The history of ecological marginalization in Chiapas

Environmental History

Volumn 3, Issue 3, 1998, Pages 357-377

  Howard, Philip ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

DEFORESTATION; ENVIRONMENTAL HISTORY; MAN-ENVIRONMENT RELATIONS; POLITICAL CONFLICT; RAINFOREST;

CHIAPAS STATE; MEXICO;

EID: 0032411817     PISSN: 10845453     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3985184     Document Type: Article

References (65)

1. This paper neither recounts the events of the rebellion itself, nor reviews the academic debate over the form of Mexico's evolution as a corporatist state and its current program of economic liberalization, since both of these topics have been exhaustively explored elsewhere. I argue that an important set of Zapatista grievances regarding land distribution is the result of rising resource scarcity and the land reform efforts of the last five decades. While I trace the contemporary principles of land reform back to the Mexican Revolution, I do not take on the task of providing a history of land and property laws back to the Spanish Conquest. For readers interested in that level of detail, I recommend Robert Wasserstrom, Class and Society in Central Chiapas (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983); White Fathers and Red Souls: Indian-Ladino Relations in Highland Chiapas, 1528-1973 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1977); Ronald Nigh, Evolutionary Ecology of Maya Agriculture in Highland Chiapas, Mexico (Paolo Alto, Calif:, Stanford University Press, 1975); and especially Antonio Garcia de Leon, Resistencia y Utopia (Mexico, D.F.: Ediciones Era, 1985).
2. This paper neither recounts the events of the rebellion itself, nor reviews the academic debate over the form of Mexico's evolution as a corporatist state and its current program of economic liberalization, since both of these topics have been exhaustively explored elsewhere. I argue that an important set of Zapatista grievances regarding land distribution is the result of rising resource scarcity and the land reform efforts of the last five decades. While I trace the contemporary principles of land reform back to the Mexican Revolution, I do not take on the task of providing a history of land and property laws back to the Spanish Conquest. For readers interested in that level of detail, I recommend Robert Wasserstrom, Class and Society in Central Chiapas (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983); White Fathers and Red Souls: Indian-Ladino Relations in Highland Chiapas, 1528-1973 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1977); Ronald Nigh, Evolutionary Ecology of Maya Agriculture in Highland Chiapas, Mexico (Paolo Alto, Calif:, Stanford University Press, 1975); and especially Antonio Garcia de Leon, Resistencia y Utopia (Mexico, D.F.: Ediciones Era, 1985).
3. This paper neither recounts the events of the rebellion itself, nor reviews the academic debate over the form of Mexico's evolution as a corporatist state and its current program of economic liberalization, since both of these topics have been exhaustively explored elsewhere. I argue that an important set of Zapatista grievances regarding land distribution is the result of rising resource scarcity and the land reform efforts of the last five decades. While I trace the contemporary principles of land reform back to the Mexican Revolution, I do not take on the task of providing a history of land and property laws back to the Spanish Conquest. For readers interested in that level of detail, I recommend Robert Wasserstrom, Class and Society in Central Chiapas (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983); White Fathers and Red Souls: Indian-Ladino Relations in Highland Chiapas, 1528-1973 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1977); Ronald Nigh, Evolutionary Ecology of Maya Agriculture in Highland Chiapas, Mexico (Paolo Alto, Calif:, Stanford University Press, 1975); and especially Antonio Garcia de Leon, Resistencia y Utopia (Mexico, D.F.: Ediciones Era, 1985).
4. This paper neither recounts the events of the rebellion itself, nor reviews the academic debate over the form of Mexico's evolution as a corporatist state and its current program of economic liberalization, since both of these topics have been exhaustively explored elsewhere. I argue that an important set of Zapatista grievances regarding land distribution is the result of rising resource scarcity and the land reform efforts of the last five decades. While I trace the contemporary principles of land reform back to the Mexican Revolution, I do not take on the task of providing a history of land and property laws back to the Spanish Conquest. For readers interested in that level of detail, I recommend Robert Wasserstrom, Class and Society in Central Chiapas (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983); White Fathers and Red Souls: Indian-Ladino Relations in Highland Chiapas, 1528-1973 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1977); Ronald Nigh, Evolutionary Ecology of Maya Agriculture in Highland Chiapas, Mexico (Paolo Alto, Calif:, Stanford University Press, 1975); and especially Antonio Garcia de Leon, Resistencia y Utopia (Mexico, D.F.: Ediciones Era, 1985).
5. See Philip Howard and Tad Homer-Dixon, "Environmental Scarcity and Violent Conflict: The Case of Chiapas, Mexico" (occasional paper, Project on Environment, Population, and Security, University of Toronto, 1996).
6. Neil Harvey, "Playing with Fire: The Implications of Ejido Reform," Akwe:kon Journal (1994): 22; Rodrigo Medellin, "Mammal Diversity and Conservation in the Selva Lacandon, Chiapas, Mexico," Conservation Biology 8 (1994): 780-99.
7. Neil Harvey, "Playing with Fire: The Implications of Ejido Reform," Akwe:kon Journal (1994): 22; Rodrigo Medellin, "Mammal Diversity and Conservation in the Selva Lacandon, Chiapas, Mexico," Conservation Biology 8 (1994): 780-99.
8. John Ross, Rebellion from the Roots (Monroe, Maine: Common Courage Press, 1995), 67.
9. Eric Wolf, Peasant Revolutions of the Twentieth Century (New York: Harper & Row, 1969), 5.
10. "Forest Policies in Chiapas," Public Communication from Felipe Vallagran to Oscar Gonzalez Rodriguez, Subsecretary of Natural Resources, Secretariat of Environment, 10 May 1995.
11. Ross, Rebellion from the Roots, 254; Judith Teichman, "Political Economy of Mexico" (seminar paper, University of Toronto, February 1993).
12. Ross, Rebellion from the Roots, 254; Judith Teichman, "Political Economy of Mexico" (seminar paper, University of Toronto, February 1993).
13. George Collier, Basta! Land and the Zapatista Rebellion in Chiapas (Oakland, Calif.: Institute for Food and Development Policy, 1994), 32, fig. 1.3.
14. Ross, Rebellion From the Roots, 255-56.
15. Ibid., 255.
16. James Nations, "The Ecology of the Zapatista Revolt," Cultural Surival Quarterly (1994): 32.
17. "Forest Policies in Chiapas."
18. O. Mazera et al., Carbon Emissions From Deforestation in Mexico (unpublished manuscript. Centro de Ecologia, UNAM, Mexico, D.F., 1990); Nigh, Evolutionary Ecology, 15. See also David Pimentel et al., "Environmental and Economic Costs of Soil Erosion and Conservation Benefits," Science, 24 February 1995, 1117-23.
19. O. Mazera et al., Carbon Emissions From Deforestation in Mexico (unpublished manuscript. Centro de Ecologia, UNAM, Mexico, D.F., 1990); Nigh, Evolutionary Ecology, 15. See also David Pimentel et al., "Environmental and Economic Costs of Soil Erosion and Conservation Benefits," Science, 24 February 1995, 1117-23.
20. O. Mazera et al., Carbon Emissions From Deforestation in Mexico (unpublished manuscript. Centro de Ecologia, UNAM, Mexico, D.F., 1990); Nigh, Evolutionary Ecology, 15. See also David Pimentel et al., "Environmental and Economic Costs of Soil Erosion and Conservation Benefits," Science, 24 February 1995, 1117-23.
21. See the chapter on "Soil Erosion in Chamula," in George Collier, Fields of the Tzotzil: The Ecological Bases of Tradition in Highland Chiapas (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1975).
22. Collier, Fields of the Tzotzil, 115.
23. Collier, Basta!, 63.
24. Ibid., 111.
25. Peter Rosset and Roger Burbach, "Chiapas and the Crisis of Mexican Agriculture," Food First Policy Brief 1 (Oakland, Calif.: Institute for Food and Development Policy, 1994), 6; Ronald Nigh, "Consecuencias de la Colonizacion Agropecuaria Para Las Selvas Tropicales del Sureste de Mexico: Implicaciones Regionales y Globales" (working paper, Centre de Investigaciones y Estudios Superiores en Antropologia Social Del Sureste, 1994), 12.
26. Peter Rosset and Roger Burbach, "Chiapas and the Crisis of Mexican Agriculture," Food First Policy Brief 1 (Oakland, Calif.: Institute for Food and Development Policy, 1994), 6; Ronald Nigh, "Consecuencias de la Colonizacion Agropecuaria Para Las Selvas Tropicales del Sureste de Mexico: Implicaciones Regionales y Globales" (working paper, Centre de Investigaciones y Estudios Superiores en Antropologia Social Del Sureste, 1994), 12.
27. Patricia Gomez Cruz and Christina Maria Kovic, Con Un Pueblo Vivo en Tierra Negada (San Cristobal, Chiapas: Centro de Derechos Humanos, 1994); Carlos Heredia and Mary Purcell, The Polarization of Mexican Society (Mexico, D.F.: Equipo Pueblo, 1994); Thomas Benjamin, A Rich Land, A Poor People (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1989); Neil Harvey, "The Difficult Transition: Neoliberalism and Neocorporatism in Mexico," in Mexico: Dilemmas of Transition, ed. Neil Harvey (London: Institute for Latin American Studies, 1993); Denise Dresser, Neopopulist Solutions to Neoliberal Problems: Mexico's National Solidarity Program (La Jolla, Calif.: Center for U.S.-Mexican Studies, University of California-San Diego, 1991); Judith Adler Hellman, Mexico In Crisis (New York: Holmes & Meier Publishers, 1988), chap. 5; Wayne Cornelius, Judith Gentleman, and Peter Smith, eds., Mexico's Alternative Political Futures, Monograph Series, no. 30 (La Jolla, Calif.: Center for U.S.-Mexican Studies, University of California at San Diego).
28. Patricia Gomez Cruz and Christina Maria Kovic, Con Un Pueblo Vivo en Tierra Negada (San Cristobal, Chiapas: Centro de Derechos Humanos, 1994); Carlos Heredia and Mary Purcell, The Polarization of Mexican Society (Mexico, D.F.: Equipo Pueblo, 1994); Thomas Benjamin, A Rich Land, A Poor People (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1989); Neil Harvey, "The Difficult Transition: Neoliberalism and Neocorporatism in Mexico," in Mexico: Dilemmas of Transition, ed. Neil Harvey (London: Institute for Latin American Studies, 1993); Denise Dresser, Neopopulist Solutions to Neoliberal Problems: Mexico's National Solidarity Program (La Jolla, Calif.: Center for U.S.-Mexican Studies, University of California-San Diego, 1991); Judith Adler Hellman, Mexico In Crisis (New York: Holmes & Meier Publishers, 1988), chap. 5; Wayne Cornelius, Judith Gentleman, and Peter Smith, eds., Mexico's Alternative Political Futures, Monograph Series, no. 30 (La Jolla, Calif.: Center for U.S.-Mexican Studies, University of California at San Diego).
29. Patricia Gomez Cruz and Christina Maria Kovic, Con Un Pueblo Vivo en Tierra Negada (San Cristobal, Chiapas: Centro de Derechos Humanos, 1994); Carlos Heredia and Mary Purcell, The Polarization of Mexican Society (Mexico, D.F.: Equipo Pueblo, 1994); Thomas Benjamin, A Rich Land, A Poor People (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1989); Neil Harvey, "The Difficult Transition: Neoliberalism and Neocorporatism in Mexico," in Mexico: Dilemmas of Transition, ed. Neil Harvey (London: Institute for Latin American Studies, 1993); Denise Dresser, Neopopulist Solutions to Neoliberal Problems: Mexico's National Solidarity Program (La Jolla, Calif.: Center for U.S.-Mexican Studies, University of California-San Diego, 1991); Judith Adler Hellman, Mexico In Crisis (New York: Holmes & Meier Publishers, 1988), chap. 5; Wayne Cornelius, Judith Gentleman, and Peter Smith, eds., Mexico's Alternative Political Futures, Monograph Series, no. 30 (La Jolla, Calif.: Center for U.S.-Mexican Studies, University of California at San Diego).
30. Patricia Gomez Cruz and Christina Maria Kovic, Con Un Pueblo Vivo en Tierra Negada (San Cristobal, Chiapas: Centro de Derechos Humanos, 1994); Carlos Heredia and Mary Purcell, The Polarization of Mexican Society (Mexico, D.F.: Equipo Pueblo, 1994); Thomas Benjamin, A Rich Land, A Poor People (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1989); Neil Harvey, "The Difficult Transition: Neoliberalism and Neocorporatism in Mexico," in Mexico: Dilemmas of Transition, ed. Neil Harvey (London: Institute for Latin American Studies, 1993); Denise Dresser, Neopopulist Solutions to Neoliberal Problems: Mexico's National Solidarity Program (La Jolla, Calif.: Center for U.S.-Mexican Studies, University of California-San Diego, 1991); Judith Adler Hellman, Mexico In Crisis (New York: Holmes & Meier Publishers, 1988), chap. 5; Wayne Cornelius, Judith Gentleman, and Peter Smith, eds., Mexico's Alternative Political Futures, Monograph Series, no. 30 (La Jolla, Calif.: Center for U.S.-Mexican Studies, University of California at San Diego).
31. Patricia Gomez Cruz and Christina Maria Kovic, Con Un Pueblo Vivo en Tierra Negada (San Cristobal, Chiapas: Centro de Derechos Humanos, 1994); Carlos Heredia and Mary Purcell, The Polarization of Mexican Society (Mexico, D.F.: Equipo Pueblo, 1994); Thomas Benjamin, A Rich Land, A Poor People (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1989); Neil Harvey, "The Difficult Transition: Neoliberalism and Neocorporatism in Mexico," in Mexico: Dilemmas of Transition, ed. Neil Harvey (London: Institute for Latin American Studies, 1993); Denise Dresser, Neopopulist Solutions to Neoliberal Problems: Mexico's National Solidarity Program (La Jolla, Calif.: Center for U.S.-Mexican Studies, University of California-San Diego, 1991); Judith Adler Hellman, Mexico In Crisis (New York: Holmes & Meier Publishers, 1988), chap. 5; Wayne Cornelius, Judith Gentleman, and Peter Smith, eds., Mexico's Alternative Political Futures, Monograph Series, no. 30 (La Jolla, Calif.: Center for U.S.-Mexican Studies, University of California at San Diego).
32. Patricia Gomez Cruz and Christina Maria Kovic, Con Un Pueblo Vivo en Tierra Negada (San Cristobal, Chiapas: Centro de Derechos Humanos, 1994); Carlos Heredia and Mary Purcell, The Polarization of Mexican Society (Mexico, D.F.: Equipo Pueblo, 1994); Thomas Benjamin, A Rich Land, A Poor People (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1989); Neil Harvey, "The Difficult Transition: Neoliberalism and Neocorporatism in Mexico," in Mexico: Dilemmas of Transition, ed. Neil Harvey (London: Institute for Latin American Studies, 1993); Denise Dresser, Neopopulist Solutions to Neoliberal Problems: Mexico's National Solidarity Program (La Jolla, Calif.: Center for U.S.-Mexican Studies, University of California-San Diego, 1991); Judith Adler Hellman, Mexico In Crisis (New York: Holmes & Meier Publishers, 1988), chap. 5; Wayne Cornelius, Judith Gentleman, and Peter Smith, eds., Mexico's Alternative Political Futures, Monograph Series, no. 30 (La Jolla, Calif.: Center for U.S.-Mexican Studies, University of California at San Diego).
33. Patricia Gomez Cruz and Christina Maria Kovic, Con Un Pueblo Vivo en Tierra Negada (San Cristobal, Chiapas: Centro de Derechos Humanos, 1994); Carlos Heredia and Mary Purcell, The Polarization of Mexican Society (Mexico, D.F.: Equipo Pueblo, 1994); Thomas Benjamin, A Rich Land, A Poor People (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1989); Neil Harvey, "The Difficult Transition: Neoliberalism and Neocorporatism in Mexico," in Mexico: Dilemmas of Transition, ed. Neil Harvey (London: Institute for Latin American Studies, 1993); Denise Dresser, Neopopulist Solutions to Neoliberal Problems: Mexico's National Solidarity Program (La Jolla, Calif.: Center for U.S.-Mexican Studies, University of California-San Diego, 1991); Judith Adler Hellman, Mexico In Crisis (New York: Holmes & Meier Publishers, 1988), chap. 5; Wayne Cornelius, Judith Gentleman, and Peter Smith, eds., Mexico's Alternative Political Futures, Monograph Series, no. 30 (La Jolla, Calif.: Center for U.S.-Mexican Studies, University of California at San Diego).
34. Allan de Janvry and Raul Garcia, "Rural Poverty and Environmental Degradation in Latin America" (unpublished manuscript. Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics, University of California at Berkeley, 1988), 7; "The Toll of Restructuring on Lives and Communities," in George Collier, Basta!.
35. Allan de Janvry and Raul Garcia, "Rural Poverty and Environmental Degradation in Latin America" (unpublished manuscript. Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics, University of California at Berkeley, 1988), 7; "The Toll of Restructuring on Lives and Communities," in George Collier, Basta!.
36. Luis Raul Salvado, The Other Refugees: A Study of Nonrecognized Guatemalan Refugees in Chiapas, Mexico (Washington, D.C.: Hemispheric Migration Project, Georgetown University, 1988), 13.
37. "Forest Policies in Chiapas."
38. A. Cuaron, Conservacion de los Primates y sus Habitats en el Sur de Mexico (master's thesis, Universidad Nacional de Costa Rica, Heredia, 1991), cited in Nigh, Evolutionary Ecology, 15; A. Cortez Ortiz, Estudio Preliminar Sobre Deforestation en la Regional Fronteriza del Rio Usamacinta (Informe Technico, Instituto Nacional de Estadistica, Geografia e Informatica, Mexico D.F, 1990.), cited in Nigh, Evolutionary Ecology, 15.
39. A. Cuaron, Conservacion de los Primates y sus Habitats en el Sur de Mexico (master's thesis, Universidad Nacional de Costa Rica, Heredia, 1991), cited in Nigh, Evolutionary Ecology, 15; A. Cortez Ortiz, Estudio Preliminar Sobre Deforestation en la Regional Fronteriza del Rio Usamacinta (Informe Technico, Instituto Nacional de Estadistica, Geografia e Informatica, Mexico D.F, 1990.), cited in Nigh, Evolutionary Ecology, 15.
40. A. Cuaron, Conservacion de los Primates y sus Habitats en el Sur de Mexico (master's thesis, Universidad Nacional de Costa Rica, Heredia, 1991), cited in Nigh, Evolutionary Ecology, 15; A. Cortez Ortiz, Estudio Preliminar Sobre Deforestation en la Regional Fronteriza del Rio Usamacinta (Informe Technico, Instituto Nacional de Estadistica, Geografia e Informatica, Mexico D.F, 1990.), cited in Nigh, Evolutionary Ecology, 15.
41. A. Cuaron, Conservacion de los Primates y sus Habitats en el Sur de Mexico (master's thesis, Universidad Nacional de Costa Rica, Heredia, 1991), cited in Nigh, Evolutionary Ecology, 15; A. Cortez Ortiz, Estudio Preliminar Sobre Deforestation en la Regional Fronteriza del Rio Usamacinta (Informe Technico, Instituto Nacional de Estadistica, Geografia e Informatica, Mexico D.F, 1990.), cited in Nigh, Evolutionary Ecology, 15.
42. "Maximo Lopez, Firewood Gatherer," American Forests, November-December 1988, 38.
43. Dr. Pablo Farias Campero, ECOSUR, private communication with the author, Chiapas, Mexico, May 1995.
44. Howard and Homer-Dixon, "Environmental Scarcities," 11; Rattan Lal, Soil Erosion in the Tropics (n.p.: McGraw-Hill, 1990), 4. See also Pimentel, "Environmental and Economic Costs," 1119. For discussions of the soil types in Chiapas, see Maximiliano Huerta Cisneros et al., Characteristicas Generales de la Vegetacion y su Utilizacion en 25 Municipios de Chiapas (Chiapas, Mexico: Fomento de Corporacion de Chiapas, 1986), and Maria del Carmen Carmona Lara et al., Ecologia: Cambio Estructural en Chiapas: Avances y Perspectivas (Tuxtla Gutierrez, Mexico: Universidad Autonoma de Chiapas, 1988); Olaf Erenstein, Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maiz y Trigo, private communication with the author, 30 May 1995.
45. Howard and Homer-Dixon, "Environmental Scarcities," 11; Rattan Lal, Soil Erosion in the Tropics (n.p.: McGraw-Hill, 1990), 4. See also Pimentel, "Environmental and Economic Costs," 1119. For discussions of the soil types in Chiapas, see Maximiliano Huerta Cisneros et al., Characteristicas Generales de la Vegetacion y su Utilizacion en 25 Municipios de Chiapas (Chiapas, Mexico: Fomento de Corporacion de Chiapas, 1986), and Maria del Carmen Carmona Lara et al., Ecologia: Cambio Estructural en Chiapas: Avances y Perspectivas (Tuxtla Gutierrez, Mexico: Universidad Autonoma de Chiapas, 1988); Olaf Erenstein, Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maiz y Trigo, private communication with the author, 30 May 1995.
46. Howard and Homer-Dixon, "Environmental Scarcities," 11; Rattan Lal, Soil Erosion in the Tropics (n.p.: McGraw-Hill, 1990), 4. See also Pimentel, "Environmental and Economic Costs," 1119. For discussions of the soil types in Chiapas, see Maximiliano Huerta Cisneros et al., Characteristicas Generales de la Vegetacion y su Utilizacion en 25 Municipios de Chiapas (Chiapas, Mexico: Fomento de Corporacion de Chiapas, 1986), and Maria del Carmen Carmona Lara et al., Ecologia: Cambio Estructural en Chiapas: Avances y Perspectivas (Tuxtla Gutierrez, Mexico: Universidad Autonoma de Chiapas, 1988); Olaf Erenstein, Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maiz y Trigo, private communication with the author, 30 May 1995.
47. Howard and Homer-Dixon, "Environmental Scarcities," 11; Rattan Lal, Soil Erosion in the Tropics (n.p.: McGraw-Hill, 1990), 4. See also Pimentel, "Environmental and Economic Costs," 1119. For discussions of the soil types in Chiapas, see Maximiliano Huerta Cisneros et al., Characteristicas Generales de la Vegetacion y su Utilizacion en 25 Municipios de Chiapas (Chiapas, Mexico: Fomento de Corporacion de Chiapas, 1986), and Maria del Carmen Carmona Lara et al., Ecologia: Cambio Estructural en Chiapas: Avances y Perspectivas (Tuxtla Gutierrez, Mexico: Universidad Autonoma de Chiapas, 1988); Olaf Erenstein, Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maiz y Trigo, private communication with the author, 30 May 1995.
48. Howard and Homer-Dixon, "Environmental Scarcities," 11; Rattan Lal, Soil Erosion in the Tropics (n.p.: McGraw-Hill, 1990), 4. See also Pimentel, "Environmental and Economic Costs," 1119. For discussions of the soil types in Chiapas, see Maximiliano Huerta Cisneros et al., Characteristicas Generales de la Vegetacion y su Utilizacion en 25 Municipios de Chiapas (Chiapas, Mexico: Fomento de Corporacion de Chiapas, 1986), and Maria del Carmen Carmona Lara et al., Ecologia: Cambio Estructural en Chiapas: Avances y Perspectivas (Tuxtla Gutierrez, Mexico: Universidad Autonoma de Chiapas, 1988); Olaf Erenstein, Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maiz y Trigo, private communication with the author, 30 May 1995.
49. Howard and Homer-Dixon, "Environmental Scarcities," 11; Rattan Lal, Soil Erosion in the Tropics (n.p.: McGraw-Hill, 1990), 4. See also Pimentel, "Environmental and Economic Costs," 1119. For discussions of the soil types in Chiapas, see Maximiliano Huerta Cisneros et al., Characteristicas Generales de la Vegetacion y su Utilizacion en 25 Municipios de Chiapas (Chiapas, Mexico: Fomento de Corporacion de Chiapas, 1986), and Maria del Carmen Carmona Lara et al., Ecologia: Cambio Estructural en Chiapas: Avances y Perspectivas (Tuxtla Gutierrez, Mexico: Universidad Autonoma de Chiapas, 1988); Olaf Erenstein, Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maiz y Trigo, private communication with the author, 30 May 1995.
50. Neil Harvey, "Rural Reforms, Campesino Radicalism, and the Limits to Salinismo," Transformation of Rural Mexico 5 (Ejido Reform Research Project, Center for U.S.-Mexican Studies, University of California-San Diego, 1994), 11.
51. Secretaria de Agricultura y Recursos Hidraulicos and Comision Economica para America Latina y el Caribe, Primer Informe Nacional Sobre Tipologia de Productores del Sector Social (Mexico City, D.F.: Subsecretaria de Politica Sectorial y Concertacion, 1992), 19; Harvey, "Rural Reforms," 14; Nora Lustig, Mexico: The Remaking of An Economy (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institute, 1992).
52. Secretaria de Agricultura y Recursos Hidraulicos and Comision Economica para America Latina y el Caribe, Primer Informe Nacional Sobre Tipologia de Productores del Sector Social (Mexico City, D.F.: Subsecretaria de Politica Sectorial y Concertacion, 1992), 19; Harvey, "Rural Reforms," 14; Nora Lustig, Mexico: The Remaking of An Economy (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institute, 1992).
53. Secretaria de Agricultura y Recursos Hidraulicos and Comision Economica para America Latina y el Caribe, Primer Informe Nacional Sobre Tipologia de Productores del Sector Social (Mexico City, D.F.: Subsecretaria de Politica Sectorial y Concertacion, 1992), 19; Harvey, "Rural Reforms," 14; Nora Lustig, Mexico: The Remaking of An Economy (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institute, 1992).
54. Rosset and Burbach, "Chiapas and the Crisis of Mexican Agriculture," 8;
55. Harvey, "Rural Reforms," 22.
56. Neil Harvey, "Rural Reforms," 10.
57. A. Carlos Santos, "Development and Conservation of Natural Resources in the Las Cañadas Region of the Lacandona Rainforest," in Population/Environment Equation: Implications for Security: Third Conference on Environmental Security, 31 May-4 June 1994.
58. See Alain de Janvry et al., Mexico's Second Agrarian Reform: Household and Community-Responses, 7990-1994 (La Jolla, Calif.: Center for U.S.-Mexican Studies, University of California-San Diego, 1997).
59. Most observers agree that unlike the industrialized states in northern Mexico, the largely agricultural economy of Chiapas is only slowly beginning to feel the specific impact of Nafta. Economic malaise in Chiapas is more sensibly attributed to the last decade of ecological degradation and economic liberalization, of which Nafta is only the most recent manifestation.
60. Ronald Nigh, "Consecuencias de la Colonizacion Agropecuaria Para Las Selvas Tropicales del Sureste de Mexico: Implicaciones Regionales y Globales" (working paper, Centro de Investigaciones y Estudios Superiores en Antropologia Social Del Sureste, 1994), 27.
61. Patricia Gomez Cruz and Christina Maria Kovic, Con Un Pueblo Vivo en Tierra Negada (San Cristobal, Chiapas: Centro de Derechos Humanos, 1994).
62. Subcommandante Marcos, La Jornada, 7 February 1994.
63. George Collier, Fields of the Tzotzil; Victor M. Toledo, "The Ecology of Indian Campesinos," Akwe:kon Journal (1994): 41-46; and James D. Nations, "The Ecology of the Zapatista Revolt," Cultural Survival Quarterly (1994): 31-33.
64. George Collier, Fields of the Tzotzil; Victor M. Toledo, "The Ecology of Indian Campesinos," Akwe:kon Journal (1994): 41-46; and James D. Nations, "The Ecology of the Zapatista Revolt," Cultural Survival Quarterly (1994): 31-33.
65. George Collier, Fields of the Tzotzil; Victor M. Toledo, "The Ecology of Indian Campesinos," Akwe:kon Journal (1994): 41-46; and James D. Nations, "The Ecology of the Zapatista Revolt," Cultural Survival Quarterly (1994): 31-33.