Stabilising the democratic order: Electoral behaviour in Spain

West European Politics

Volumn 21, Issue 4, 1998, Pages 53-79

  Montero, José Ramón ^a,b,c,d,e  

^a UNIVERSIDAD AUTÓNOMA DE MADRID   (Spain)

^b Juan March Institute   (Spain)

^c Universities of Harvard California   (United States)

^d OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^e UNIVERSITY OF CÁDIZ   (Spain)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

DEMOCRACY; ELECTION; POLITICAL IDEOLOGY; POLITICAL SYSTEM; VOTING BEHAVIOR;

SPAIN;

EID: 0032442697     PISSN: 01402382     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/01402389808425271     Document Type: Article

References (68)

1. Luis Araquistáin, España en el crisol: un Estado que se disuelve y un pueblo que renace (Barcelona: Minerva, c.1920), quoted in Amando De Míguel, El rompecabezas nacional (Barcelona: Plaza y Janés 1986) p.133.
2. Luis Araquistáin, España en el crisol: un Estado que se disuelve y un pueblo que renace (Barcelona: Minerva, c.1920), quoted in Amando De Míguel, El rompecabezas nacional (Barcelona: Plaza y Janés 1986) p.133.
3. There are now large numbers of studies on elections and electoral behaviour in Spain; see in particular Juan Linz et al., Informe sociológico sobre el cambio político en España, 1975/81 (Madrid: Euramérica 1981); Richard Gunther, Giacomo Sani and Goldie Shabad Spain After Franco: The Making of a Competitive Party System (Berkeley, CA: U. of California Press 1986) ; Juan Linz and José Ramón Montero (eds) Crisis y cambio: electores y partidos en los años ochenta (Madrid: Centro de Estudios Constitucíonales 1986), and Pilar del Castillo (ed.) Comportamiento político y electoral (Madrid: Centro de Investigaciones Sociológicas 1994). For a more complete bibliography see José Ramön Montero and Francesc Pallarès, Los estudios electorales en España: un balance bibliográfico (1977-1991) (Barcelona: Institut de Ciències Polìtiques i Socials, Working Paper 49, 1992); José Ramón Montero 'Sobre las preferencias electorales en Espana: fragmentación v polarización (1976-1993)' in Del Castillo, Comportamiento político, supra, and José Ramón Montero 'Vent' anni di elezioni democratiche in Spagna (1977-1996)', Quaderni dell' Osservatorio Elettorale 36 (1996).
4. There are now large numbers of studies on elections and electoral behaviour in Spain; see in particular Juan Linz et al., Informe sociológico sobre el cambio político en España, 1975/81 (Madrid: Euramérica 1981); Richard Gunther, Giacomo Sani and Goldie Shabad Spain After Franco: The Making of a Competitive Party System (Berkeley, CA: U. of California Press 1986) ; Juan Linz and José Ramón Montero (eds) Crisis y cambio: electores y partidos en los años ochenta (Madrid: Centro de Estudios Constitucíonales 1986), and Pilar del Castillo (ed.) Comportamiento político y electoral (Madrid: Centro de Investigaciones Sociológicas 1994). For a more complete bibliography see José Ramön Montero and Francesc Pallarès, Los estudios electorales en España: un balance bibliográfico (1977-1991) (Barcelona: Institut de Ciències Polìtiques i Socials, Working Paper 49, 1992); José Ramón Montero 'Sobre las preferencias electorales en Espana: fragmentación v polarización (1976-1993)' in Del Castillo, Comportamiento político, supra, and José Ramón Montero 'Vent' anni di elezioni democratiche in Spagna (1977-1996)', Quaderni dell' Osservatorio Elettorale 36 (1996).
5. There are now large numbers of studies on elections and electoral behaviour in Spain; see in particular Juan Linz et al., Informe sociológico sobre el cambio político en España, 1975/81 (Madrid: Euramérica 1981); Richard Gunther, Giacomo Sani and Goldie Shabad Spain After Franco: The Making of a Competitive Party System (Berkeley, CA: U. of California Press 1986) ; Juan Linz and José Ramón Montero (eds) Crisis y cambio: electores y partidos en los años ochenta (Madrid: Centro de Estudios Constitucíonales 1986), and Pilar del Castillo (ed.) Comportamiento político y electoral (Madrid: Centro de Investigaciones Sociológicas 1994). For a more complete bibliography see José Ramön Montero and Francesc Pallarès, Los estudios electorales en España: un balance bibliográfico (1977-1991) (Barcelona: Institut de Ciències Polìtiques i Socials, Working Paper 49, 1992); José Ramón Montero 'Sobre las preferencias electorales en Espana: fragmentación v polarización (1976-1993)' in Del Castillo, Comportamiento político, supra, and José Ramón Montero 'Vent' anni di elezioni democratiche in Spagna (1977-1996)', Quaderni dell' Osservatorio Elettorale 36 (1996).
6. There are now large numbers of studies on elections and electoral behaviour in Spain; see in particular Juan Linz et al., Informe sociológico sobre el cambio político en España, 1975/81 (Madrid: Euramérica 1981); Richard Gunther, Giacomo Sani and Goldie Shabad Spain After Franco: The Making of a Competitive Party System (Berkeley, CA: U. of California Press 1986) ; Juan Linz and José Ramón Montero (eds) Crisis y cambio: electores y partidos en los años ochenta (Madrid: Centro de Estudios Constitucíonales 1986), and Pilar del Castillo (ed.) Comportamiento político y electoral (Madrid: Centro de Investigaciones Sociológicas 1994). For a more complete bibliography see José Ramön Montero and Francesc Pallarès, Los estudios electorales en España: un balance bibliográfico (1977-1991) (Barcelona: Institut de Ciències Polìtiques i Socials, Working Paper 49, 1992); José Ramón Montero 'Sobre las preferencias electorales en Espana: fragmentación v polarización (1976-1993)' in Del Castillo, Comportamiento político, supra, and José Ramón Montero 'Vent' anni di elezioni democratiche in Spagna (1977-1996)', Quaderni dell' Osservatorio Elettorale 36 (1996).
7. There are now large numbers of studies on elections and electoral behaviour in Spain; see in particular Juan Linz et al., Informe sociológico sobre el cambio político en España, 1975/81 (Madrid: Euramérica 1981); Richard Gunther, Giacomo Sani and Goldie Shabad Spain After Franco: The Making of a Competitive Party System (Berkeley, CA: U. of California Press 1986) ; Juan Linz and José Ramón Montero (eds) Crisis y cambio: electores y partidos en los años ochenta (Madrid: Centro de Estudios Constitucíonales 1986), and Pilar del Castillo (ed.) Comportamiento político y electoral (Madrid: Centro de Investigaciones Sociológicas 1994). For a more complete bibliography see José Ramön Montero and Francesc Pallarès, Los estudios electorales en España: un balance bibliográfico (1977-1991) (Barcelona: Institut de Ciències Polìtiques i Socials, Working Paper 49, 1992); José Ramón Montero 'Sobre las preferencias electorales en Espana: fragmentación v polarización (1976-1993)' in Del Castillo, Comportamiento político, supra, and José Ramón Montero 'Vent' anni di elezioni democratiche in Spagna (1977-1996)', Quaderni dell' Osservatorio Elettorale 36 (1996).
8. There are now large numbers of studies on elections and electoral behaviour in Spain; see in particular Juan Linz et al., Informe sociológico sobre el cambio político en España, 1975/81 (Madrid: Euramérica 1981); Richard Gunther, Giacomo Sani and Goldie Shabad Spain After Franco: The Making of a Competitive Party System (Berkeley, CA: U. of California Press 1986) ; Juan Linz and José Ramón Montero (eds) Crisis y cambio: electores y partidos en los años ochenta (Madrid: Centro de Estudios Constitucíonales 1986), and Pilar del Castillo (ed.) Comportamiento político y electoral (Madrid: Centro de Investigaciones Sociológicas 1994). For a more complete bibliography see José Ramön Montero and Francesc Pallarès, Los estudios electorales en España: un balance bibliográfico (1977-1991) (Barcelona: Institut de Ciències Polìtiques i Socials, Working Paper 49, 1992); José Ramón Montero 'Sobre las preferencias electorales en Espana: fragmentación v polarización (1976-1993)' in Del Castillo, Comportamiento político, supra, and José Ramón Montero 'Vent' anni di elezioni democratiche in Spagna (1977-1996)', Quaderni dell' Osservatorio Elettorale 36 (1996).
9. There are now large numbers of studies on elections and electoral behaviour in Spain; see in particular Juan Linz et al., Informe sociológico sobre el cambio político en España, 1975/81 (Madrid: Euramérica 1981); Richard Gunther, Giacomo Sani and Goldie Shabad Spain After Franco: The Making of a Competitive Party System (Berkeley, CA: U. of California Press 1986) ; Juan Linz and José Ramón Montero (eds) Crisis y cambio: electores y partidos en los años ochenta (Madrid: Centro de Estudios Constitucíonales 1986), and Pilar del Castillo (ed.) Comportamiento político y electoral (Madrid: Centro de Investigaciones Sociológicas 1994). For a more complete bibliography see José Ramön Montero and Francesc Pallarès, Los estudios electorales en España: un balance bibliográfico (1977-1991) (Barcelona: Institut de Ciències Polìtiques i Socials, Working Paper 49, 1992); José Ramón Montero 'Sobre las preferencias electorales en Espana: fragmentación v polarización (1976-1993)' in Del Castillo, Comportamiento político, supra, and José Ramón Montero 'Vent' anni di elezioni democratiche in Spagna (1977-1996)', Quaderni dell' Osservatorio Elettorale 36 (1996).
10. Leonardo Morlino, 'Political Parties and Democratic Consolidation in Southern Europe', in Richard Gunther, P. Nikiforos Dimandouros and Hans-Jürgen Puhle (eds), The Politics of Democratic Consolidation: Southern Europe in Comparative Perspective (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins UP 1995) p.317.
11. Peter Mair, Party System Change. Approaches and Interpretations (Oxford: Clarendon Press 1997) p.174.
12. Juan Linz and Alfred Stepan, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins UP 1996); Gunther, Diamandouros and Puhle, Politics of Democratic Consolidation (note 3).
13. Juan Linz and Alfred Stepan, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins UP 1996); Gunther, Diamandouros and Puhle, Politics of Democratic Consolidation (note 3).
14. Maurizo Cotta, 'Structuring the New Party Systems after the Dictatorship. Coalitions, Alliances, Fusions and Splits during the Transition and Post-Transition Stages', in Geoffrey Pridham and Paul Lewis (eds) Stabilising Fragile Democracies (London: Routledge 1996).
15. Richard Gunther, 'Spain: The Very Model of the Modern Eliet Settlement', in John Higley and Richard Gunther (eds) Elites and Democratic Consolidation in Latin America and Southern Europe (Cambridge: CUP 1992).
16. Mair, Party System Change (note 4) pp.206ff.
17. Samuel H. Barnes, Peter McDonough and Antonio López Pina, 'The development of partisanship in a new democracy: the case of Spain', American Journal of Political Science 29 (1985 ) pp.695-720.
18. Expressed as a percentage, the volatility index measures the net difference between the results obtained by the main parties in two successive elections. See Stefano Bartolini and Peter Mair, Identity, Competition, and Electoral Availability: The Stabilization of European Electorates, 1885-1985 (Cambridge: CUP 1990) pp.20ff.
19. José Ramón Montero and Richard Gunther, 'Sistemas "cerrados" y listas "abiertas": sobre algunas propuestas de reforma del sistema electoral en España', in Montero, Gunther and José Ignacio Wert et al., La reforma del régimen electoral (Madrid: Centro de Estudios Constitucionales 1994) p.471, Morlino, 'Poĺitícal Parties and Democratic Consolidation', (note 3) p.318.
20. José Ramón Montero and Richard Gunther, 'Sistemas "cerrados" y listas "abiertas": sobre algunas propuestas de reforma del sistema electoral en España', in Montero, Gunther and José Ignacio Wert et al., La reforma del régimen electoral (Madrid: Centro de Estudios Constitucionales 1994) p.471, Morlino, 'Poĺitícal Parties and Democratic Consolidation', (note 3) p.318.
21. Bartolini and Mair, Identity (note 10).
22. Mair, Party System Change (note 4) p. 182.
23. Data for aggregate volatility are similar to those for individual volatility, which are based on estimates made from post-electoral surveys which measure individual voting shifts in two successive elections. See José Ramón Montera 'Las elecciones legislativas' in Ramón Cotarelo (ed.) Transición política y consolidación democrática en España (1975-1986) (Madrid: Centro de Investigaciones Sociológicas 1992) pp.289-95.
24. This index shows how many parties compete in elections, and how many do so in parliament, in both cases taking into account their respective relative sizes. See Rein Taagepera and Matthew F. Shugart, Seats and Votes: The Effects and Determinants of Electoral Systems (New Haven, CT: Yale UP 1989) pp.79ff.
25. José Ramón Montera, 'Sobre las preferencias electorales en España: fragmentación y polarización (1976-1993), in Del Castillo, Compartamiento político (note 2) pp.67-72.
26. The indicators of polarisation are usually obtained from representative surveys that include questions about the respondents' self-placement on a left-right scale, normally consisting of ten positions. See Giacomo Sani and Giovanni Sartori, 'Polarización, fragmentación y competición en las democracias occidentales', Revista del Departamento de Derecho Político 7 (1980).
27. The 1979 survey was carried out by DATA in April-May from a representative nation-wide sample of 5,439 Spaniards aged 18 or over (for details, see Gunther, Sani and Shabad, Spain After Franco, note 2); the 1982 poll was undertaken by DATA in Oct.-Nov. from a sample of 5,463 adult Spaniards (Linz and Montera, Crisis y cambio); and the two waves of the 1993 panel survey was carried out by DATA in May and June that year using a sample of 1,448 citizens (Montera, 'Sobre las preferencias electorales', note 2). The polls in the Data Archive (Banco de Datos) of the Centro de Investigaciones Sociológicas (CIS) were carried out in June-July 1986, Oct.-Nov. 1989, and March 1996, with representative, nationwide samples of 8,236, 3,084, and 5,350 adult Spaniards, respectively.
28. The 1979 survey was carried out by DATA in April-May from a representative nation-wide sample of 5,439 Spaniards aged 18 or over (for details, see Gunther, Sani and Shabad, Spain After Franco, note 2); the 1982 poll was undertaken by DATA in Oct.-Nov. from a sample of 5,463 adult Spaniards (Linz and Montera, Crisis y cambio); and the two waves of the 1993 panel survey was carried out by DATA in May and June that year using a sample of 1,448 citizens (Montera, 'Sobre las preferencias electorales', note 2). The polls in the Data Archive (Banco de Datos) of the Centro de Investigaciones Sociológicas (CIS) were carried out in June-July 1986, Oct.-Nov. 1989, and March 1996, with representative, nationwide samples of 8,236, 3,084, and 5,350 adult Spaniards, respectively.
29. The 1979 survey was carried out by DATA in April-May from a representative nation-wide sample of 5,439 Spaniards aged 18 or over (for details, see Gunther, Sani and Shabad, Spain After Franco, note 2); the 1982 poll was undertaken by DATA in Oct.-Nov. from a sample of 5,463 adult Spaniards (Linz and Montera, Crisis y cambio); and the two waves of the 1993 panel survey was carried out by DATA in May and June that year using a sample of 1,448 citizens (Montera, 'Sobre las preferencias electorales', note 2). The polls in the Data Archive (Banco de Datos) of the Centro de Investigaciones Sociológicas (CIS) were carried out in June-July 1986, Oct.-Nov. 1989, and March 1996, with representative, nationwide samples of 8,236, 3,084, and 5,350 adult Spaniards, respectively.
30. The peculiarities of the parties, party competition, and the party system in the Basque Country are too numerous to mention here; they are discussed in Juan J. Linz et al. Conflicto en Euskadi (Madrid: Espasa-Calpe 1986) and Francisco J. Llera, Los vascos y la política. El proceso político vasco: elecciones, partidos, opinión publica y legitimación en el País Vasco, 1997-1992 (Bilbao: U. del País Vasco 1994).
31. The peculiarities of the parties, party competition, and the party system in the Basque Country are too numerous to mention here; they are discussed in Juan J. Linz et al. Conflicto en Euskadi (Madrid: Espasa-Calpe 1986) and Francisco J. Llera, Los vascos y la política. El proceso político vasco: elecciones, partidos, opinión publica y legitimación en el País Vasco, 1997-1992 (Bilbao: U. del País Vasco 1994).
32. Montera, 'Sobre las preferencias electorales' (note 2) pp.101-3.
33. Richard Gunther and José Ramön Montero, 'Los anclajes del partidismo: un análisis comparado del comportamiento electoral en cuatro democracias del sur de Europa', in Del Castillo, Comportamiento político (note 2).
34. See for instance Barnes, MacDonough and López Pina, 'The development of partisanship in a new democracy' (note 9), and Hermann Schmitt, 'On Party Attachment in Western Europe and the Utility of Eurobarometer Data', West European Politics 12/2 (April 1989) pp. 122-39.
35. See for instance Barnes, MacDonough and López Pina, 'The development of partisanship in a new democracy' (note 9), and Hermann Schmitt, 'On Party Attachment in Western Europe and the Utility of Eurobarometer Data', West European Politics 12/2 (April 1989) pp. 122-39.
36. Roberto Biorcio and Renato Mannheimer, 'Relationships between citizens and political parties', in Hans-Dieter Klingemann and Dieter Fuchs (eds.) Citizens and the State (Oxford: OUP 1995).
37. Richard Gunther, José Ramón Montero and Mariano Torcal, 'Anti-party Sentiments in Southern Europe: A Preminiary Exploration' (paper presented at the conference on 'Political Parties: Changing Roles in Contemporary Democracies', Inst. Juan March, Madrid 1994).
38. José Ramón Montero, 'Partidos y participación política: algunas notas sobre la afiliación política en la etapa inicial de la transición española', Revista de Estudios Políticos 23 (1981);
39. José Ramón Montero, 'Partidos y participación política: algunas notas sobre la afiliación política en la etapa inicial de la transición española', Revista de Estudios Políticos 23 (1981); Pilar Gangas, 'El desarrollo organizativo de los partidos políticos españoles de implantación nacional' (PhD diss., Inst. Juan March, Madrid 1995); Richard Katz, Peter Mair et al., 'The Membership of Political Parties in European Democracies, 1960-1990', European Journal of Political Research 22 (1992) pp.329-45.
40. José Ramón Montero, 'Partidos y participación política: algunas notas sobre la afiliación política en la etapa inicial de la transición española', Revista de Estudios Políticos 23 (1981); Pilar Gangas, 'El desarrollo organizativo de los partidos políticos españoles de implantación nacional' (PhD diss., Inst. Juan March, Madrid 1995); Richard Katz, Peter Mair et al., 'The Membership of Political Parties in European Democracies, 1960-1990', European Journal of Political Research 22 (1992) pp.329-45.
41. Jacint Jordana, 'Reconsidering Union Membership in Spain, 1977-1994: Halting Decline in a Context of Democratic Consolidation', Industrial Relations Journal 27 ( 1996) pp.211-24 and Bernhard Ebbinghaus and Jelle Visser, 'When Labour Institutions Matter: Union Growth and Decline in Western Europe, 1950-90' (paper presented at European Sociological Assoc. Conference, U. of Essex, 1997).
42. Jacint Jordana, 'Reconsidering Union Membership in Spain, 1977-1994: Halting Decline in a Context of Democratic Consolidation', Industrial Relations Journal 27 ( 1996) pp.211-24 and Bernhard Ebbinghaus and Jelle Visser, 'When Labour Institutions Matter: Union Growth and Decline in Western Europe, 1950-90' (paper presented at European Sociological Assoc. Conference, U. of Essex, 1997).
43. Javier Astudillo, 'Los recursos del socialismo: las cambiantes relaciones entre el PSOE y la UGT (1982-1993)' (PhD diss. Inst. Juan March, Madrid 1998).
44. Bartolini and Mair, Identity (note 10).
45. Gunther, Sani and Shabad, Spain After Franco (note 2).
46. Juan Linz, 'Religión y política en España', in Rafael Díaz-Salazar and Salvador Giner (eds) Religión y sociedad en España (Madrid: Centro de Investigaciones Sociológicas 1993).
47. The index of religiosity has been compiled from post-electoral surveys and calculated by assigning the values of 5 to 'very good Catholics', 4 to 'practising Catholics', 3 to 'not very practising Catholics', 2 to 'non-practising Catholics', and 1 to those who identify themselves as 'indifferent or atheists'.
48. José Ramón Montero, 'Secularization and Cleavage Decline. Religiosity, Electoral Behaviour, and Generational Change in Spain' (paper presented at the workshop on 'Religion and electoral mass behaviour in Western Europe', ECPR, Bern 1997).
49. Juan Linz, 'De las crisis de un estado unitario al Estado de las Autonomías', in F. Fernández (ed.) La España de las Autonomiás (pasado, presente y futuro) (Madrid: Inst. de Estudios de Administración Local 1985).
50. Francesc Pallarès, 'Las elecciones autonómicas en España: 1980-1992', in Del Castillo, Comportamiento político (note 2).
51. Josep Maria Vallès, 'Sistema electoral y democracia representativa: nota sobre la Ley Orgánica del Régimen Electoral General de 1985 y su función política', Revista de Estudios Político 53 (1991) pp.7-28.
52. This section rests on arguments which are developed more extensively in Gunther and Montero 'Los anclajes del partidismo' (see Table 8 source), which also discusses the characteristics of the empirical analysis and its findings. Only the post-electoral surveys of 1979, 1982, and 1993 have been used here. This is a Probit-type multivariate analysis, in which the dependent variable is the declared vote for a party, and the independent variables are a series of indicators of objective and subjective class position, union membership, religiosity, membership of religious associations and proximity to the parties on the left-right ideological continuum. The few cases mean that is has not been possible to include variables relating to the nationalist cleavage.
53. 2 weighted averages are measures of the percentage of variance explained by each variable or group of variables, and indicate the propensity to vote for a specific nationwide party of the Left or the Right. Thus, they can also be seen as measures of the strength of the anchoring of the vote in each of the two ideological spaces, or in other words, a measure of the barrier dividing the parties on the Right from those on the Left.
54. However, it has recently been suggested that the party elites' deliberate strategy of politicising some social dimensions through the development of specific public policies may mean that social class has again become a significant explanatory variable for competition between the two parties. See Pradeep Chhibber and Mariano Torcal, 'Elite Strategy, Social Cleavages, and Party Systems in a New Democracy. Spain', Comparative Political Studies 30(1997) pp.27-53.
55. Gunther and Montero, 'Los anclajes del partidismo', (Table 8 source) pp.528ff.
56. Giacomo Sani and José Ramón Montero, 'El espectro político: izquierda, derecha y centro', in Linz and Montero, Crisis y cambio (note 2).
57. Leadership also figures prominently among the factors influencing the vote: evaluations of political leaders do not appear to be related so much to the decision to vote for one or other party belonging to different ideological blocs, but in the decision to do so for a particular party within one or other of the blocs. See Gunther and Montero, 'Los anclajes del partidismo' (Table 8 source) pp.534-6.
58. Giovanní Sartori, Comparative Constitutional Engineering: An Inquiry into Structures, Incentives and Outcomes (London: Macmillan 1994) p.37.
59. Arend Lijphart, Sistemas electorales y sistemas de partidos. Un estudio de veintisiete democracias, 1945-1990 (Madrid: Centro de Estudios Constitucionales 1995) pp.62-3.
60. Ibid, pp.59-60.
61. Montero and Gunther, 'Sistemas "cerrados" y listas "abiertas"' (note 11).
62. Michael Gallagher, 'Proportionality, disproportionality and electoral systems', Electoral Studies 10 (1991) pp.33-51.
63. These biases are at the heart of the debate between those who classify the Spanish electoral system as majoritarian (even if attenuated), and those who argue that it should be considered a proportional (even if corrected) system; see Vallès, 'Sistema electoral y democracia representative' and Mario Caciagli 'Spagna: proporzionale con efetti (finora) maggioritari', in Oreste Massari and Gianfranco Pasquino (eds.) Rappresentare e governare (Bologna: II Mulino 1994).
64. These biases are at the heart of the debate between those who classify the Spanish electoral system as majoritarian (even if attenuated), and those who argue that it should be considered a proportional (even if corrected) system; see Vallès, 'Sistema electoral y democracia representative' and Mario Caciagli 'Spagna: proporzionale con efetti (finora) maggioritari', in Oreste Massari and Gianfranco Pasquino (eds.) Rappresentare e governare (Bologna: II Mulino 1994).
65. Richard Gunther, 'Leyes electorales, sistemas de partidos y élites: el caso español', Revista Española de Investigaciones Sociológicas 47 (1989) pp.73-106; Montera and Gunther, 'Sistemas "cerrados" y listas "abiertas"' (note 11) pp. 18-19.
66. Richard Gunther, 'Leyes electorales, sistemas de partidos y élites: el caso español', Revista Española de Investigaciones Sociológicas 47 (1989) pp.73-106; Montera and Gunther, 'Sistemas "cerrados" y listas "abiertas"' (note 11) pp. 18-19.
67. Paul Heywood, 'The Emergence of New Party Systems and Transitions to Democracy. Spain in Comparative Perspective', in Pridham and Lewis, Stabilising Fragile Democracies (note 6).
68. Gunther and Montero 'Los anclajes del partidismo' (Table 8 source).