Democratic regimes, internal security policy and the threat of terrorism

Australian Journal of Politics and History

Volumn 44, Issue 3, 1998, Pages 351-371

  Reinares, Fernando ^a  

^a UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL DE EDUCACIÓN A DISTANCIA   (Spain)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0032391962     PISSN: 00049522     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/1467-8497.00026     Document Type: Article

References (75)

1. Regarding this point, see Fernando Reinares, "Estado, democracia liberal y terrorismo político",Revista del Centro de Estudios Constitucionales 16 (1993), pp. 113-32. Likewise, Ehud Sprinzak, "The Process of Delegitimization: Towards a Linkage Theory of Political Terrorism", in Clark McClauley, ed., Terrorism Research adn Public Policy (London: Frank Cass, 1991), pp. 50-68.
2. Regarding this point, see Fernando Reinares, "Estado, democracia liberal y terrorismo político",Revista del Centro de Estudios Constitucionales 16 (1993), pp. 113-32. Likewise, Ehud Sprinzak, "The Process of Delegitimization: Towards a Linkage Theory of Political Terrorism", in Clark McClauley, ed., Terrorism Research adn Public Policy (London: Frank Cass, 1991), pp. 50-68.
3. Ronald d. Crelinsten and Alex P. Schmid have detailed a scheme for classifying models of antiterrorits policy adopted by dmocratic governments in "Western Responses to Terrorism: A Twenty-five Year Balance Sheet", in Alex P. Schmid and Ronal D. Crelinsten, eds, Western Responses to Terrorism (London: Frank Cass, 1993), pp. 307-40.
4. See also Fernando Reinares, "Fundamentos para una política gubernamental antiterrorista en el contexto de regímes democráticos", Sistema. Revista de Ciencias Sociales, 132, 3 (1996), pp. 111-28.
5. Jeffrey I. Ross and Ted R. Gurr, "Why Terrorism Subsides. A Comparative Study of Canada and the United States", Comparative Politics 21 (1989), pp. 405-26; Richard E. Rubenstein, Alchemists of Revolution: Terrorism in the Modern World (New York: Basic Books, 1987), pp. 83-85.
6. Jeffrey I. Ross and Ted R. Gurr, "Why Terrorism Subsides. A Comparative Study of Canada and the United States", Comparative Politics 21 (1989), pp. 405-26; Richard E. Rubenstein, Alchemists of Revolution: Terrorism in the Modern World (New York: Basic Books, 1987), pp. 83-85.
7. Valentine Herman and Rob van der Laan Bouma, "Nationalists Without a Nation: South Moluccan Terrorism in the Netherlands", in Juliet Lodge, ed., Terrorism: A Challenge to the State (New York: St Martin's Press, 1981), pp. 119-45.
8. Martha Crenshaw "The Persistence of IRA Terrorism", in Yonah Alexander and Alan O'Day, eds, Terrorism in Ireland (London: Croom Helm, 1984); Robert W. White, "From Peaceful Protest to Guerrilla War: Micromobilization of the Provisional Irish Republican Army", American Journal of Sociology 94 (1989), pp. 1277-302; John Darby, "Northern Ireland: The Persistence and Limitations of Violence", in Joseph V. Montville, ed., Conflict and Peacmaking in Multiethnic Societies (Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books, 1991).
9. Martha Crenshaw "The Persistence of IRA Terrorism", in Yonah Alexander and Alan O'Day, eds, Terrorism in Ireland (London: Croom Helm, 1984); Robert W. White, "From Peaceful Protest to Guerrilla War: Micromobilization of the Provisional Irish Republican Army", American Journal of Sociology 94 (1989), pp. 1277-302; John Darby, "Northern Ireland: The Persistence and Limitations of Violence", in Joseph V. Montville, ed., Conflict and Peacmaking in Multiethnic Societies (Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books, 1991).
10. Martha Crenshaw "The Persistence of IRA Terrorism", in Yonah Alexander and Alan O'Day, eds, Terrorism in Ireland (London: Croom Helm, 1984); Robert W. White, "From Peaceful Protest to Guerrilla War: Micromobilization of the Provisional Irish Republican Army", American Journal of Sociology 94 (1989), pp. 1277-302; John Darby, "Northern Ireland: The Persistence and Limitations of Violence", in Joseph V. Montville, ed., Conflict and Peacmaking in Multiethnic Societies (Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books, 1991).
11. Fernando Reinares, "Nationalism and Violence in Basque Politics", Conflict 8, 2-3 (1988), pp. 141-55, a nd "Democratización y terrorismo en el caso español", in José F. Tezanos, Ramón Cotarelo and Andrés de Blas, eds, La transción democrática española (Madrid: Sistema, 1989), pp. 611-44; also, "The Political Conditioning of Collective Violence: Regime Change and Insurgent Terrorism in Spain", Research on Democracy and Society 3 (1996), pp. 297-326. See, as well, Fraciso J. Llera, "Violencia y opinión pública en el País Vasco, 1978-1992", Revista Internacional de Sociología 3 (1992), pp. 83-111.
12. Fernando Reinares, "Nationalism and Violence in Basque Politics", Conflict 8, 2-3 (1988), pp. 141-55, a nd "Democratización y terrorismo en el caso español", in José F. Tezanos, Ramón Cotarelo and Andrés de Blas, eds, La transción democrática española (Madrid: Sistema, 1989), pp. 611-44; also, "The Political Conditioning of Collective Violence: Regime Change and Insurgent Terrorism in Spain", Research on Democracy and Society 3 (1996), pp. 297-326. See, as well, Fraciso J. Llera, "Violencia y opinión pública en el País Vasco, 1978-1992", Revista Internacional de Sociología 3 (1992), pp. 83-111.
13. Fernando Reinares, "Nationalism and Violence in Basque Politics", Conflict 8, 2-3 (1988), pp. 141-55, a nd "Democratización y terrorismo en el caso español", in José F. Tezanos, Ramón Cotarelo and Andrés de Blas, eds, La transción democrática española (Madrid: Sistema, 1989), pp. 611-44; also, "The Political Conditioning of Collective Violence: Regime Change and Insurgent Terrorism in Spain", Research on Democracy and Society 3 (1996), pp. 297-326. See, as well, Fraciso J. Llera, "Violencia y opinión pública en el País Vasco, 1978-1992", Revista Internacional de Sociología 3 (1992), pp. 83-111.
14. Fernando Reinares, "Nationalism and Violence in Basque Politics", Conflict 8, 2-3 (1988), pp. 141-55, a nd "Democratización y terrorismo en el caso español", in José F. Tezanos, Ramón Cotarelo and Andrés de Blas, eds, La transción democrática española (Madrid: Sistema, 1989), pp. 611-44; also, "The Political Conditioning of Collective Violence: Regime Change and Insurgent Terrorism in Spain", Research on Democracy and Society 3 (1996), pp. 297-326. See, as well, Fraciso J. Llera, "Violencia y opinión pública en el País Vasco, 1978-1992", Revista Internacional de Sociología 3 (1992), pp. 83-111.
15. James Q. Wilson, Political Organizations (New York: Basic Books, 1973), pp. 30-55. Martha Crenshaw, "An Organizational Approach to the Analysis of Political Terrorism", Orbis 29 (1985), pp. 465-89.
16. James Q. Wilson, Political Organizations (New York: Basic Books, 1973), pp. 30-55. Martha Crenshaw, "An Organizational Approach to the Analysis of Political Terrorism", Orbis 29 (1985), pp. 465-89.
17. Crenshaw, ibid., p. 474. Nathan Leites, "Understanding the Next Act", Terrorism: An International Journal 3 (1979), pp. 1-46.
18. Crenshaw, ibid., p. 474. Nathan Leites, "Understanding the Next Act", Terrorism: An International Journal 3 (1979), pp. 1-46.
19. See the information published in El País for 1 April 1997. This report reproduces ETA's leadership considerations, as they appeared in Zutabe, the internal bulletin of the terrorist group. Paul Wilkinson examines in detail this and other related problems concerning anti-terrorist policy in the eighteenth chapter of his Terrorism and the Liberal State (London: Macmillan, 1986).
20. The reader may consult, about this issue, Joanne Wright's study Terrorist Propaganda: The Red Army Faction and the Provisional IRA, 1968-1986 (Basingstoke and London: Macmillan, 1991).
21. Concerning the influence of the mass media, especially television, on crisis situations provoked by terrorist groups, see Ronald D. Crelinsten, "The Impact of Television on Terrorism and Crisis Situations: Implications for Public Policy", Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management 2 (1994), pp. 61-72.
22. Some interesting considerations regarding how democratic governments have dealt with the mass media within the context of a comprehensive anti-terrorist policy can be found in Jennifer J. Hocking, "Governments' Perspectives", in David L. Paletz and Alex P. Schmid, eds, Terrorism and the Media (Newbury Park and London: Sage, 1992), pp. 86-104.
23. Christopher Hewitt, The Effectiveness of Anti-terrorist Policies (New York: University Press of America, 1984).
24. In this regard, see Franco Ferracuti, "Ideology and Repentance: Terrorism in Italy", in Walter Reich, ed., Origins of Terrorism: Psychologies, Ideologies, Theologies, States of Mind (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), pp. 59-64.
25. Michel Wieviorka, Sociétés et terrorisme (Paris: Fayard, 1988), p. 45.
26. Didier Bigo and Daniel Rermant, "La relation terroriste", Etudes Polémologigues 44-63, and Etudes Polémologigues 31 (1984), pp. 75-100. See also, Peter Chalk, "The Liberal Democratic Response to Terrorism", Terrrorism and Political Violence 7 (1995), pp. 10-44, in particular pp. 17-19.
27. Didier Bigo and Daniel Rermant, "La relation terroriste", Etudes Polémologigues 44-63, and Etudes Polémologigues 31 (1984), pp. 75-100. See also, Peter Chalk, "The Liberal Democratic Response to Terrorism", Terrrorism and Political Violence 7 (1995), pp. 10-44, in particular pp. 17-19.
28. Didier Bigo and Daniel Rermant, "La relation terroriste", Etudes Polémologigues 44-63, and Etudes Polémologigues 31 (1984), pp. 75-100. See also, Peter Chalk, "The Liberal Democratic Response to Terrorism", Terrrorism and Political Violence 7 (1995), pp. 10-44, in particular pp. 17-19.
29. Ronald D. Crelinsten, "Terrorism, Counterterrorism and Democracy: The Assessment of National Security Threats", Terrorism and Political Violence 1 (1989), pp. 242-69.
30. On the peculiarities of the Diplock Courts, see Antonio Vercher, Antiterrorismo en el Ulster y en el País Vasco. Legislación y medidas (Barcelona: Promociones y Publicaciones Universitarias, 1991), chapter five.
31. Esteban Mestre, Delincuencia terrorista y Audiencia Nacional (Madrid: Ministerio de Justicia, 1987), p. 93.
32. In this respect, see Luigi Ferrajoli, "Emergenza penale e crisi della giurisdizione", Dei delitti e delle pene 2 (1984), pp. 271-92; Diego López Garrido, Terrorismo políuca y derecho. La legislación antiterrorista en España, Reino Unido, República Federal de Alemania, Italia y Francia (Madrid: Alianza, 1987); José A. Martín Pallín, "Terrorismo y represión penal", Claves de Razón Práctica 23 (1992), pp. 26-34.
33. In this respect, see Luigi Ferrajoli, "Emergenza penale e crisi della giurisdizione", Dei delitti e delle pene 2 (1984), pp. 271-92; Diego López Garrido, Terrorismo políuca y derecho. La legislación antiterrorista en España, Reino Unido, República Federal de Alemania, Italia y Francia (Madrid: Alianza, 1987); José A. Martín Pallín, "Terrorismo y represión penal", Claves de Razón Práctica 23 (1992), pp. 26-34.
34. In this respect, see Luigi Ferrajoli, "Emergenza penale e crisi della giurisdizione", Dei delitti e delle pene 2 (1984), pp. 271-92; Diego López Garrido, Terrorismo políuca y derecho. La legislación antiterrorista en España, Reino Unido, República Federal de Alemania, Italia y Francia (Madrid: Alianza, 1987); José A. Martín Pallín, "Terrorismo y represión penal", Claves de Razón Práctica 23 (1992), pp. 26-34.
35. On this argument, with particular reference to the British and German cases, see John E. Finn, Constitutions in Crisis: Political Violence and the Rule of Law (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991).
36. In this respect, see the work of Stanley Cohen and Daphan Golan, The Interrogation of Palestinians During the Intifada: Ill-treatment, Moderate Physical Pressure or Torture (Jerusalem: The Israeli Information Centre for Human Rights in the Occupied Territories, 1995). Israel is the only democratic country which allows presumed terrorists to be subjected to physical pressure to obtain information. The authorities justify such techniques by pointing to the unusual degree of violence they face. Nevertheless, these practices are condemned by the international treaty making torture illegal that took effect in 1987.
37. According to data published by the British Home Office, between 1974 and 1990, more than 7,000 were detained under the Prevention of Terrorism Act in relation to the conflict in Northern Ireland. Eighty-six per cent of these were set free, and only three per cent were accused of crimes covered by this Act The rest received exclusion orders or were charged with other offences. See Statewatch 1, 2 (1991), pp. 10-11.
38. David Bonner, "Combating Terrrorism: Supergrass Trials in Northern Ireland", Modern Law Review 51 (1988), pp. 23-53; Steven Greer, Supergrasses: A Study in Anti-terrorist Law Enforcement in Northern Ireland (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995); Anthony Jennings, ed., Justice Under Fire: The Abuses of Civil Liberties in Northern Ireland (London: Pluto Press, 1990).
39. David Bonner, "Combating Terrrorism: Supergrass Trials in Northern Ireland", Modern Law Review 51 (1988), pp. 23-53; Steven Greer, Supergrasses: A Study in Anti-terrorist Law Enforcement in Northern Ireland (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995); Anthony Jennings, ed., Justice Under Fire: The Abuses of Civil Liberties in Northern Ireland (London: Pluto Press, 1990).
40. David Bonner, "Combating Terrrorism: Supergrass Trials in Northern Ireland", Modern Law Review 51 (1988), pp. 23-53; Steven Greer, Supergrasses: A Study in Anti-terrorist Law Enforcement in Northern Ireland (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995); Anthony Jennings, ed., Justice Under Fire: The Abuses of Civil Liberties in Northern Ireland (London: Pluto Press, 1990).
41. Steven Greer, "Miscarriages of Justice in the United Kingdom: A Very British Affair?", in Dario Melossi, ed., Social Control, Political Power and the Penal Question: For a Sociology of Criminal Law and Punishment (Oñti: International Institute for Sociology of Law, 1995).
42. See José R. Recalde, "Problemas de legitimidad: provocación terrorista y respuesta del Estado", in Fernando Reinares, ed., State and Societal Reaction to Terrorism (Oñati: International Institute for the Sociology of Law, 1997).
43. As an illustration, between 1980 and 1983 the anti-terrorist legislation then effective in Spain was applied to 443 common criminals in Madrid alone. On the factors that made these and other abuses possible during the period from the crisis of Francoism to the consolidation of democracy, see Oscar Jaime-Jiménez, "Legislación antiterrorista y agencias estatales de seguridad: un análisis preliminar de la experiencia española, 1960-1996". Revista de Derecho Penal Criminology 6 (1996), pp. 569-97.
44. On these matters, see Andrew Mack, "The Utility of Terrorism", Austrian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology 14 (1981), pp. 197-224;
45. Antonio Vercher, Terrorism in Europe: An International Comparative Legal Analysis (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992).
46. Irving L. Horowitz, "The Routinization of Terrorism and its Unanticipated Consequences", in Martha Crenshaw, ed., Terrorism, Legitimacy and Power: The Consequences of Political Violence (Middletown, Conneticut: Wesleyan University Press, 1983), pp. 38-51.
47. Herman and van der Laan Bouma, "Nationalists Without a Nation", p. 139.
48. An excellent approach to this question can be found in Natalie Cettina, Les enjeux organisationnels, de la lutte contre le terrorisme (Paris: Université Panthéon-Assas, 1994).
49. As noted by, among others, Irving L. Horowitz, "Political Terrorism and State Power", Journal of Political and Military Sociology 1, 1 (1973), p. 149.
50. Edwy Plenel, "Police et terrorisme", Esprit 11 (1986), pp. 7-20; Bruce Hoffman and Jennifer Morrison-Taw, A Strategic Framework for Countering Terrorism and Insurgency (Santa Monica, California: The RAND Corporation, 1992); Chalk, "The Liberal Democratic Response to Terrorism", pp. 27-31.
51. Edwy Plenel, "Police et terrorisme", Esprit 11 (1986), pp. 7-20; Bruce Hoffman and Jennifer Morrison-Taw, A Strategic Framework for Countering Terrorism and Insurgency (Santa Monica, California: The RAND Corporation, 1992); Chalk, "The Liberal Democratic Response to Terrorism", pp. 27-31.
52. Edwy Plenel, "Police et terrorisme", Esprit 11 (1986), pp. 7-20; Bruce Hoffman and Jennifer Morrison-Taw, A Strategic Framework for Countering Terrorism and Insurgency (Santa Monica, California: The RAND Corporation, 1992); Chalk, "The Liberal Democratic Response to Terrorism", pp. 27-31.
53. Leonard Weinberg and William L. Eubank, The Rise and Fall of Italian Terrorism (Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1987), pp. 125-26.
54. Reinares, "Democratización y terrorismo en el caso español, pp. 611-44.
55. Joseph L. Albini, Roy E. Rogers and Julie Anderson, "The Sicilian Mafia, the Russian Mafia, the Evolution of Espionage Networks and the Crisis of International Terrorism and Global Organized Crime: An Application of Albini's Patron-client Model". Paper presented at the Workshop on Global Organized Crime and International Security, International Institute for the Sociology of Law, Oñati, 3-6 June 1997.
56. On this problem, see John B. Wolf, "Controlling Political Terrorism in a Free Society", Orbis XIX, 4 (1976), pp. 1289-308; H. A. Cooper, "Terrorism and the Intelligence Function", in Marius H. Livingston, Lee B. Kress and Marie G. Waneck, eds, International Terrorism in the Contemporary World (Westport, Connecticut and London: Greenwood Press, 1978), pp. 287-96; K. G. Robertson, "Intelligence, Terrorism, and Civil Liberties", in Paul Wilkinson and Alasdair M. Stewart, eds, Contemporary Research on Terrorism (Aberdeen: Aberdeen University Press, 1987), pp. 549-69; Peter Gill, Policing Politics: Security Intelligence and the Liberal Democratic State (London: Frank Cass, 1994); Laurence Lustgarten and Ian Leigh, In From the Cold: National Security and Parliamentary Democracy (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994).
57. On this problem, see John B. Wolf, "Controlling Political Terrorism in a Free Society", Orbis XIX, 4 (1976), pp. 1289-308; H. A. Cooper, "Terrorism and the Intelligence Function", in Marius H. Livingston, Lee B. Kress and Marie G. Waneck, eds, International Terrorism in the Contemporary World (Westport, Connecticut and London: Greenwood Press, 1978), pp. 287-96; K. G. Robertson, "Intelligence, Terrorism, and Civil Liberties", in Paul Wilkinson and Alasdair M. Stewart, eds, Contemporary Research on Terrorism (Aberdeen: Aberdeen University Press, 1987), pp. 549-69; Peter Gill, Policing Politics: Security Intelligence and the Liberal Democratic State (London: Frank Cass, 1994); Laurence Lustgarten and Ian Leigh, In From the Cold: National Security and Parliamentary Democracy (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994).
58. On this problem, see John B. Wolf, "Controlling Political Terrorism in a Free Society", Orbis XIX, 4 (1976), pp. 1289-308; H. A. Cooper, "Terrorism and the Intelligence Function", in Marius H. Livingston, Lee B. Kress and Marie G. Waneck, eds, International Terrorism in the Contemporary World (Westport, Connecticut and London: Greenwood Press, 1978), pp. 287-96; K. G. Robertson, "Intelligence, Terrorism, and Civil Liberties", in Paul Wilkinson and Alasdair M. Stewart, eds, Contemporary Research on Terrorism (Aberdeen: Aberdeen University Press, 1987), pp. 549-69; Peter Gill, Policing Politics: Security Intelligence and the Liberal Democratic State (London: Frank Cass, 1994); Laurence Lustgarten and Ian Leigh, In From the Cold: National Security and Parliamentary Democracy (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994).
59. On this problem, see John B. Wolf, "Controlling Political Terrorism in a Free Society", Orbis XIX, 4 (1976), pp. 1289-308; H. A. Cooper, "Terrorism and the Intelligence Function", in Marius H. Livingston, Lee B. Kress and Marie G. Waneck, eds, International Terrorism in the Contemporary World (Westport, Connecticut and London: Greenwood Press, 1978), pp. 287-96; K. G. Robertson, "Intelligence, Terrorism, and Civil Liberties", in Paul Wilkinson and Alasdair M. Stewart, eds, Contemporary Research on Terrorism (Aberdeen: Aberdeen University Press, 1987), pp. 549-69; Peter Gill, Policing Politics: Security Intelligence and the Liberal Democratic State (London: Frank Cass, 1994); Laurence Lustgarten and Ian Leigh, In From the Cold: National Security and Parliamentary Democracy (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994).
60. On this problem, see John B. Wolf, "Controlling Political Terrorism in a Free Society", Orbis XIX, 4 (1976), pp. 1289-308; H. A. Cooper, "Terrorism and the Intelligence Function", in Marius H. Livingston, Lee B. Kress and Marie G. Waneck, eds, International Terrorism in the Contemporary World (Westport, Connecticut and London: Greenwood Press, 1978), pp. 287-96; K. G. Robertson, "Intelligence, Terrorism, and Civil Liberties", in Paul Wilkinson and Alasdair M. Stewart, eds, Contemporary Research on Terrorism (Aberdeen: Aberdeen University Press, 1987), pp. 549-69; Peter Gill, Policing Politics: Security Intelligence and the Liberal Democratic State (London: Frank Cass, 1994); Laurence Lustgarten and Ian Leigh, In From the Cold: National Security and Parliamentary Democracy (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994).
61. On the problems raised by the use of informants and concealed agents, see Steven Greer, "Towards a Sociological Model of the Police Informant", British Journal of Sociology 46, 3 (1995), pp. 509-27; Cyrille J. Fijnaut and Gary T. Marx, eds, Undercover Police Surveillance in Comparative Perspective (La Haya: Kluwer Law International, 1995).
62. On the problems raised by the use of informants and concealed agents, see Steven Greer, "Towards a Sociological Model of the Police Informant", British Journal of Sociology 46, 3 (1995), pp. 509-27; Cyrille J. Fijnaut and Gary T. Marx, eds, Undercover Police Surveillance in Comparative Perspective (La Haya: Kluwer Law International, 1995).
63. Peter Taylor Beating the Terrorist? Interrogation in Omagh, Gough and Castlereagh (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1980). p. 19. On the maintenance of the public order in a society so divided and affected by terrorism as Northern Ireland see Adrian Guelke, "Policing in Northern Ireland", in Brigid Hadfield, ed., Northern Ireland: Politics and the Constitution (Buckingham: Open University Press, 1992), pp. 94-109 See Manuel Ballbé, Orden püblico y militarismo en la España constitutional (1812-1983) (Madrid: Alianza, 1985), chapter 12.
64. Peter Taylor Beating the Terrorist? Interrogation in Omagh, Gough and Castlereagh (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1980). p. 19. On the maintenance of the public order in a society so divided and affected by terrorism as Northern Ireland see Adrian Guelke, "Policing in Northern Ireland", in Brigid Hadfield, ed., Northern Ireland: Politics and the Constitution (Buckingham: Open University Press, 1992), pp. 94-109 See Manuel Ballbé, Orden püblico y militarismo en la España constitutional (1812-1983) (Madrid: Alianza, 1985), chapter 12.
65. Peter Taylor Beating the Terrorist? Interrogation in Omagh, Gough and Castlereagh (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1980). p. 19. On the maintenance of the public order in a society so divided and affected by terrorism as Northern Ireland see Adrian Guelke, "Policing in Northern Ireland", in Brigid Hadfield, ed., Northern Ireland: Politics and the Constitution (Buckingham: Open University Press, 1992), pp. 94-109 See Manuel Ballbé, Orden püblico y militarismo en la España constitutional (1812-1983) (Madrid: Alianza, 1985), chapter 12.
66. As Donatella della Porta has observed, when analysing the Italian case, in his "Institutional Responses to Terrorism: The Italian Case", Terrorism and Political Violence 4 (1992), p. 167.
67. See especially, Weinberg and Eubank, Rise and Fall of Italian Terrorism, pp. 119-33.
68. See also, Stefano Rodotá, "La risposta dello stato al terrorisms: gli apparati", in Gianfranco Pasquino, ed., La prova delle armi (Bolonia: Il Mulino, 1984), pp. 77-91;
69. Luciana Stortoni, La repressione del terrorisms in Italia: l'ntervento delle Forze dell'ordine fino all'inizio degli anni ottanta, unpublished doctoral thesis, European University Institute, 1992.
70. As Rosario Minna has corroborated in "Il terrorisms di destra", in Donatella della Porta, ed., Terrorism in Italia (Bolonia: II Mulino, 1984), especially pp. 59-61.
71. See Steve Bruce, The Red Hand: Protestant Paramilitaries in Northern Ireland (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), especially chapter 8. See also the information published in Statewatch 3, 4 (1993), pp. 12-13.
72. See Steve Bruce, The Red Hand: Protestant Paramilitaries in Northern Ireland (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), especially chapter 8. See also the information published in Statewatch 3, 4 (1993), pp. 12-13.
73. John B. Wolf, Fear Of Fear: A Survey of Terrorist Operations and Controls in Open Societies (New York and London: Plenum Press, 1981), Wilkinson, Terrorism and the Liberal State, especially chapter 8; Chalk, "The Liberal Democratic Response to Terrorism".
74. John B. Wolf, Fear Of Fear: A Survey of Terrorist Operations and Controls in Open Societies (New York and London: Plenum Press, 1981), Wilkinson, Terrorism and the Liberal State, especially chapter 8; Chalk, "The Liberal Democratic Response to Terrorism".
75. John B. Wolf, Fear Of Fear: A Survey of Terrorist Operations and Controls in Open Societies (New York and London: Plenum Press, 1981), Wilkinson, Terrorism and the Liberal State, especially chapter 8; Chalk, "The Liberal Democratic Response to Terrorism".