Ecologies of social movements: Student mobilization during the 1989 prodemocracy movement in Beijing

American Journal of Sociology

Volumn 103, Issue 6, 1998, Pages 1493-1529

  Zhao, Dingxin ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0032395062     PISSN: 00029602     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/231399     Document Type: Article

References (114)

1. Axelrod, Robert M. 1984. The Evolution of Cooperation. New York: Basic.
2. Baldassare, Mark. 1975. "The Effects of Density on Social Behavior and Attitudes." American Behavioral Science 18:15-25.
3. _. 1977. "Residential Density, Household Crowding, and Social Networks." Pp. 101-15 in Networks and Places, edited by Claude S. Fischer. New York: Free Press.
4. Barker, Roger G. 1968. Ecological Psychology. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press.
5. Beckham, Barry. 1973. "Some Temporal and Spatial Aspects of Interurban Industrial Differentiation." Social Forces 51:462-70.
6. Berk, Richard A. 1974. "A Gaming Approach to Crowd Behavior." American Sociological Review 39:355-73.
7. Blau, Peter M. 1977. Inequality and Heterogeneity. New York: Free Press.
8. Burgess, Ernest W. 1925. "The Growth of the City: An Introduction to a Research Project." Pp. 47-62 in The City, edited by Robert E. Park, Ernest W. Burgess, and Roderick D. McKenzie. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
9. Burt, Ronald. 1992. Structural Holes: The Social Structure of Competition. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
10. Calhoun, Craig J. 1991. "The Problem of Identity in Collective Action." Pp. 51-75 in Macro-Micro Linkages in Sociology, edited by Joan Huber. Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage.
11. _. 1994. Neither Gods nor Emperors: Students and the Struggle for Democracy in China. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.
12. Case, F. Duncan. 1981. "Dormitory Architecture Influences." Environment and Behavior 13:23-41.
13. Castells, Manuel. 1978. City, Class, and Power. New York: St. Martin's Press.
14. Chow, Tse-tsung. 1967. The May Fourth Movement: Intellectual Revolution in Modern China. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press.
15. Curtis, Russell, and Louis A. Zurcher. 1973. "Stable Resources of Protest Movements: The Multiorganizational Field." Social Forces 52:53-61.
16. Delgado, Gary. 1986. Organizing the Movement: The Roots and Growth of Acorn. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
17. Di Palma, Giuseppe. 1991. "Legitimation from the Top to Civil Society." World Politics 44:49-80.
18. Du, Ruiqing. 1992. Chinese Higher Education: A Decade of Reform and Development, 1978-1988. New York: St. Martin's Press.
19. Duncan, Otis Dudley, and Beverly Duncan. 1955. "Residential Distribution and Occupational Stratification." American Journal of Sociology 60:493-503.
20. Educational Statistics Yearbook of China. 1989. Beijing: Renmin Chubanshe (People's Publishing House).
21. Etzioni, Amitai. 1964. Modern Organizations. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.
22. Feagin, Joe R., and Harlan Hahn. 1973. Ghetto Revolts: The Politics of Violence in American Cities. New York: Macmillan.
23. Fernandez, Roberto, and Doug McAdam. 1989. "Multiorganizational Fields and Recruitment to Social Movements." Pp. 315-43 in Organizing for Change: Social Movement Organizations in Europe and the United States, edited by Bert Klandermans. Greenwich, Conn.: JAI Press.
24. Festinger, Leon, Stanley Schachter, and Kurt Back. 1950. Social Pressures in Informal Groups. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press.
25. Fischer, Claude S. 1977. Networks and Places: Social Relations in the Urban Setting. New York: Free Press.
26. Fogelson, Robert M. 1971. Violence as Protest: A Study of Riots and Ghettos. Garden City, N.Y.: Anchor Book.
27. Gans, Herbert J. 1967. The Levitowners: Ways of Life and Politics in a New Suburban Community. New York: Pantheon Books.
28. Garling, Tommy, and Gary W. Evans. 1991. Environment, Cognition and Action. New York: Oxford University Press.
29. Gold, Hohn R. 1980. An Introduction to Behavioral Geography. New York: Oxford University Press.
30. Gollege, Reginald G., and Harry Timmermans. 1988. Behavioral Modelling in Geography and Planning. London: Croom Helm.
31. Gould, Roger V. 1991. "Multiple Networks and Mobilization in the Paris Commune, 1871." American Sociological Review 56:716-29.
32. _. 1993. "Collective Action and Network Structure." American Sociological Review 58:182-96.
33. _. 1995. Insurgent Identities: Class, Community, and Protest in Paris from 1848 to the Commune. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
34. Granovetter, Mark S. 1973. "The Strength of Weak Ties." American Journal of Sociology 78:1360-80.
35. Hannan, Michael T., and John Freeman. 1989. Organizational Ecology. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
36. Harvey, David. 1985. Consciousness and the Urban Experience. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
37. Heirich, Max. 1971. The Spiral of Conflict: Berkeley 1964. New York: Columbia University Press.
38. Huan, Guocang. 1989. "The Roots of the Political Crisis." World Policy Journal 6: 609-20.
39. Jenkins, J. Craig. 1987. "Interpreting the Stormy 1960s: Three Theories in Search of a Political Age." Research in Political Sociology 3:269-303.
40. Kassow, Samuel D. 1989. Students, Professors, and the State in Tsarist Russia. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.
41. Klandermans, Bert, and Dirk Oegema. 1987. "Potentials, Networks, Motivations, and Barriers: Steps toward Participation in Social Movements." American Sociological Review 52:519-31.
42. Kornhauser, William. 1959. The Politics of Mass Society. New York: Free Press.
43. Kriesi, Hanspeter. 1996. "The Organizational Structure of New Social Movements in a Political Context." Pp. 152-84 in Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements, edited by Doug McAdam, John D. McCarthy, and Mayer N. Zald. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
44. Krupat, Edward. 1985. People in Cities: The Urban Environment and Its Effects. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
45. Laba, Roman. 1991. The Roots of Solidarity. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
46. Laumann, Edward O., and David Knoke. 1987. The Organizational State: Social Choice in National Policy Domains. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
47. Laumann, Edward O., and Franz U. Pappi. 1976. Networks of Collective Action: A Perspective on Community Influence Systems. New York: Academic Press.
48. Li, Jinmin. 1988. "Daxuesheng zhong de Nicaire jiqi jiexi" (An analysis on the Nietzsche fever among university students). Qingnian yanjiu (Youth research), no. 12, pp. 30-35.
49. Lipset, Seymour Martin, Martin A. Trow, and James S. Coleman. 1956. Union Democracy. Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press.
50. Liu, Dehuan, and Dongyou Huang. 1989. "1986 niandi de xuechao yuanyin tanxi" (An analysis on the causes of the student uprising at the end of 1986). Qingnian yanjiu (Youth research), no. 5, pp. 27-32.
51. Liu, Qinglong. 1990. "Shehui yingxiang yu xuexiao sixiang zhengzhi jiaoyu diaocha yu shiyian de sikao" (My investigation and thoughts on social influence and university political education). Pp. 52-61 in Dui bashi niandai shoudu daxuesheng zongxian yanjiu (Longitudinal studies on university students in Beijing during the eighties), edited by Lixin Cang. Beijing: Beijing Shifan Xueyuan Chubanshe.
52. Lofland, John. 1970. "The Youth Ghetto." Pp. 756-78 in The Logic of Social Hierarchies, edited by Edward Laumann, Paul M. Siegel, and Robert W. Hodge. Chicago: Marrham.
53. Lofland, Lyn H. 1973. A World of Strangers: Order and Action in Urban Public Space. New York: Basic.
54. Loo, C. 1972. "The Effects of Spatial Density on the Social Behavior of Children." Journal of Applied Social Psychology 2:372-81.
55. Mann, Michael. 1993. The Sources of Social Power. Vol. 2, The Rise of Classes and Nation-States, 1760-1914. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
56. Marwell, Gerald, Pamela Oliver, and Ralph Prahl. 1988. "Social Networks and Collective Action: A Theory of the Critical Mass. III." American Journal of Sociology 94: 502-34.
57. Marx, Karl. 1985a. The Communist Manifesto. Pp. 221-47 in Karl Marx, Selected Writings, edited by David McLellan. New York: Oxford University Press.
58. _. 1985b. The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte. Pp. 300-325 in Karl Marx: Selected Writings, edited by David McLellan. New York: Oxford University Press.
59. McAdam, Doug. 1982. Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency, 1930-1970. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
60. _. 1986. "Recruitment to High-Risk Activism: The Case of Freedom Summer." American Journal of Sociology 92:64-90.
61. McAdam, Doug, and Ronnelle Paulsen. 1993. "Specifying the Relationship between Social Ties and Activism." American Journal of Sociology 99:640-67.
62. McCarthy, Dennis, and Susan Saegert. 1978. "Residential Density, Social Overload, and Social Withdrawal." Human Ecology 6:253-72.
63. McCarthy, John D. 1987. "Pro-Life and Pro-Choice Mobilization: Infrastructure Deficits and New Technologies." Pp. 49-66 in Social Movements in an Organizational Society, edited by Mayer N. Zald and John D. McCarthy. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction.
64. _. 1996. "Constraints and Opportunities in Adopting, Adapting and Inventing." Pp. 141-51 in Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements, edited by Doug McAdam, John D. McCarthy, and Mayer N. Zald. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
65. McCarthy, John D., and Mayer N. Zald. 1973. The Trend of Social Movements in America: Professionalization and Resource Mobilization. Morristown, N.J.: General Learning Corporation.
66. _. 1977. "Resource Mobilization and Social Movements: A Partial Theory." American Journal of Sociology 82:1212-41.
67. McKenzie, Roderick D. 1924. "The Ecological Approach to the Study of the Human Community." American Journal of Sociology 30:287-301.
68. Michelson, William H. 1976. Man and His Urban Environment: A Sociological Approach. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley.
69. Mitchell, Robert Edward. 1971. "Some Social Implications of High Density Housing." American Sociological Review 36:18-29.
70. Molotch, Harvey. 1979. "Capital and Neighborhood in the United States." Urban Affairs Quarterly 14:289-312.
71. Newcomb, Theodore M. 1961. Acquaintance Process. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
72. Newman, Oscar. 1973. Defensible Space. New York: Macmillian.
73. Oberschall, Anthony. 1973. Social Conflict and Social Movements. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.
74. Olson, Mancur. 1990. "The Logic of Collective Action in Soviet-Type Societies." Journal of Soviet Nationalities 1:8-27.
75. Opp, Karl-Dieter, and Christiane Gern. 1993. "Dissident Groups, Personal Networks, and Spontaneous Cooperation: The East Germany Revolution of 1989." American Sociological Review 58:659-80.
76. Osmond, Humphry. 1957. "The Relationship between Architect and Psychiatrist." Pp. 16-20 in Psychiatric Architecture, edited by Charles E. Goshen. Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association.
77. Ost, David. 1990. Solidarity and the Politics of Anti-Politics. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
78. Park, Robert E. 1915. "The City: Suggestions for the Investigation of Human Behavior in the City Environment." American Journal of Sociology 20:557-612.
79. _. 1936. "Human Ecology." American Journal of Sociology 42:1-15.
80. Perrow, Charles. 1979. "The Sixties Observed." Pp. 192-211 in The Dynamics of Social Movements: Resource Mobilization, Social Control, and Tactics, edited by Mayer N. Zald and John McCarthy. Cambridge, Mass.: Winthrop.
81. Perry, Ronald, David F. Gillespie, and Howard A. Parker. 1976. Social Movements and the Local Community. Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage.
82. Pinard, Maurice. 1971. The Rise of a Third Party: A Study in Crisis Politics. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.
83. Poznanski, Kazimerg. 1992. Constructing Capitalism: The Reemergence of Civil Society and Liberal Economy in the Post-Communist World. Boulder, Colo.: Westview.
84. Ren, Yanshen. 1990. "Shoudu wusuo gaoxiao xuesheng zhengzhi sixiang zhuangkuang de diaocha baogao" (A report on the investigation of students' political attitude in five Beijing universities). Pp. 112-27 in Dui bashi niandai shoudu daxuesheng zongxian yanjiu (Longitudinal studies on university students in Beijing during the eighties), edited by Lixin Cang (for internal circulation only). Beijing: Beijing Shifan Xueyuan Chubanshe.
85. Rosenthal, Naomi, Meryl Fingrutd, Michele Ethier, Roberta Karant, and David MacDonald. 1985. "Social Movements and Network Analysis: A Case of Nineteenth-Century Woman's Reform in New York State." American Journal of Sociology 90: 1022-54.
86. Rucht, Dieter. 1996. "The Impact of National Contexts on Social Movement Structure: A Cross-Movement and Cross-National Comparison." Pp. 185-204 in Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements, edited by Doug McAdam, John D. McCarthy, and Mayer N. Zald. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
87. Saegert, Susan, and Gary H. Winkel. 1990. "Environmental Psychology." Annual Review of Psychology 41:441-77.
88. Schoggen, Phil. 1989. Behavior Settings. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press.
89. Schurmann, Franz. 1968. Ideology and Organization in Communist China. Berkeley: University of California Press.
90. Snow, David A., Louis A. Zurcher, and Sheldon Ekland-Olson. 1980. "Social Networks and Social Movements: A Microstructural Approach to Differential Recruitment." American Sociological Review 45:787-801.
91. Sommer, Robert. 1967. "Small Group Ecology." Sociometry 28:337-48.
92. _. 1969. Personal Space: The Behavioral Basis of Design. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.
93. Spykman, Nicholas J. 1964. The Social Theory of Georg Simmel. New York: Atherton.
94. Strand, David. 1993. "Civil Society and Public Sphere in Modern Chinese History." Pp. 53-86 in Chinese Democracy and the Crisis of 1989, edited by Roger V. Des Forges, Luo Ning, and Wu Yen-bo. Albany: State University of New York Press.
95. Sullivan, Lawrence R. 1990. "The Emergence of Civil Society in China, Spring 1989." Pp. 126-44 in The Chinese People's Movement, Perspectives on Spring 1989, edited by Tony Saich. Armonk, N.Y.: Sharpe.
96. Suttles, Gerald D. 1968. The Social Order of the Slum. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
97. _. 1972. Social Construction of Communities. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
98. Tarrow, Sidney. 1994. Power in Movement. New York: Cambridge University Press.
99. Taylor, Ralph B. 1987. "Toward an Environmental Psychology of Disorder: Delinquency, Crime, and Fear." Pp. 951-86 in Handbook of Environment Psychology, vol. 2. Edited by Daniel Stokols and Irwin Altman. New York: Wiley.
100. Tilly, Charles. 1978. From Mobilization to Revolution. New York: Random House.
101. Tismaneanu, Vladimir. 1990. In Search of Civil Society: Independent Peace Movements in the Soviet Bloc. New York: Routledge.
102. Useem, Bert. 1980. "Solidarity Model, Breakdown Model, and the Boston Anti-Busing Movement." American Sociological Review 45:357-69.
103. von Eschen, Donald, Jerome Kirk, and Maurice Pinard. 1971. "The Organizational Substructure of Disorderly Politics." Social Forces 49:529-44.
104. Walsh, Edward J., and Rex H. Warland. 1983. "Social Movement Involvement in the Wake of a Nuclear Accident: Activists and Free Riders in the Three Mile Island Area." American Sociological Review 48:764-81.
105. Warner, W. Lioyd. 1963. Yankee City. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press.
106. Wasserman, Stanley, and Katherine Faust. 1997. Social Network Analysis: Methods and Applications. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
107. Wasserstrom, Jeffrey N. 1991. Student Protests in Twentieth-Century China: The View from Shanghai. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press.
108. Werlen, Benno. 1993. Society, Action and Space: An Alterative Human Geography. London: Routledge.
109. Whyte, William H. 1956. Organization Man. New York: Doubleday.
110. Wu, Ren. 1990. "Wuyue fengbo de qiyin yu fazhan. Dierbufen: 'Fengbo' de quanguocheng (yanjiu ziliao)" (The causes and development of the May disturbance. Part 2, The whole process of "the disturbance" [research materials]). Qingnian yanjiu (Youth research), no. 11/12, pp. 29-93.
111. Zhang, Boli, and Meng Bai. 1993. Huigu yu fansi (Retrospection and introspection). Germany: Rhine Forum.
112. Zhang, Jian, and Yuliang Zhou. 1989. China Education Yearbook: 1943-1984. Changsha: Hunan Jiaoyu Chubanshe (Hunan Education Publishing House).
113. Zhao, Dingxin. 1997. "Decline of Political Control in Chinese Universities and the Rise of the 1989 Chinese Student Movement." Sociological Perspectives 40:159-82.
114. Zhongguo gaodeng jaoyu daquan (Encyclopedia of Chinese universities). 1989. Beijing: Gaodeng Jaoyu Chubanshe (Higher Education Publishing House).