The perceptually "privileged" group member: Consequences of solo status for African Americans and whites in task groups

Small Group Research

Volumn 29, Issue 3, 1998, Pages 339-358

  Craig, Kellina M ^a   Rand, Kristine A ^b  

^a CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b BP EXPLORATION   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0032388415     PISSN: 10464964     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/1046496498293003     Document Type: Article

References (53)

1. Alexander, V. D., & Thoits, P. A. (1985). Token achievement: An examination of proportional representation and performance outcomes. Social Forces, 64, 332-340.
2. Baker, P. M. (1988). Participation in small groups. Small Group Behavior, 19, 3-18.
3. Bass, B. M. (1946). An analysis of the leaderless group discussion. Harvard Business Review, 24, 197-214.
4. Bavelas, A., Hastorf, A. H., Gross, A. E., & Kite, W. R. (1965). Experiments on the alteration of group structure. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 1, 55-70.
5. Berger, J., Cohen, B. P., & Zelditch, M. (1966). Status characteristics and expectation states. In J. Berger, M. Zelditch, & M. Anderson (Eds.), Sociological theories in progress. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin.
6. Berlew, D. E., & Hall, D. T. (1971). Socialization of managers: Effects of expectations on performance. In D. A. Kolb, I. M. Rubin, & J. M. McIntyre (Eds.), Organizational psychology: A book of readings (3rd. ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
7. Brewer, M. B. (1988). A dual process model of imporession formation. In T. K. Srull & R. S. Wyer (Eds.), Advances in social cognition (Vol. 1, pp. 1-36). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
8. Cohen, L. L., & Swim, J. K. (1995). The differential impact of gender ratios on women and men: Tokenism, self-confidence, and expectations. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21, 876-884.
9. Cose, E. (1993). The rage of the privileged class. New York: HarperCollins.
10. Craig, J. M., & Sherif, C. W. (1986). The effectiveness of men and women in problem-solving groups as a function of group gender composition. Sex Roles, 17, 453-466.
11. Craig, K. M. (1996). Are all newcomers judged similarly? Distinctiveness and time of entry in task-oriented groups. Small Group Research, 27, 383-397
12. Craig, K. M., & Feasel, K. A. (in press). Do solo arrangements lead to attributions of tokenism? Perceptions of the selection criteria and task-assignments in task-oriented groups. Journal of Applied Social Psychology.
13. Crocker, J., & McGraw, K. M. (1984). What's good for the goose is not good for the gander. American Behavioral Scientist, 27, 357-369.
14. Eagly, A. H. (1987). Sex differences in social behavior: A social role analysis. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
15. Eagly, A. H., & Karau, S. J. (1991). Gender and the emergence of leaders: A meta-analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 685-710.
16. Eberhardt, J. L., & Fiske, S. T. (1994). Affirmative action in theory and practice: Issues of power, ambiguity and gender versus race. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 15, 210-214.
17. Fairhurst, G. T., & Snavely, B. K. (1983). Majority and token majority group relationships: Power acquisition and communication. Academy of Management Journal, 26, 353-361.
18. Fiske, S. T. (1987). On the road: Comment on the cognitive stereotyping literature in Pettigrew and Martin. Journal of Social Issues, 43, 113-118.
19. Fiske, S. T., & Taylor, S. (1991). Social cognition (2nd ed). New York: McGraw-Hill.
20. Floge, L., & Merrill, D. M. (1986). Tokenism reconsidered: Male nurses and female physicians in a hospital setting. Social Forces, 64, 925-947.
21. Greenhaus, J. H., & Parasuraman, S. (1993). Job performance attributions and career advancement prospects: An examination of gender and race effects. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 55, 273-297.
22. Hollander, E. P. (1960). Competence and conformity in the acceptance of influence. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 61, 365-369.
23. Hollander, E. P., & Julian, J. W. (1969). Contemporary trends in the analysis of the leadership processes. Psychological Bulletin, 71, 387-397.
24. Johnston, W. B., & Packer, A. E. (1987). Workforce 2000: Work and workers for the twenty-first century. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Labor.
25. Judd, C. M., & Park, B. (1988). Outgroup homogeneity: Judgments of variability at the individual and group levels. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 778-788.
26. Kanter, R. M. (1977). Some effects of proportions on group life: Skewed sex ratios and responses to solo women. American Journal of Sociology, 82, 965-990.
27. Kanter, R. M. (1983). Organizational effectiveness. In D. Perlman & P. C. Cozby (Eds.), Social psychology. New York: CBS College Publishing.
28. Ledvinka, J., & Scarpello, V. G. (1991). Federal regulation of personnel and human resource management. Boston: PWS-Kent Publishing.
29. Li, J. (1994). Demographic diversity, tokenism, and their effects on individuals'behavior in group processes. Conference proceedings of the Academy of Management Annual Meeting. Dallas, TX.
30. Lord, C. G., & Saenz, D. S. (1985). Memory deficits and memory surfeits: Differential cognitive consequences of tokenism for tokens and observers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49, 918-926.
31. Lord, R. G. (1977). Functional leadership behavior: Measurement and relation to social power and leadership perceptions. Administrative Science Quarterly, 22, 114-133.
32. Lord, R. G., Phillips, J. S., & Rush, M. C. (1980). Effects of sex and personality on perceptions of emergent leadership, influence, and social power. Journal of Applied Psychology, 65, 176-182.
33. McGrath, J. E. (1984). Groups: Interaction and performance. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
34. McRae, M. B. (1994). Influence of sex role stereotypes on personnel decisions of Black managers. Journal of Applied Psychology, 79, 306-309.
35. Morland, J. K. (1965). Token desegregation and beyond. In A. M. Rose & C. B. Rose (Eds.), Minority problems (pp. 229-238). New York: Harper & Row.
36. Mullen, B., Salas, E., & Driskell, J. E. (1989). Salience, motivation, and artifact as contributions to the relation between participation rate and leadership. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 25, 545-559.
37. Pettigrew, T. F., & Martin, J. (1987). Shaping the organizational context for Black American inclusion. Journal of Social Issues, 43, 41-78.
38. Ragins, B. R., & Sundstrom, E. (1989). Gender and power in organizations: A longitudinal perspective. Psychological Bulletin, 105, 51-88.
39. Ridgeway, C. L. (1982). Status in groups: The importance of motivation. American Sociological Review, 47, 76-88.
40. Rogers, R. W. (1983). Race variables in aggression. In R. G. Geen & E. I. Donnerstein (Eds.), Aggression (Vol. 2, pp. 27-50). New York: Academic Press.
41. Rosenthal, R., & Rosnow, R. (1969). Artifact in behavioral research. New York: Academic Press.
42. Sackett, P. R., DuBois, C. L., & Noe, A. W. (1991). Tokenism in performance evaluation: The effects of work group representation on male-female and White-Black differences in performance ratings. Journal of Applied Psychology, 76, 263-267.
43. Smith, T. W. (1990). Ethnic images. (GSS Topical Report No. 19). Chicago: University of Chicago, National Opinion Research Center.
44. Sorrentino, R. M., & Boutillier, R. G. (1975). The effect of quantity and quality of verbal interaction on ratings of leadership ability. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 11, 403-411.
45. Spector, P. E. (1981). Research designs. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
46. Steele, C. (1992, April). Race and the schooling of Black Americans. Atlantic Monthly, 269, 68-78.
47. Stein, R. T. (1975). Identifying emergent leaders from verbal and nonverbal communications. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32, 125-135.
48. Taylor, S. E., Fiske, S. T., Etcoff, N. L., & Ruderman, A. J. (1978). Categorical bases of person memory and stereotyping. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 778-793.
49. Triandis, H. C., Kurowski, L. L., & Gelfand, M. J. (1994). Workplace diversity. In H. C. Triandis, M. D. Dunnette, & L. M. Hough (Eds.), Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology (2nd. ed., pp. 768-827). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
50. Turner, J. C. (1975). Social comparison and social identity: Some prospects for intergroup behavior. European Journal of Social Psychology, 5, 5-34.
51. Wilson, L., & Rogers, R. W. (1975). The fire this time: Effects of race of target, insult, and potential retaliation on Black aggression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32, 857-864.
52. Yoder, J. D. (1994). Looking beyond numbers: The effects of gender status, job prestige, and occupational gender-typing on tokenism process. Social Psychology Quarterly, 57, 150-159.
53. Ziller, R. C., Behringer, R. D., & Goodchilds, J. D. (1960). The minority newcomer in open and closed groups. Journal of Psychology, 50, 75-84.