Competence and metamorphosis in the long-term planktotrophic larvae of the nudibranch mollusc Hermissenda crassicornis (Eschscholtz, 1831)

Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology

Volumn 231, Issue 1, 1998, Pages 81-117

  Avila, C ^a  

^a MARINE BIOLOGICAL LABORATORY   (United States)

Author keywords

Chemical inducers; Hermissenda crassicornis; Metamorphosis; Natural inducers; Nudibranch molluscs

Indexed keywords

DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY; METAMORPHOSIS; SLUG;

ARTICLE; BENTHIC ENVIRONMENT; ECOSYSTEM; INVERTEBRATE; LARVAL DEVELOPMENT; LIFE CYCLE; METAMORPHOSIS; MOLLUSC; PLANKTON; RELIABILITY;

HERMISSENDA CRASSICORNIS; NUDIBRANCHIA; TUBULARIA CROCEA;

EID: 0032430951     PISSN: 00220981     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0022-0981(98)00093-8     Document Type: Article

References (148)

1. Alkon D.L. Learning in a marine snail. Science. 249:1983;70-84.
2. Alkon D.L. Memory storage and neural systems. Sci. Am. 261:1989;42-50.
3. Alkon D.L., Anderson M.J., Kuzirian A.M., Rogers D.S., Fass D.M., Collin C., Nelson T.J., Kapetanovic I.M., Matzel L.D. GABA-mediated synaptic interaction between the visual and vestibular pathways of Hermissenda. J. Neurochem. 61:1993;556-566.
4. Avila C. Chemotaxis in the nudibranch Hermissenda crassicornis: does ingestive conditioning influence its behaviour in a Y-maze? J. Moll. Studies. 64:1998;215-222.
5. Avila C., Arigue A., Tamse C.T., Kuzirian A.M. Hermissenda crassicornis larvae metamorphose in laboratory in response to artificial and natural inducers. Biol. Bull. 187:1994;252-253.
6. Avila C., Grenier S., Tamse C.T., Kuzirian A.M. Biological factors affecting larval growth in the nudibranch mollusc Hermissenda crassicornis (Eschscholtz, 1831). J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 218:1997;243-262.
7. Avila C., Kuzirian A.M. Natural diets for Hermissenda crassicornis mariculture. Biol. Bull. 189:1995;237-238.
8. Avila, C., Kuzirian, A.M., Tamse, C.T., submitted. Catecholamines increase the metamorphic yield of Hermissenda crassicornis larvae in laboratory.
9. Avila C., Tamse C.T., Kuzirian A.M. Induction of metamorphosis in Hermissenda crassicornis larvae (Mollusca: Nudibranchia) by GABA, choline and serotonin. Invert. Reprod. Dev. 29(2):1996;127-141.
10. Avila C., Tyndale E., M Kuzirian A. Feeding behavior and growth of Hermissenda crassicornis (Mollusca: Nudibranchia) in the laboratory. Mar. Fresh. Behav. Physiol. 31:1998;1-19.
11. Bahamondes-Rojas I. Induction de la métamorphose des larves d'Eubranchus doriae (Trinchèse, 1879), Mollusque Nudibranche, par des substances provenant de l'espèce proie Kirchenpaueria pinnata, Hydrozoaire, Cnidaire. Vie Marine. 9:1988;1-6.
12. Bahamondes-Rojas I., Dherbomez M. Purification partielle de substances glycoconjuguées capables d'induire la métemorphose des larves compétentes d'Eubranchus doriae (Trinchèse, 1879), Mollusque Nudibranche. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 144:1990;17-27.
13. Bahamondes-Rojas I., Tardy J. Induction a la metamorphose chez Eubranchus doriae (Trinchese,1879) (Mollusque, Nudibranche) par diverses substances bioactives. Haliotis. 18:1988;121-130.
14. Baloun A.J., Morse D.E. Ionic control of settlement and metamorphosis in larval Haliotis rufescens (Gastropoda). Biol. Bull. 167:1984;124-138.
15. Bayne B.L. Growth and the delay of metamorphosis of the larvae of Mytilus edulis (L.). Ophelia. 2(1):1965;1-47.
16. Beiras R., Widdows J. Induction of metamorphosis in larvae of the oyster Crassostrea gigas using neuroactive compounds. Mar. Biol. 123:1995;327-334.
17. Berking S. Ammonia, tetraethylammonium, barium and amiloride induce metamorphosis in the marine hydroid Hydractinia. Roux's Arch. Dev. Biol. 197:1988;1-9.
18. Berking S., Herrmann K. Dicapryloylglycerol and ammonium ions induce metamorphosis of ascidian larvae. Roux's Arch. Dev. Biol. 198:1990;430-432.
19. Berking S., Schüle T. Ammonia induces metamorphosis of the oral half of buds into polyp heads in the scyphozoan Cassiopea. Roux's Arch. Dev. Biol. 196:1987;388-390.
20. Bickell L.R., Chia F.-S. Organogenesis and histogenesis in the planktotrophic veliger of Doridella steinbergae (Opisthobranchia: Nudibranchia). Mar. Biol. 52:1979;291-313.
21. Bickell L.R., Kempf S.C. Larval and metamorphic morphogenesis in the nudibranch Melibe leonina (Mollusca: Opisthobranchia). Biol. Bull. 165:1983;119-138.
22. Birkeland C. Interactions between a sea pen and seven of its predators. Ecol. Monogr. 44:1974;211-232.
23. Boidron-Métairon, I.F., 1995. Larval nutrition. In: McEdward, L. (Ed.), Ecology of Marine Invertebrate Larvae, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 223-248.
24. Boucher L.M. Vestigial larval shells in the planktonic veligers of two gymnodorid nudibranchs. J. Moll. Stud. 52:1986;30-34.
25. Burke R.D. The induction of metamorphosis of marine invertebrate larvae: stimulus and response. Can. J. Zool. 61:1983;1701-1719.
26. Cameron R.A., Hinegardner R.T. Initiation of metamorphosis in laboratory cultured sea urchins. Biol. Bull. 146:1974;335-342.
27. Carroll D.J., Kempf S.C. Laboratory culture of the aeolid nudibranch Berghia verrucicornis (Mollusca, Opisthobranchia): some aspects of its development and life history. Biol. Bull. 179:1990;243-253.
28. Chevolot L., Cochard J.-C., Yvin J.-C. Chemical induction of larval metamorphosis of Pecten maximus with a note on the nature of naturally occurring triggering substances. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 74:1991;83-89.
29. Chia, F.-S., 1978. Perspectives: Settlement and metamorphosis of marine invertebrate larvae. In: Chia, F.-S., Rice, M.E. (Eds.), Settlement and Metamorphosis of Marine Invertebrate Larvae, Elsevier, New York, pp. 283-285.
30. Chia, F.-S., 1989. Differential larval settlement of benthic marine invertebrates. In: Ryland, J.S., Tyler, P.A. (Eds.), Reproduction, Genetics and Distributions of Marine Organisms, Olsen and Olsen, Fredensborg, pp. 3-12.
31. Chia F.-S., Koss R. Development and metamorphosis of the planktotrophic larvae of Rostanga pulchra (Mollusca: Nudibranchia). Mar. Biol. 46:1978;109-119.
32. Chia F.-S., Koss R. Induction of settlement and metamorphosis of the veliger larvae of the nudibranch Onchidoris bilamellata. Int. J. Invert. Reprod. Dev. 14:1988;53-70.
33. Coon S.L., Bonar D.B., Weiner R.M. Chemical production of cultchless oyster spat using epinephrine and norepinephrine. Aquaculture. 58:1986;255-262.
34. Coon S.L., Fitt W.K., Bonar D.B. Competence and delay of metamorphosis in the Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas. Mar. Biol. 106:1990;379-387.
35. Crisp, D.J., 1974. Factors influencing the settlement of marine invertebrate larvae. In: Grant, P.T., Macki, A.M. (Eds.), Chemoreception in Marine Organisms, Academic Press, London, pp. 177-265.
36. Crisp, D.J., 1984. Overview of research on marine invertebrate larvae, 1940-1980. In: Costlow, J.D., Tipper, R.C. (Eds.), Marine Biodeterioration: an Interdisciplinary Study, E.&F.N. Spon., London, pp. 103-126.
37. Davis M., Heyman W.D., Harvey W., Withstandley C.A. A comparison of two inducers, KCl and Laurencia extracts, and techniques for the commercial scale induction of metamorphosis in queen conch Strombus gigas Linnaeus, 1758 larvae. J. Shellfish Res. 9(1):1990;67-73.
38. Davis M., Stoner A.W. Trophic cues induce metamorphosis of queen conch larvae (Strombus gigas Linnaeus). J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 180:1994;83-102.
39. Edmunds M. Larval development, oceanic currents and origins of the opisthobranch fauna of Ghana. J. Moll. Studies. 43:1977;301-308.
40. Eyster L.S., Pechenik J.A. Attachment of Mytilus edulis L. larvae on algal and byssal filaments is enhanced by water agitation. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 114:1987;99-110.
41. Eyster L.S., Pechenik J.A. Comparison of growth, respiration and feeding of juvenile Crepidula fornicata (L.) following natural or KCl-triggered metamorphosis. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 118:1988;269-279.
42. Eyster L.S., Stancyck S.E. Reproduction, growth and trophic interactions of Doriopsilla pharpa Marcus in South Carolina. Bull. Mar. Sci. 31(1):1981;72-82.
43. Franz D.R. Development and metamorphosis of the gastropod Acteocina canaliculata (Say). Trans. Am. Micros. Soc. 90:1971;174-182.
44. Gibson G. Why be choosy? Temporal changes in larval sensitivity to several naturally-occurring metamorphic inducers in the opisthobranch Haminaea callidegenita. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 194:1995;9-24.
45. Gibson G.D., Chia F.-S. Developmental variability (pelagic and benthic) in Haminoea callidegenita (Opisthobranchia: Cephalaspidea) is influenced by egg mass jelly. Biol. Bull. 176:1989;103-110.
46. Gohar H.A.F., Aboul-Ela I. On a new nudibranch Phyllodesmium xeniae. Publ. Mar. Biol. Sta. Al-Ghardaqa. 9:1957;131-144.
47. Gotshall, D.W., Laurent, L.L., 1980. Pacific Coast Subtidal Marine Invertebrates. Sea Challengers, Monterey, CA.
48. Hadfield M.G. The biology of nudibranch larvae. Oikos. 14:1963;85-95.
49. Hadfield, M.G., 1977. Chemical interactions in larval settling of a marine gastropod. In: Faulkner, D.J., Fenical, W.H. (Eds.), Marine Natural Products Chemistry, Plenum Press, New York, pp. 403-413.
50. Hadfield M.G. Settlement requirements of molluscan larvae: new data on chemical and genetic roles. Aquaculture. 39:1984;283-298.
51. Hadfield M.G., Karlson R.H. Externally induced metamorphosis in a marine gastropod. Am. Soc. Zool. 9:1969;1122.
52. Hadfield M.G., Miller S.E. On developmental patterns of opisthobranchs. Am. Malac. Bull. 5:1987;197-214.
53. Hadfield M.G., Scheuer D. Evidence for a soluble metamorphic inducer in Phestilla: ecological, chemical and biological data. Bull. Mar. Sci. 37:1985;556-566.
54. Hansen B., Ockelmann K.W. Feeding behaviour in larvae of the opisthobranch Philine aperta. I. Growth and functional response at different developmental stages. Mar. Biol. 111:1991;255-261.
55. Harrigan, J.F., Alkon, D.L., 1978a. Laboratory cultivation of Haminoea solitaria (Say, 1822) and Elysia chlorotica (Gould, 1870). Veliger 21, 299-305.
56. Harrigan, J.F., Alkon, D.L., 1978b. Larval rearing, metamorphosis, growth and reproduction of the eolid nudibranch Hermissenda crassicornis (Eschscholtz, 1831) (Gastropoda, Opisthobranchia). Biol. Bull. 154, 430-439.
57. Harris, L.G., 1971. Nudibranch associations as symbioses. In: Cheng, T.C. (Ed.), Aspects of the Biology of Symbioses, University Park Press, London, pp. 77-90.
58. Harris, L.G., 1973. Nudibranch associations. In: Cheng, T.C. (Ed.), Current Topics in Comparative Pathobiology, Vol. 2, Academic Press, New York, pp. 213-315.
59. Harris L.G. Studies on the life history of two coral-eating nudibranchs of the genus Phestilla. Biol. Bull. 149:1975;539-550.
60. Havenhand J.N. On the behaviour of opisthobranch larvae. J. Moll. Studies. 57:1991;119-131.
61. Havenhand, J.N., 1995. Evolutionary ecology of larval types. In: McEdward, L. (Ed.), Ecology of Marine Invertebrate Larvae, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 79-122.
62. Hirata K.Y., Hadfield M.G. The role of choline in metamorphic induction of Phestilla (Gastropoda, Nudibranchia). Comp. Biochem. Physiol. C. 84:1986;15-21.
63. Hubbard E.J.A. Larval growth and the induction of metamorphosis of a tropical sponge-eating nudibranch. J. Moll. Studies. 54:1988;259-269.
64. Jackson G.A., Strathmann R.R. Larval mortality from offshore mixing as a link between precompetent and competent periods of development. Am. Nat. 118:1981;16-26.
65. Kato T., Kumanireng A.S., Ichinose I., Kitahara Y., Kakinuma Y., Nishihira M., Kato M. Active components of Sargassum tortile effecting the settlement of swimming larvae of Coryne uchidai. Experientia. 31:1975;433-434.
66. Kempf S.C. Long-lived larvae of the gastropod Aplysia juliana: do they disperse and metamorphose or just slowly fade away? Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 6:1981;61-65.
67. Kempf S.C., Hadfield M.G. Planktotrophy by the lecitotrophic larvae of a nudibranch Phestilla sibogae (Gastropoda). Biol. Bull. 169:1985;119-130.
68. Kempf S.C., Todd C.D. Feeding potential in the lecithotrophic larvae of Adalaria proxima and Tritonia hombergi: an evolutionary perspective. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. UK. 69:1989;659-682.
69. Kempf S.C., Willows A.O.D. Laboratory culture of the nudibranch Tritonia diomedea Bergh (Tritoniidae: Opisthobranchia) and some aspects of its behavioral development. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 30:1977;261-276.
70. Kriegstein A.R. Stages in the post-hatching development of Aplysia californica. J. Exp. Zool. 199:1977;275-288.
71. Kriegstein A.R., Castellucci V., Kandel E.R. Metamorphosis of Aplysia californica in laboratory culture. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 71:1974;3654-3658.
72. Kroiher M., Walther S., Berking S. Heat shock as inducer of metamorphosis in marine invertebrates. Roux's Arch. Dev. Biol. 201:1992;169-172.
73. Kuzirian A.M., Tamse C.T., Yamoah E. Establishing a biomedical research resource: mariculture of Hermissenda. Am. Zool. 29:1989;333.
74. Levin, L.A., Bridges, T.S., 1995. Pattern and diversity in reproduction and development. In: McEdward (Ed.), Ecology of Marine Invertebrate Larvae, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 1-48.
75. Lima G.M., Pechenik J.A. The influence of temperature on growth rate and length of larval life of the gastropod, Crepidula plana Say. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 90:1985;55-71.
76. Lynch W.F. Extrinsic factors influencing metamorphosis in bryozoan and ascidian larvae. Am. Zool. 1:1961;59-66.
77. McDonald G.R. A review of the nudibranchs of the California coast. Malacologia. 24:1983;114-276.
78. McDonald G.R., Nybakken J.W. Additional notes on the food of some California nudibranchs with a summary of known food habits of California species. Veliger. 21:1978;110-119.
79. Miller S.E. Larval period and its influence on post-larval life history: comparison of lecithotrophy and facultative planktotrophy in the aeolid nudibranch Phestilla sibogae. Mar. Biol. 117:1993;635-645.
80. Miller S.E., Hadfield M.G. Developmental arrest during larval life and life-span extension in a marine mollusc. Science. 248:1990;356-358.
81. Morse A.N.C., Morse D.E. Recruitment and metamorphosis of Haliotis larvae induced by molecules uniquely available at the surfaces of crustose red algae. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 75:1984;191-215.
82. Morse D.E., Duncan H., Hooker N., Baloun A., Young G. GABA induces behavioral and developmental metamorphosis in planktonic molluscan larvae. Federation Proc. 39:1980;3237-3241.
83. Morse D.E., Hooker N., Duncan H., Jensen L. Gamma-aminobutyric acid, a neurotransmitter, induces planktonic larvae to settle and begin metamorphosis. Science. 204:1979;407-410.
84. Müller W.A. Tumor promoting phorbol esters induce metamorphosis and multiple head formation in the hydroid Hydractinia. Differentiation. 29:1985;216-222.
85. +-ATPase. Roux's Arch. Dev. Biol. 173:1973;122-135.
86. Nadeau L., Paige J.A., Starczak V., Capo T., Lafler J., Bidwell J.P. Metamorphic competence in Aplysia californica Cooper. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 131:1989;171-193.
87. Nell J.A., Holliday J.E. Effects of potassium and copper on the settling rate of Sydney rock oyster (Saccostrea commercialis) larvae. Aquaculture. 58:1986;263-267.
88. Paige J.A. The laboratory culture of two Aplysiids, Aplysia brasiliana Rang, 1828, and Bursatella leachii plei (Rang, 1828) (Gastropoda: Opisthobranchia) in artificial seawater. Veliger. 29:1986;64-69.
89. Paige J.A. Biology, metamorphosis and postlarval development of Bursatella leachii plei Rang (Gastropoda: Opisthobranchia). Bull. Mar. Sci. 42:1988;65-75.
90. Pawlik J.R. Chemical induction of larval settlement and metamorphosis in the reef-building tube worm Phragmatopoma californica (Sabellariidae: Polychaeta). Mar. Biol. 91:1986;59-68.
91. Pawlik J.R. Larvae of the sea hare Aplysia californica settle and metamorphose on an assortment of macroalgal species. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 51:1989;195-199.
92. Pawlik J.R. Natural and artificial induction of metamorphosis of Phragmatopoma lapidosa californica (Polychaeta: Sabellariidae), with a critical look at the effects of bioactive compounds on marine invertebrate larvae. Bull. Mar. Sci. 46:1990;512-536.
93. Pawlik J.R. Chemical ecology of the settlement of benthic marine invertebrates. Oceanogr. Mar. Biol. Annu. Rev. 30:1992;273-335.
94. Pawlik J.R., Faulkner D.J. Specific free fatty acids induce larval settlement and metamorphosis of the reef-building tube worm Phragmatopoma californica (Fewkes). J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 102:1986;301-310.
95. Pawlik, J.R., Mense, D.J., 1994. Larval transport, food limitation, ontogenetic plasticity and the recruitment of Sabellariid polychaetes. In: Wilson, Jr., W.H., Stricker, S.A., Shinn, G.L. (Eds.), Reproduction and Development of Marine Invertebrates, Johns Hopkins University Press, London, pp. 275-301.
96. Pechenik J.A. Growth and energy balance during the larval lives of three prosobranch gastropods. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 44:1980;1-28.
97. Pechenik J.A. The relationship between temperature, growth rate and duration of planktonic life for larvae of the gastropod Crepidula fornicata (L.). J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 74:1984;241-257.
98. Pechenik J.A. Delayed metamorphosis of marine molluscan larvae: current status and directions for future research. Am. Malac. Bull. 1(Special):1985;85-91.
99. Pechenik J.A. Delayed metamorphosis by larvae of benthic marine invertebrates: Does it occur? Is there a price to pay? Ophelia. 32:1990;63-94.
100. Pechenik, J.A., Estrella, M.S., Hammer, K., 1996a. Food limitation stimulates metamorphosis of competent larvae and alters postmetamorphic growth rate in the marine prosobranch gastropod Crepidula fornicata. Mar. Biol. 127, 267-275.
101. Pechenik J.A., Gee C.C. Onset of metamorphic competence in larvae of the gastropod Crepidula fornicata (L.), judged by a natural and an artificial cue. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 167:1993;59-72.
102. Pechenik J.A., Hadfield M.G., Eyster L.S. Assessing whether larvae of the opisthobranch gastropod Phestilla sibogae Bergh become responsive to three chemical cues at the same age. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 191:1995;1-17.
103. Pechenik, J.A., Hammer, K., Weise, C., 1996b. The effect of starvation on acquisition of competence and post-metamorphic performance in the marine prosobranch gastropod Crepidula fornicata (L). J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 199, 137-152.
104. Pechenik J.A., Heyman W.D. Using KCl to determine size at competence for larvae of the marine gastropod Crepidula fornicata (L.). J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 112:1987;27-38.
105. Pechenik J.A., Lima G.M. Relationship between growth, differentiation and length of larval life for individually reared larvae of the marine gastropod Crepidula fornicata. Biol. Bull. 166:1984;537-549.
106. Pennington J.T., Hadfield M.G. Larvae of a nudibranch mollusc (Phestilla sibogae) metamorphose when exposed to common organic solvents. Biol. Bull. 177:1989;350-355.
107. Perron F.E., Turner R.D. Development, metamorphosis and natural history of the nudibranch Doridella obscura Verrill (Corambidae: Opisthobranchia). J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 27:1977;171-185.
108. Pires A., Hadfield M.G. Oxidative breakdown products of catecholamines and hydrogen peroxide induce partial metamorphosis in the nudibranch Phestilla sibogae Bergh (Gastropoda: Opisthobranchia). Biol. Bull. 180:1991;310-317.
109. Plaut I., Borut A., Spira M.E. Growth and metamorphosis of Aplysia oculifera larvae in laboratory culture. Mar. Biol. 122:1995;425-430.
110. Ricketts, E.F., Calvin, J., Hedgpeth, J.W., 1985. Between Pacific Tides, Stanford University Press, Stanford, CA.
111. Rittschof D., Maki J., Mitchell R., Costlow J.D. Ion and neuropharmacological studies of barnacle settlement. Neth. J. Sea Res. 20:1986;269-275.
112. Rivest B.R. Development of the eolid nudibranch Cuthona nana (Alder and Hancock, 1842), and its relationship with a hydroid and hermit crab. Biol. Bull. 154:1978;157-175.
113. Rumrill S.S., Cameron R.A. Effects of gamma-aminobutyric acid on the settlement of larvae of the Black chiton Katharina tunicata. Mar. Biol. 72:1983;243-247.
114. Rutowski R.L. Mating and egg mass production on the aeolid nudibranch Hermissenda crassicornis (Gastropoda, Opisthobranchia). Biol. Bull. 165:1983;276-285.
115. Scheltema R.S. The effect of substrate on the length of planktonic existence in Nassarius obsoletus. Biol. Bull. 111:1956;312.
116. Scheltema R.S. Metamorphosis of the veliger larvae of Nassarius obsoletus (Gastropoda) in response to bottom sediment. Biol. Bull. 120:1961;92-109.
117. Scheltema R.S. Biological interactions determining larval settlement of marine invertebrates. Thal. Jugoslav. 10:1974;263-296.
118. Strathmann R.R. Length of pelagic period in echinoderms with feeding larvae from the Northeast Pacific. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 34:1978;23-27.
119. Strathmann R.R. Feeding and non-feeding larval development and life-history evolution in marine invertebrates. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 16:1985;339-361.
120. Strenth N.E., Blakenship J.E. Laboratory culture and metamorphosis of larval Aplysia brasiliana Rang (Gastropoda, Opisthobranchia). Bull. Am. Malac. Union. 1976:1976;48.
121. Strenth N.E., Blankenship J.E. Laboratory culture, metamorphosis and development of Aplysia brasiliana Rang, 1828 (Gastropoda: Opisthobranchia). Veliger. 21:1978;99-103.
122. Stricker S.A. Metamorphosis of the marine bryozoan Membranipora membranacea. Am. Zool. 38:1988;71A.
123. Switzer-Dunlap, M., 1978. Larval biology and metamorphosis of Aplysiid Gastropods. In: Chia, F.-S., Rice, M.E. (Eds.), Settlement and Metamorphosis of Marine Invertebrate Larvae, Elsevier, New York, pp. 197-206.
124. Switzer-Dunlap M., Hadfield M.G. Observations on development, larval growth and metamorphosis of four species of Aplysiidae (Gastropoda: Opisthobranchia) in laboratory culture. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 29:1977;245-261.
125. Tamse, C.T., Kuzirian, A.M., Capo, T.R., 1990. Roller culture system: the fitness machine for Hermissenda crassicornis larvae. Am. Malacol. Union 56th Annu. Mtg., Abstr., p. 61 only.
126. Tamse C.T., Smith P.J.S., Aloulou A., Epstein H., Kuzirian A.M. Lead toxicity in Hermissenda crassicornis embryos and cultured neurons. Biol. Bull. 187:1994;251-252.
127. Tardy J. Contribution à l'étude des métamorphoses chez les nudibranches. Ann. Sci. Nat. Zool. Biol. Anim. XII:1970;299-371.
128. Thompson T.E. The natural history, embryology, larval biology and post-larval development of Adalaria proxima (Alder and Hancock) (Gastropoda, Opisthobranchia). Phil. Trans. Royal Soc. London B. 242:1958;1-58.
129. Thompson T.E. Studies on the ontogeny of Tritonia hombergi Cuvier (Gastropoda Opisthobranchia). Phil. Trans. Royal Soc. Ser. B. 245:1962;171-218.
130. Thompson T.E. Direct development in a nudibranch, Cadlina laevis, with a discussion of developmental processes in opisthobranchia. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. UK. 47:1967;1-22.
131. Thorson G. Reproductive and larval ecology of marine bottom invertebrates. Biol. Rev. 25:1950;1-45.
132. Thorson, G., 1961. Length of pelagic larval life in marine bottom invertebrates as related to larval transport by ocean currents. In: Sears, M. (Ed.), Oceanography, Am. Assoc. Advanc. Sci., Washington, DC, pp. 455-474.
133. Thorson G. Some factors influencing the recruitment and establishment of marine benthic communities. Neth. J. Sea Res. 3:1966;267-293.
134. Todd, C.D., 1979. The annual cycles of two species of Onchidoris (Opisthobranchia: Nudibranchia). In: Naylor, E., Hartnoll, R.G. (Eds.), Cyclic Phenomena in Marine Plants and Animals, Pergamon Press, Oxford, pp. 65-72.
135. Todd C.D. The ecology of nudibranch molluscs. Oceanogr. Mar. Biol. Annu. Rev. 19:1981;141-234.
136. Todd, C.D., 1988. Larval strategies of nudibranch molluscs: similar means to the same end? In: Edmunds, M. (Ed.), Evolutionary Biology of Opisthobranchs, Vol. 1, Edinburgh, pp. 91-110.
137. Todd C.D., Bentley M.G., Havenhand J.N. Larval metamorphosis of the opisthobranch mollusc Adalaria proxima (Gastropoda: Nudibranchia): the effects of choline and elevated potassium ion concentration. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. UK. 71:1991;53-72.
138. Tyndale E., Avila C., Kuzirian A.M. Food detection and preferences of the nudibranch mollusc Hermissenda crassicornis: experiments in a Y-maze. Biol. Bull. 187:1994;274-275.
139. Tsubokawa R., Okutani T. Early life history of Pleurobranchaea japonica Thiele, 1925 (Opisthobranchia: Notaspidea). Veliger. 34(1):1991;1-13.
140. Williams L.G. Veliger development in Dendronotus frondosus (Ascanius, 1774) (Gastropoda: Nudibranchia). Veliger. 14:1971;166-171.
141. Williams L.G. Development and feeding of larvae of the nudibranch gastropods Hermissenda crassicornis and Aeolidia papillosa. Malacologia. 20:1980;99-116.
142. Wilson D.P. The relation of the substratum to the metamorphosis of Ophelia larvae. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. UK. 27:1948;723-760.
143. Wilson, D.P., 1958. Some problems in larval ecology related to the localized distribution of bottom animals. In: Buzzati-Traverso, A.A. (Ed.), Perspectives in Marine Biology, University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, pp. 87-103.
144. Wilson D.P. Some aspects of the development of eggs and larvae of Sabellaria alveolata (L.). J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. UK. 48:1968;367-386.
145. Wilson, Jr., W.H., Stricker, S.A., Shinn, G.L., 1994. Reproduction and Development of Marine Invertebrates, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD.
146. Yamoah E., Kuzirian A.M., McPhie D.L., Matzel L. Artificial diets of fish food are potentially useful for Hermissenda crassicornis. Biol. Bull. 175:1988;309-310.
147. Yarnall, J.L., 1972. The feeding behavior and functional anatomy of the gut in the eolid nudibranchs, Hermissenda crassicornis (Eschscholtz, 1831) and Aeolidia papillosa (Linnaeus, 1761). Ph.D. Dissertation, Stanford University, Stanford, CA.
148. Yool A.J., Grau S.M., Hadfield M.G., Jensen R.A., Markell D.A., Morse D.E. Excess potassium induces larval metamorphosis in four marine invertebrate species. Biol. Bull. 170:1986;255-266.