 pp 106-107; and Lily Kong,' "Environment" as a social concern: democratizing public arenas in Singapore?', Sojourn, 9(2), 1994, pp 277-287.
51. Interview with Gurmit Singh K S, Executive Director, Centre for Environment, Technology and Development, Malaysia, Petaling Jaya, Malaysia, 15 November 1997.
52. See Wapner, Environmental Activism and World Civic Politics.
53. Peter Brosius, 'Endangered forest, endangered people: environmentalist representations of indigenous knowledge', Human Ecology 25(1), 1997, pp 47-69; Bernard Eccleston, 'Does North-South collaboration enhance NGO influence on deforestation policies in Malaysia and Indonesia?', Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics, 34(1), 1996, pp 66-89 and Bernard Eccleston, & David Potter, 'Environmental NGOS and different political contexts in South-East Asia: Malaysia, Indonesia and Vietnam', in M, Parnwell & R. Bryant (eds), Environmental Change in South-East Asia, London: Routledge, 1996, pp 49-66.
54. Peter Brosius, 'Endangered forest, endangered people: environmentalist representations of indigenous knowledge', Human Ecology 25(1), 1997, pp 47-69; Bernard Eccleston, 'Does North-South collaboration enhance NGO influence on deforestation policies in Malaysia and Indonesia?', Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics, 34(1), 1996, pp 66-89 and Bernard Eccleston, & David Potter, 'Environmental NGOS and different political contexts in South-East Asia: Malaysia, Indonesia and Vietnam', in M, Parnwell & R. Bryant (eds), Environmental Change in South-East Asia, London: Routledge, 1996, pp 49-66.
55. Peter Brosius, 'Endangered forest, endangered people: environmentalist representations of indigenous knowledge', Human Ecology 25(1), 1997, pp 47-69; Bernard Eccleston, 'Does North-South collaboration enhance NGO influence on deforestation policies in Malaysia and Indonesia?', Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics, 34(1), 1996, pp 66-89 and Bernard Eccleston, & David Potter, 'Environmental NGOS and different political contexts in South-East Asia: Malaysia, Indonesia and Vietnam', in M, Parnwell & R. Bryant (eds), Environmental Change in South-East Asia, London: Routledge, 1996, pp 49-66.
56. Interview with Danilo A Songco, National Co-ordinator CODE-NGO, Quezon City, Philippines, 13 March 1996.
57. Quoted in Francisco A Magno, "The growth of Philippine environmentalism', Kasarinlan 9(1), 1993, p 15.
58. Interviews with Apollo de Guzman, parish priest and President, Confederation of Nueva Ecijanons for the Environment and Social Order, Cabanatuan City, Nueva Ecija, Luzon, Philippines, 9 March 1996; and Victor Dacumos, Chairman, Guardians of the Environment for the Future of Youth, Gabaldon, Nueve Ecija, Philippines, 9 March 1996.
59. Interview with Joseph Z Z Matowanyika, Director, ZERO, Harare, Zimbabwe, 11 July 1996.
60. Interview with the Toxics Group of Earthlife Africa, meeting, Brixton, Johannesburg, South Africa, 15 July 1996.
61. Interview with Pelelo Magane, organizer, Chemical Workers Industrial Union, Johannesburg, South Africa 30 July 1996.
62. Interview with Nomtha Dilima, Director, Tsoga Environmental Centre, Langa, Cape Town, South Africa, 23 July 1996.
63. Interview wish Braggy Braganza, research scientist, Environmental Research Division of the Institute of Environmental Science for Social Change (formerly the Manila Observatory), Quezon City, Philippines, 2 March 1996.
64. Robin Broad, with John Cavanagh, Plundering Paradise: The Struggle for the Environment in the Philippines, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993, p 146.
65. Interview with Francisco T Albaran, Agriculturist, MUCARD, Cagayan de Oro City, Mindanao, Philippines, 4 March 1986.
66. Environmental Justice Networking Forum (EJNF), 'Proceedings of the Conference on Regional Co-operation in Environmental Governance', Broederstroom, South Africa, November 1996.
67. Michelle Buchler, 'Community-based environmentalism in transitional South Africa: social movements and the development of local democracy', unpublished MA thesis, Department of Sociology, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 1995, p 72.
68. Yahya Zawiah Resisting Colonialist Discourse, Bangi, Malaysia: Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Press, 1994, pp 16-18.
69. Interview with Horacio 'Boy' Morales, President, Philippine Rural Reconstruction Movement, Quezon City, Philippines, 13 March 1996; and Isagani R Serrano, Vice President, Philippine Rural Reconstruction Movement, Quezon City, Philippines, 13 March 1996.
70. Interview with Horacio 'Boy' Morales, President, Philippine Rural Reconstruction Movement, Quezon City, Philippines, 13 March 1996; and Isagani R Serrano, Vice President, Philippine Rural Reconstruction Movement, Quezon City, Philippines, 13 March 1996.
71. Interview with Edicio dela Torre, President, Folk Philippine-Danish School, Quezon City, Philippines, 12 March 1996. For a concrete illustration and analysis, see Philip F Kelly, 'Globalisation, power and the politics of scale in the Philippines', Geoforum 28(2), 1997, pp 151-171.
72. Eccleston, 'Does North-South collaboration enhance NGO influence? p 82.
73. Ichiyo Muto, 'PP21: s step in a process', AMPO Japan-Asia Quarterly Review, 25(2), 1994, pp 47-53. Interviews with Muto, Pacific Asia Resource Center, Tokyo, 25 February 1996; and Reiko Inoue, Director, Pacific Asia Resource Center, Tokyo, 24 February 1996.
74. Interview with Gurmit Singh K S.
75. 'Proposed Philippine PO-NGO position', Executive Summary, Manila People's Forum (MPF) on APEC, unpublished document, Manila, 1996.
76. National Council of Women of the Philippines (NCWP), 'APEC and the women: catching the next wave', GO-NGO Forum on Women, unpublished document, 56 July 1996.
77. Women's Forum, "Women's forum for she APEC Manila process', Manila People's Forum on APEC, unpublished document, Manila, 3 July 1996.
78. Manila People's Forum on APEC, 1996 'Hidden costs of free trade: Statement of the Philippine PO-NGO Summit on the APEC', unpublished document, Quezon City, Philippines, 6 July 1996.
79. Interview with Chris Albertyn and Co-workers, National Co-ordinator, Environmental Justice Networking Forum, Braamfontein, South Africa, 2 August 1996.
80. Rod Crompton & Alec Erwin, 'Reds and greens: Labour and the environment', in Jacklyn Cock (ed), Going Green, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991, pp 78-91.
81. Fourth ACP-EEC Convention, Internationales Umweltrecht - Multilaterale Verträge, BZUB7/I.92. 989:93/11, 1990, p 1.
82. Eddie Koch, 'SA still under fire for toxic waste Policy', Mail & Guardian (Braamfontein) 5-11 July 1996, interview with Koch, Environmental Editor, Mail & Guardian, Braamfontein, 19 July; and Koch, 'SA still in the waste business', Mail & Guardian, 26 July-1 August 1996.
83. Eddie Koch, 'SA still under fire for toxic waste Policy', Mail & Guardian (Braamfontein) 5-11 July 1996, interview with Koch, Environmental Editor, Mail & Guardian, Braamfontein, 19 July; and Koch, 'SA still in the waste business', Mail & Guardian, 26 July-1 August 1996.
84. Interview with Masahiko Hotta, President, Alter Trade Japan, Tokyo, 25 February 1996: and Ichiyo Muto & Smitu Kothari. 'Towards sustainable systems', Tokyo, unpublished discussion paper for PP21, Tokyo, nd.
85. Interview with Gary James C Tengco, Project Coordinator, Institute of Environmental Science for Social Change (formerly Environmental Research Division of the Manila Observatory). Cabanatuan City, Nueva Ecija, Luzon, Philippines, 9 March 1996.
86. Polanyi, The Great Transformation, p 239.
87. Ken Saro-Wiwa, A Month and a Day: A Detention Diary, New York: Penguin. 1995, p 214.
88. Interview wish Kader Asmal, Minister of Water Affairs and Forestry, Republic of South Africa, Pretoria, 31 July 1996.
89. Interview with Peter W S J Walpole, Executive Director, Institute of Environmental Science for Social Change (formerly Environmental Research Division of the Manila Observatory), Quezon City, Philippines, 12 March 1996.