Care in knowledge creation

California Management Review

Volumn , Issue 3, 1998, Pages 133-153

  Von Krogh, Georg ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0032382944     PISSN: 00081256     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/41165947     Document Type: Article

References (76)

1. For a good overview of this argument, see Robert Grant, "The Knowledge-Based View of the Firm: Implications for Management Practice," Long Range Planning, 30/3 (1997): 450-454. For additional literature on knowledge management, see L. Edvinsson and T. Sullivan, Intellectual Capital (New York, NY: Harper Collins, 1997); T. Davenport and L. Prusak, Working Knowledge (Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press, 1997). Some practical cases on knowledge management, covering companies such as Dow Chemical, Skandia AFS, and Motorola, are available in a special issue on "The Epistemological Challenge: Managing Knowledge and Intellectual Capital" of the European Management Journal, 14/4 (1996). For those readers interested in the theoretical foundations of competitive advantage, rent, and firm resources, see R. Rummelt, D. Schendel, and D. Teece, Fundamental Issues in Strategy (Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press, 1994); D.J. Teece, G. Pisano, and A. Shuen, "Dynamic Capabilities and Strategic Management," Strategic Management Journal, 18/7 (1997): 509-534.
2. For a good overview of this argument, see Robert Grant, "The Knowledge-Based View of the Firm: Implications for Management Practice," Long Range Planning, 30/3 (1997): 450-454. For additional literature on knowledge management, see L. Edvinsson and T. Sullivan, Intellectual Capital (New York, NY: Harper Collins, 1997); T. Davenport and L. Prusak, Working Knowledge (Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press, 1997). Some practical cases on knowledge management, covering companies such as Dow Chemical, Skandia AFS, and Motorola, are available in a special issue on "The Epistemological Challenge: Managing Knowledge and Intellectual Capital" of the European Management Journal, 14/4 (1996). For those readers interested in the theoretical foundations of competitive advantage, rent, and firm resources, see R. Rummelt, D. Schendel, and D. Teece, Fundamental Issues in Strategy (Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press, 1994); D.J. Teece, G. Pisano, and A. Shuen, "Dynamic Capabilities and Strategic Management," Strategic Management Journal, 18/7 (1997): 509-534.
3. For a good overview of this argument, see Robert Grant, "The Knowledge-Based View of the Firm: Implications for Management Practice," Long Range Planning, 30/3 (1997): 450-454. For additional literature on knowledge management, see L. Edvinsson and T. Sullivan, Intellectual Capital (New York, NY: Harper Collins, 1997); T. Davenport and L. Prusak, Working Knowledge (Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press, 1997). Some practical cases on knowledge management, covering companies such as Dow Chemical, Skandia AFS, and Motorola, are available in a special issue on "The Epistemological Challenge: Managing Knowledge and Intellectual Capital" of the European Management Journal, 14/4 (1996). For those readers interested in the theoretical foundations of competitive advantage, rent, and firm resources, see R. Rummelt, D. Schendel, and D. Teece, Fundamental Issues in Strategy (Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press, 1994); D.J. Teece, G. Pisano, and A. Shuen, "Dynamic Capabilities and Strategic Management," Strategic Management Journal, 18/7 (1997): 509-534.
4. For a good overview of this argument, see Robert Grant, "The Knowledge-Based View of the Firm: Implications for Management Practice," Long Range Planning, 30/3 (1997): 450-454. For additional literature on knowledge management, see L. Edvinsson and T. Sullivan, Intellectual Capital (New York, NY: Harper Collins, 1997); T. Davenport and L. Prusak, Working Knowledge (Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press, 1997). Some practical cases on knowledge management, covering companies such as Dow Chemical, Skandia AFS, and Motorola, are available in a special issue on "The Epistemological Challenge: Managing Knowledge and Intellectual Capital" of the European Management Journal, 14/4 (1996). For those readers interested in the theoretical foundations of competitive advantage, rent, and firm resources, see R. Rummelt, D. Schendel, and D. Teece, Fundamental Issues in Strategy (Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press, 1994); D.J. Teece, G. Pisano, and A. Shuen, "Dynamic Capabilities and Strategic Management," Strategic Management Journal, 18/7 (1997): 509-534.
5. For a good overview of this argument, see Robert Grant, "The Knowledge-Based View of the Firm: Implications for Management Practice," Long Range Planning, 30/3 (1997): 450-454. For additional literature on knowledge management, see L. Edvinsson and T. Sullivan, Intellectual Capital (New York, NY: Harper Collins, 1997); T. Davenport and L. Prusak, Working Knowledge (Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press, 1997). Some practical cases on knowledge management, covering companies such as Dow Chemical, Skandia AFS, and Motorola, are available in a special issue on "The Epistemological Challenge: Managing Knowledge and Intellectual Capital" of the European Management Journal, 14/4 (1996). For those readers interested in the theoretical foundations of competitive advantage, rent, and firm resources, see R. Rummelt, D. Schendel, and D. Teece, Fundamental Issues in Strategy (Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press, 1994); D.J. Teece, G. Pisano, and A. Shuen, "Dynamic Capabilities and Strategic Management," Strategic Management Journal, 18/7 (1997): 509-534.
6. For a good overview of this argument, see Robert Grant, "The Knowledge-Based View of the Firm: Implications for Management Practice," Long Range Planning, 30/3 (1997): 450-454. For additional literature on knowledge management, see L. Edvinsson and T. Sullivan, Intellectual Capital (New York, NY: Harper Collins, 1997); T. Davenport and L. Prusak, Working Knowledge (Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press, 1997). Some practical cases on knowledge management, covering companies such as Dow Chemical, Skandia AFS, and Motorola, are available in a special issue on "The Epistemological Challenge: Managing Knowledge and Intellectual Capital" of the European Management Journal, 14/4 (1996). For those readers interested in the theoretical foundations of competitive advantage, rent, and firm resources, see R. Rummelt, D. Schendel, and D. Teece, Fundamental Issues in Strategy (Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press, 1994); D.J. Teece, G. Pisano, and A. Shuen, "Dynamic Capabilities and Strategic Management," Strategic Management Journal, 18/7 (1997): 509-534.
7. For more on managerial effectiveness and firm resources, see R.P. Castanias and C.E. Helfat, "Managerial Resources and Rents," Journal of Management, 17/1 (1991): 155-171.
8. I. Nonaka and H. Takeuchi, The Knowledge Creating Company (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1995).
9. The ultimate quest of the cognitivists was to create information-processing machines that would resemble human intelligence. These machines would, like the brain, manipulate symbols and thereby solve predefined problems. See, for example, N. Block, "The Computer Model of Mind," in D.H. Osherson and E.E. Smith, eds., Thinking: An Invitation to Cognitive Science, Vol. 3 (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1990).
10. Space does not allow for a full overview of the cognitivist perspective. If you're interested in further readings, you may turn to the seminal work of H. Gardner, The Mind's New Science: A History of the Cognitive Revolution (New York, NY: Basic Books, 1985). To many observers, the cognitivist perspective found its roots in a paper by W. McCulloch and W. Pitts, "A Logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity," Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics, 5 (1943): 115-133. This was the first attempt to conceive of the nervous system as a logical structure. Later cognitivist work applied to human cognition include A. Newell and H. Simon, Human Problem Solving (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1972); H. Simon, Models of Thought, Vol. 2 (New Heaven, CT: Yale University Press, 1989). Contributions to artificial intelligence include M. Minsky, "Steps Toward Artificial Intelligence," in E. A. Feigenbaum and J. Feldman, eds., Computers and Thought, (New York, NY: MacGraw Hill, 1963). A very comprehensive volume on Artificial Intelligence is R. Kurzweil, Intelligent Machines (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1990). This book is instructive in understanding the fundamental idea that knowledge is expressible in language. Although the cognitivist charter at the outset was to advance a scientific rather than a psychological or philosophical study of the mind, contemporary philosophers frequently debate the contribution of the cognitive revolution to philosophy. See, for example, A. Goldman, Epistemology and Cognition (Boston, MA: Harvard University Press, 1986). Because of its implications on a fundamental understanding of behavior, the cognitivist perspective also had a strong influence in the literature on organizational behavior, especially in the way the organization was to be understood as an "information processing mechanism" or problem-solving entity. The most notable are the seminal works by J.G. March and H. Simon, Organizations (New York, NY: Wiley, 1958); R.M. Cyert and J.G. March, A Behavioral Theory of the Firm (London: Blackwell, 1992). For more information on cognitivism in organization and management studies, see also the essay collection by G. von Krogh and J. Roos, Managing Knowledge: Perspectives on Cooperation and Competition (London: Sage, 1996).
11. Space does not allow for a full overview of the cognitivist perspective. If you're interested in further readings, you may turn to the seminal work of H. Gardner, The Mind's New Science: A History of the Cognitive Revolution (New York, NY: Basic Books, 1985). To many observers, the cognitivist perspective found its roots in a paper by W. McCulloch and W. Pitts, "A Logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity," Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics, 5 (1943): 115-133. This was the first attempt to conceive of the nervous system as a logical structure. Later cognitivist work applied to human cognition include A. Newell and H. Simon, Human Problem Solving (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1972); H. Simon, Models of Thought, Vol. 2 (New Heaven, CT: Yale University Press, 1989). Contributions to artificial intelligence include M. Minsky, "Steps Toward Artificial Intelligence," in E. A. Feigenbaum and J. Feldman, eds., Computers and Thought, (New York, NY: MacGraw Hill, 1963). A very comprehensive volume on Artificial Intelligence is R. Kurzweil, Intelligent Machines (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1990). This book is instructive in understanding the fundamental idea that knowledge is expressible in language. Although the cognitivist charter at the outset was to advance a scientific rather than a psychological or philosophical study of the mind, contemporary philosophers frequently debate the contribution of the cognitive revolution to philosophy. See, for example, A. Goldman, Epistemology and Cognition (Boston, MA: Harvard University Press, 1986). Because of its implications on a fundamental understanding of behavior, the cognitivist perspective also had a strong influence in the literature on organizational behavior, especially in the way the organization was to be understood as an "information processing mechanism" or problem-solving entity. The most notable are the seminal works by J.G. March and H. Simon, Organizations (New York, NY: Wiley, 1958); R.M. Cyert and J.G. March, A Behavioral Theory of the Firm (London: Blackwell, 1992). For more information on cognitivism in organization and management studies, see also the essay collection by G. von Krogh and J. Roos, Managing Knowledge: Perspectives on Cooperation and Competition (London: Sage, 1996).
12. Space does not allow for a full overview of the cognitivist perspective. If you're interested in further readings, you may turn to the seminal work of H. Gardner, The Mind's New Science: A History of the Cognitive Revolution (New York, NY: Basic Books, 1985). To many observers, the cognitivist perspective found its roots in a paper by W. McCulloch and W. Pitts, "A Logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity," Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics, 5 (1943): 115-133. This was the first attempt to conceive of the nervous system as a logical structure. Later cognitivist work applied to human cognition include A. Newell and H. Simon, Human Problem Solving (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1972); H. Simon, Models of Thought, Vol. 2 (New Heaven, CT: Yale University Press, 1989). Contributions to artificial intelligence include M. Minsky, "Steps Toward Artificial Intelligence," in E. A. Feigenbaum and J. Feldman, eds., Computers and Thought, (New York, NY: MacGraw Hill, 1963). A very comprehensive volume on Artificial Intelligence is R. Kurzweil, Intelligent Machines (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1990). This book is instructive in understanding the fundamental idea that knowledge is expressible in language. Although the cognitivist charter at the outset was to advance a scientific rather than a psychological or philosophical study of the mind, contemporary philosophers frequently debate the contribution of the cognitive revolution to philosophy. See, for example, A. Goldman, Epistemology and Cognition (Boston, MA: Harvard University Press, 1986). Because of its implications on a fundamental understanding of behavior, the cognitivist perspective also had a strong influence in the literature on organizational behavior, especially in the way the organization was to be understood as an "information processing mechanism" or problem-solving entity. The most notable are the seminal works by J.G. March and H. Simon, Organizations (New York, NY: Wiley, 1958); R.M. Cyert and J.G. March, A Behavioral Theory of the Firm (London: Blackwell, 1992). For more information on cognitivism in organization and management studies, see also the essay collection by G. von Krogh and J. Roos, Managing Knowledge: Perspectives on Cooperation and Competition (London: Sage, 1996).
13. Space does not allow for a full overview of the cognitivist perspective. If you're interested in further readings, you may turn to the seminal work of H. Gardner, The Mind's New Science: A History of the Cognitive Revolution (New York, NY: Basic Books, 1985). To many observers, the cognitivist perspective found its roots in a paper by W. McCulloch and W. Pitts, "A Logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity," Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics, 5 (1943): 115-133. This was the first attempt to conceive of the nervous system as a logical structure. Later cognitivist work applied to human cognition include A. Newell and H. Simon, Human Problem Solving (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1972); H. Simon, Models of Thought, Vol. 2 (New Heaven, CT: Yale University Press, 1989). Contributions to artificial intelligence include M. Minsky, "Steps Toward Artificial Intelligence," in E. A. Feigenbaum and J. Feldman, eds., Computers and Thought, (New York, NY: MacGraw Hill, 1963). A very comprehensive volume on Artificial Intelligence is R. Kurzweil, Intelligent Machines (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1990). This book is instructive in understanding the fundamental idea that knowledge is expressible in language. Although the cognitivist charter at the outset was to advance a scientific rather than a psychological or philosophical study of the mind, contemporary philosophers frequently debate the contribution of the cognitive revolution to philosophy. See, for example, A. Goldman, Epistemology and Cognition (Boston, MA: Harvard University Press, 1986). Because of its implications on a fundamental understanding of behavior, the cognitivist perspective also had a strong influence in the literature on organizational behavior, especially in the way the organization was to be understood as an "information processing mechanism" or problem-solving entity. The most notable are the seminal works by J.G. March and H. Simon, Organizations (New York, NY: Wiley, 1958); R.M. Cyert and J.G. March, A Behavioral Theory of the Firm (London: Blackwell, 1992). For more information on cognitivism in organization and management studies, see also the essay collection by G. von Krogh and J. Roos, Managing Knowledge: Perspectives on Cooperation and Competition (London: Sage, 1996).
14. Space does not allow for a full overview of the cognitivist perspective. If you're interested in further readings, you may turn to the seminal work of H. Gardner, The Mind's New Science: A History of the Cognitive Revolution (New York, NY: Basic Books, 1985). To many observers, the cognitivist perspective found its roots in a paper by W. McCulloch and W. Pitts, "A Logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity," Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics, 5 (1943): 115-133. This was the first attempt to conceive of the nervous system as a logical structure. Later cognitivist work applied to human cognition include A. Newell and H. Simon, Human Problem Solving (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1972); H. Simon, Models of Thought, Vol. 2 (New Heaven, CT: Yale University Press, 1989). Contributions to artificial intelligence include M. Minsky, "Steps Toward Artificial Intelligence," in E. A. Feigenbaum and J. Feldman, eds., Computers and Thought, (New York, NY: MacGraw Hill, 1963). A very comprehensive volume on Artificial Intelligence is R. Kurzweil, Intelligent Machines (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1990). This book is instructive in understanding the fundamental idea that knowledge is expressible in language. Although the cognitivist charter at the outset was to advance a scientific rather than a psychological or philosophical study of the mind, contemporary philosophers frequently debate the contribution of the cognitive revolution to philosophy. See, for example, A. Goldman, Epistemology and Cognition (Boston, MA: Harvard University Press, 1986). Because of its implications on a fundamental understanding of behavior, the cognitivist perspective also had a strong influence in the literature on organizational behavior, especially in the way the organization was to be understood as an "information processing mechanism" or problem-solving entity. The most notable are the seminal works by J.G. March and H. Simon, Organizations (New York, NY: Wiley, 1958); R.M. Cyert and J.G. March, A Behavioral Theory of the Firm (London: Blackwell, 1992). For more information on cognitivism in organization and management studies, see also the essay collection by G. von Krogh and J. Roos, Managing Knowledge: Perspectives on Cooperation and Competition (London: Sage, 1996).
15. Space does not allow for a full overview of the cognitivist perspective. If you're interested in further readings, you may turn to the seminal work of H. Gardner, The Mind's New Science: A History of the Cognitive Revolution (New York, NY: Basic Books, 1985). To many observers, the cognitivist perspective found its roots in a paper by W. McCulloch and W. Pitts, "A Logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity," Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics, 5 (1943): 115-133. This was the first attempt to conceive of the nervous system as a logical structure. Later cognitivist work applied to human cognition include A. Newell and H. Simon, Human Problem Solving (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1972); H. Simon, Models of Thought, Vol. 2 (New Heaven, CT: Yale University Press, 1989). Contributions to artificial intelligence include M. Minsky, "Steps Toward Artificial Intelligence," in E. A. Feigenbaum and J. Feldman, eds., Computers and Thought, (New York, NY: MacGraw Hill, 1963). A very comprehensive volume on Artificial Intelligence is R. Kurzweil, Intelligent Machines (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1990). This book is instructive in understanding the fundamental idea that knowledge is expressible in language. Although the cognitivist charter at the outset was to advance a scientific rather than a psychological or philosophical study of the mind, contemporary philosophers frequently debate the contribution of the cognitive revolution to philosophy. See, for example, A. Goldman, Epistemology and Cognition (Boston, MA: Harvard University Press, 1986). Because of its implications on a fundamental understanding of behavior, the cognitivist perspective also had a strong influence in the literature on organizational behavior, especially in the way the organization was to be understood as an "information processing mechanism" or problem-solving entity. The most notable are the seminal works by J.G. March and H. Simon, Organizations (New York, NY: Wiley, 1958); R.M. Cyert and J.G. March, A Behavioral Theory of the Firm (London: Blackwell, 1992). For more information on cognitivism in organization and management studies, see also the essay collection by G. von Krogh and J. Roos, Managing Knowledge: Perspectives on Cooperation and Competition (London: Sage, 1996).
16. Space does not allow for a full overview of the cognitivist perspective. If you're interested in further readings, you may turn to the seminal work of H. Gardner, The Mind's New Science: A History of the Cognitive Revolution (New York, NY: Basic Books, 1985). To many observers, the cognitivist perspective found its roots in a paper by W. McCulloch and W. Pitts, "A Logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity," Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics, 5 (1943): 115-133. This was the first attempt to conceive of the nervous system as a logical structure. Later cognitivist work applied to human cognition include A. Newell and H. Simon, Human Problem Solving (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1972); H. Simon, Models of Thought, Vol. 2 (New Heaven, CT: Yale University Press, 1989). Contributions to artificial intelligence include M. Minsky, "Steps Toward Artificial Intelligence," in E. A. Feigenbaum and J. Feldman, eds., Computers and Thought, (New York, NY: MacGraw Hill, 1963). A very comprehensive volume on Artificial Intelligence is R. Kurzweil, Intelligent Machines (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1990). This book is instructive in understanding the fundamental idea that knowledge is expressible in language. Although the cognitivist charter at the outset was to advance a scientific rather than a psychological or philosophical study of the mind, contemporary philosophers frequently debate the contribution of the cognitive revolution to philosophy. See, for example, A. Goldman, Epistemology and Cognition (Boston, MA: Harvard University Press, 1986). Because of its implications on a fundamental understanding of behavior, the cognitivist perspective also had a strong influence in the literature on organizational behavior, especially in the way the organization was to be understood as an "information processing mechanism" or problem-solving entity. The most notable are the seminal works by J.G. March and H. Simon, Organizations (New York, NY: Wiley, 1958); R.M. Cyert and J.G. March, A Behavioral Theory of the Firm (London: Blackwell, 1992). For more information on cognitivism in organization and management studies, see also the essay collection by G. von Krogh and J. Roos, Managing Knowledge: Perspectives on Cooperation and Competition (London: Sage, 1996).
17. Space does not allow for a full overview of the cognitivist perspective. If you're interested in further readings, you may turn to the seminal work of H. Gardner, The Mind's New Science: A History of the Cognitive Revolution (New York, NY: Basic Books, 1985). To many observers, the cognitivist perspective found its roots in a paper by W. McCulloch and W. Pitts, "A Logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity," Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics, 5 (1943): 115-133. This was the first attempt to conceive of the nervous system as a logical structure. Later cognitivist work applied to human cognition include A. Newell and H. Simon, Human Problem Solving (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1972); H. Simon, Models of Thought, Vol. 2 (New Heaven, CT: Yale University Press, 1989). Contributions to artificial intelligence include M. Minsky, "Steps Toward Artificial Intelligence," in E. A. Feigenbaum and J. Feldman, eds., Computers and Thought, (New York, NY: MacGraw Hill, 1963). A very comprehensive volume on Artificial Intelligence is R. Kurzweil, Intelligent Machines (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1990). This book is instructive in understanding the fundamental idea that knowledge is expressible in language. Although the cognitivist charter at the outset was to advance a scientific rather than a psychological or philosophical study of the mind, contemporary philosophers frequently debate the contribution of the cognitive revolution to philosophy. See, for example, A. Goldman, Epistemology and Cognition (Boston, MA: Harvard University Press, 1986). Because of its implications on a fundamental understanding of behavior, the cognitivist perspective also had a strong influence in the literature on organizational behavior, especially in the way the organization was to be understood as an "information processing mechanism" or problem-solving entity. The most notable are the seminal works by J.G. March and H. Simon, Organizations (New York, NY: Wiley, 1958); R.M. Cyert and J.G. March, A Behavioral Theory of the Firm (London: Blackwell, 1992). For more information on cognitivism in organization and management studies, see also the essay collection by G. von Krogh and J. Roos, Managing Knowledge: Perspectives on Cooperation and Competition (London: Sage, 1996).
18. Space does not allow for a full overview of the cognitivist perspective. If you're interested in further readings, you may turn to the seminal work of H. Gardner, The Mind's New Science: A History of the Cognitive Revolution (New York, NY: Basic Books, 1985). To many observers, the cognitivist perspective found its roots in a paper by W. McCulloch and W. Pitts, "A Logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity," Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics, 5 (1943): 115-133. This was the first attempt to conceive of the nervous system as a logical structure. Later cognitivist work applied to human cognition include A. Newell and H. Simon, Human Problem Solving (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1972); H. Simon, Models of Thought, Vol. 2 (New Heaven, CT: Yale University Press, 1989). Contributions to artificial intelligence include M. Minsky, "Steps Toward Artificial Intelligence," in E. A. Feigenbaum and J. Feldman, eds., Computers and Thought, (New York, NY: MacGraw Hill, 1963). A very comprehensive volume on Artificial Intelligence is R. Kurzweil, Intelligent Machines (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1990). This book is instructive in understanding the fundamental idea that knowledge is expressible in language. Although the cognitivist charter at the outset was to advance a scientific rather than a psychological or philosophical study of the mind, contemporary philosophers frequently debate the contribution of the cognitive revolution to philosophy. See, for example, A. Goldman, Epistemology and Cognition (Boston, MA: Harvard University Press, 1986). Because of its implications on a fundamental understanding of behavior, the cognitivist perspective also had a strong influence in the literature on organizational behavior, especially in the way the organization was to be understood as an "information processing mechanism" or problem-solving entity. The most notable are the seminal works by J.G. March and H. Simon, Organizations (New York, NY: Wiley, 1958); R.M. Cyert and J.G. March, A Behavioral Theory of the Firm (London: Blackwell, 1992). For more information on cognitivism in organization and management studies, see also the essay collection by G. von Krogh and J. Roos, Managing Knowledge: Perspectives on Cooperation and Competition (London: Sage, 1996).
19. Space does not allow for a full overview of the cognitivist perspective. If you're interested in further readings, you may turn to the seminal work of H. Gardner, The Mind's New Science: A History of the Cognitive Revolution (New York, NY: Basic Books, 1985). To many observers, the cognitivist perspective found its roots in a paper by W. McCulloch and W. Pitts, "A Logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity," Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics, 5 (1943): 115-133. This was the first attempt to conceive of the nervous system as a logical structure. Later cognitivist work applied to human cognition include A. Newell and H. Simon, Human Problem Solving (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1972); H. Simon, Models of Thought, Vol. 2 (New Heaven, CT: Yale University Press, 1989). Contributions to artificial intelligence include M. Minsky, "Steps Toward Artificial Intelligence," in E. A. Feigenbaum and J. Feldman, eds., Computers and Thought, (New York, NY: MacGraw Hill, 1963). A very comprehensive volume on Artificial Intelligence is R. Kurzweil, Intelligent Machines (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1990). This book is instructive in understanding the fundamental idea that knowledge is expressible in language. Although the cognitivist charter at the outset was to advance a scientific rather than a psychological or philosophical study of the mind, contemporary philosophers frequently debate the contribution of the cognitive revolution to philosophy. See, for example, A. Goldman, Epistemology and Cognition (Boston, MA: Harvard University Press, 1986). Because of its implications on a fundamental understanding of behavior, the cognitivist perspective also had a strong influence in the literature on organizational behavior, especially in the way the organization was to be understood as an "information processing mechanism" or problem-solving entity. The most notable are the seminal works by J.G. March and H. Simon, Organizations (New York, NY: Wiley, 1958); R.M. Cyert and J.G. March, A Behavioral Theory of the Firm (London: Blackwell, 1992). For more information on cognitivism in organization and management studies, see also the essay collection by G. von Krogh and J. Roos, Managing Knowledge: Perspectives on Cooperation and Competition (London: Sage, 1996).
20. The "constructionist perspectives" is sometimes associated and even used interchangeably with terms such as "creationist perspective," "constructivism," and "social constructivism." Space does not allow a fuller treatment of the difference, nor the usage of these terms. Interested readers could turn to Owen Flanagan, The Science of the Mind (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1991); or A. Goldman, 1986 for "constructivism" in cognitive science; to P.M. Rosenau, Post-Modernism and the Social Sciences (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Presss, 1992) for "constructivism" in social science; and finally to S.R. Clegg, C. Hardy, and W.R. Nord, eds., Handbook of Organization Studies (London: Sage, 1996) for "constructivism" in organization and management studies. Here, I use the general terms "construction" and "constructionist" to distinguish a larger class of work on knowledge and cognition both on the individual and social levels.
21. The "constructionist perspectives" is sometimes associated and even used interchangeably with terms such as "creationist perspective," "constructivism," and "social constructivism." Space does not allow a fuller treatment of the difference, nor the usage of these terms. Interested readers could turn to Owen Flanagan, The Science of the Mind (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1991); or A. Goldman, 1986 for "constructivism" in cognitive science; to P.M. Rosenau, Post-Modernism and the Social Sciences (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Presss, 1992) for "constructivism" in social science; and finally to S.R. Clegg, C. Hardy, and W.R. Nord, eds., Handbook of Organization Studies (London: Sage, 1996) for "constructivism" in organization and management studies. Here, I use the general terms "construction" and "constructionist" to distinguish a larger class of work on knowledge and cognition both on the individual and social levels.
22. The "constructionist perspectives" is sometimes associated and even used interchangeably with terms such as "creationist perspective," "constructivism," and "social constructivism." Space does not allow a fuller treatment of the difference, nor the usage of these terms. Interested readers could turn to Owen Flanagan, The Science of the Mind (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1991); or A. Goldman, 1986 for "constructivism" in cognitive science; to P.M. Rosenau, Post-Modernism and the Social Sciences (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Presss, 1992) for "constructivism" in social science; and finally to S.R. Clegg, C. Hardy, and W.R. Nord, eds., Handbook of Organization Studies (London: Sage, 1996) for "constructivism" in organization and management studies. Here, I use the general terms "construction" and "constructionist" to distinguish a larger class of work on knowledge and cognition both on the individual and social levels.
23. The "constructionist perspectives" is sometimes associated and even used interchangeably with terms such as "creationist perspective," "constructivism," and "social constructivism." Space does not allow a fuller treatment of the difference, nor the usage of these terms. Interested readers could turn to Owen Flanagan, The Science of the Mind (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1991); or A. Goldman, 1986 for "constructivism" in cognitive science; to P.M. Rosenau, Post-Modernism and the Social Sciences (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Presss, 1992) for "constructivism" in social science; and finally to S.R. Clegg, C. Hardy, and W.R. Nord, eds., Handbook of Organization Studies (London: Sage, 1996) for "constructivism" in organization and management studies. Here, I use the general terms "construction" and "constructionist" to distinguish a larger class of work on knowledge and cognition both on the individual and social levels.
24. The constructionist perspective is more recent that the cognitivist. The work in this area was boosted through some fundamental experiments showing how one cognitive system (like the brain) represents its world in a unique way, and acts according to this unique representation. Furthermore, a key development in the understanding of cognition in recent years has been the development of theories of neural networks. Here the cognitive system is understood as a number of networked (simple) components that mutually strengthen or weaken their connections based on sensory input. A sensory input, like a light or sound, corresponds to a certain state in the network (recognition of the image). This state however, is not only defined by the input signal, but also by the history of connections at the time when the input is received. Thus, the history of experiences plays an important role in shaping the world for the observer. The histories of the two perspectives reveal clear differences. Where the cognitivists took particular interest in the cognitive system's capacity to solve well defined problems (like calculus), the constructionists worked with non-representable problems (like painting a picture). Where the cognitivists searched for heuristic methods to problem solving, the constructionists investigated adaptive methods. Where the cognitivist searched for deductive reasoning patterns, the constructionist studied abductive reasoning. Where the cognitivist searched for representable knowledge (symbolic), the constructionist focused on know-how (action). Eventually, the cognitivist success criteria of cognition became "validity" (of representation). For the constructionist it became "viability" (allowing for effective action). Important contributions on the understanding of human cognition and knowledge include H. Maturana and F. Varela, The Tree of Knowledge (Boston, MA: New Science Library, 1987); H. Maturana and F. Varela, Autopoiesis and the Cognition: The Realization of the Living (London: Reidl, 1980); F. Varela, J.E. Thompson, and E. Rosch, The Embodied Mind (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992). These theories have also had an impact on computer science, showing some of the limitations and possibilities in dealing with explicit as well as more tacit forms of knowledge. For more on this, see, for example, T. Winograd and F. Flores, Understanding Computers and Cognition (Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1986). For additional ideas on computer modeling of cognitive systems, see F. Varela and P. Bourgine, Towards a Practice of Autonomous Systems (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992). Unlike the cognitivists, the constructionists embraced contributions from philosophers from the very beginning. The book Embodied Mind is an example of how theories of cognition (science) are coupled with aspects of philosophy and psychology. This shift was deemed necessary because constructionists worked on a concept of knowledge that covered both tacit and explicit aspects, and because individual knowledge was believed to be partly influenced by cultural factors. Constructionists frequently draw on philosophers, including: Michael Polanyi, The Tacit Dimension, (New York, NY: Anchor Books, 1967); Richard Rorty, Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1979); Richard Dreyfus (with S. Dreyfus), Mind Over Machine (New York, NY: MacMillan, 1986).
25. The constructionist perspective is more recent that the cognitivist. The work in this area was boosted through some fundamental experiments showing how one cognitive system (like the brain) represents its world in a unique way, and acts according to this unique representation. Furthermore, a key development in the understanding of cognition in recent years has been the development of theories of neural networks. Here the cognitive system is understood as a number of networked (simple) components that mutually strengthen or weaken their connections based on sensory input. A sensory input, like a light or sound, corresponds to a certain state in the network (recognition of the image). This state however, is not only defined by the input signal, but also by the history of connections at the time when the input is received. Thus, the history of experiences plays an important role in shaping the world for the observer. The histories of the two perspectives reveal clear differences. Where the cognitivists took particular interest in the cognitive system's capacity to solve well defined problems (like calculus), the constructionists worked with non-representable problems (like painting a picture). Where the cognitivists searched for heuristic methods to problem solving, the constructionists investigated adaptive methods. Where the cognitivist searched for deductive reasoning patterns, the constructionist studied abductive reasoning. Where the cognitivist searched for representable knowledge (symbolic), the constructionist focused on know-how (action). Eventually, the cognitivist success criteria of cognition became "validity" (of representation). For the constructionist it became "viability" (allowing for effective action). Important contributions on the understanding of human cognition and knowledge include H. Maturana and F. Varela, The Tree of Knowledge (Boston, MA: New Science Library, 1987); H. Maturana and F. Varela, Autopoiesis and the Cognition: The Realization of the Living (London: Reidl, 1980); F. Varela, J.E. Thompson, and E. Rosch, The Embodied Mind (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992). These theories have also had an impact on computer science, showing some of the limitations and possibilities in dealing with explicit as well as more tacit forms of knowledge. For more on this, see, for example, T. Winograd and F. Flores, Understanding Computers and Cognition (Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1986). For additional ideas on computer modeling of cognitive systems, see F. Varela and P. Bourgine, Towards a Practice of Autonomous Systems (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992). Unlike the cognitivists, the constructionists embraced contributions from philosophers from the very beginning. The book Embodied Mind is an example of how theories of cognition (science) are coupled with aspects of philosophy and psychology. This shift was deemed necessary because constructionists worked on a concept of knowledge that covered both tacit and explicit aspects, and because individual knowledge was believed to be partly influenced by cultural factors. Constructionists frequently draw on philosophers, including: Michael Polanyi, The Tacit Dimension, (New York, NY: Anchor Books, 1967); Richard Rorty, Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1979); Richard Dreyfus (with S. Dreyfus), Mind Over Machine (New York, NY: MacMillan, 1986).
26. The constructionist perspective is more recent that the cognitivist. The work in this area was boosted through some fundamental experiments showing how one cognitive system (like the brain) represents its world in a unique way, and acts according to this unique representation. Furthermore, a key development in the understanding of cognition in recent years has been the development of theories of neural networks. Here the cognitive system is understood as a number of networked (simple) components that mutually strengthen or weaken their connections based on sensory input. A sensory input, like a light or sound, corresponds to a certain state in the network (recognition of the image). This state however, is not only defined by the input signal, but also by the history of connections at the time when the input is received. Thus, the history of experiences plays an important role in shaping the world for the observer. The histories of the two perspectives reveal clear differences. Where the cognitivists took particular interest in the cognitive system's capacity to solve well defined problems (like calculus), the constructionists worked with non-representable problems (like painting a picture). Where the cognitivists searched for heuristic methods to problem solving, the constructionists investigated adaptive methods. Where the cognitivist searched for deductive reasoning patterns, the constructionist studied abductive reasoning. Where the cognitivist searched for representable knowledge (symbolic), the constructionist focused on know-how (action). Eventually, the cognitivist success criteria of cognition became "validity" (of representation). For the constructionist it became "viability" (allowing for effective action). Important contributions on the understanding of human cognition and knowledge include H. Maturana and F. Varela, The Tree of Knowledge (Boston, MA: New Science Library, 1987); H. Maturana and F. Varela, Autopoiesis and the Cognition: The Realization of the Living (London: Reidl, 1980); F. Varela, J.E. Thompson, and E. Rosch, The Embodied Mind (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992). These theories have also had an impact on computer science, showing some of the limitations and possibilities in dealing with explicit as well as more tacit forms of knowledge. For more on this, see, for example, T. Winograd and F. Flores, Understanding Computers and Cognition (Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1986). For additional ideas on computer modeling of cognitive systems, see F. Varela and P. Bourgine, Towards a Practice of Autonomous Systems (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992). Unlike the cognitivists, the constructionists embraced contributions from philosophers from the very beginning. The book Embodied Mind is an example of how theories of cognition (science) are coupled with aspects of philosophy and psychology. This shift was deemed necessary because constructionists worked on a concept of knowledge that covered both tacit and explicit aspects, and because individual knowledge was believed to be partly influenced by cultural factors. Constructionists frequently draw on philosophers, including: Michael Polanyi, The Tacit Dimension, (New York, NY: Anchor Books, 1967); Richard Rorty, Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1979); Richard Dreyfus (with S. Dreyfus), Mind Over Machine (New York, NY: MacMillan, 1986).
27. The constructionist perspective is more recent that the cognitivist. The work in this area was boosted through some fundamental experiments showing how one cognitive system (like the brain) represents its world in a unique way, and acts according to this unique representation. Furthermore, a key development in the understanding of cognition in recent years has been the development of theories of neural networks. Here the cognitive system is understood as a number of networked (simple) components that mutually strengthen or weaken their connections based on sensory input. A sensory input, like a light or sound, corresponds to a certain state in the network (recognition of the image). This state however, is not only defined by the input signal, but also by the history of connections at the time when the input is received. Thus, the history of experiences plays an important role in shaping the world for the observer. The histories of the two perspectives reveal clear differences. Where the cognitivists took particular interest in the cognitive system's capacity to solve well defined problems (like calculus), the constructionists worked with non-representable problems (like painting a picture). Where the cognitivists searched for heuristic methods to problem solving, the constructionists investigated adaptive methods. Where the cognitivist searched for deductive reasoning patterns, the constructionist studied abductive reasoning. Where the cognitivist searched for representable knowledge (symbolic), the constructionist focused on know-how (action). Eventually, the cognitivist success criteria of cognition became "validity" (of representation). For the constructionist it became "viability" (allowing for effective action). Important contributions on the understanding of human cognition and knowledge include H. Maturana and F. Varela, The Tree of Knowledge (Boston, MA: New Science Library, 1987); H. Maturana and F. Varela, Autopoiesis and the Cognition: The Realization of the Living (London: Reidl, 1980); F. Varela, J.E. Thompson, and E. Rosch, The Embodied Mind (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992). These theories have also had an impact on computer science, showing some of the limitations and possibilities in dealing with explicit as well as more tacit forms of knowledge. For more on this, see, for example, T. Winograd and F. Flores, Understanding Computers and Cognition (Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1986). For additional ideas on computer modeling of cognitive systems, see F. Varela and P. Bourgine, Towards a Practice of Autonomous Systems (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992). Unlike the cognitivists, the constructionists embraced contributions from philosophers from the very beginning. The book Embodied Mind is an example of how theories of cognition (science) are coupled with aspects of philosophy and psychology. This shift was deemed necessary because constructionists worked on a concept of knowledge that covered both tacit and explicit aspects, and because individual knowledge was believed to be partly influenced by cultural factors. Constructionists frequently draw on philosophers, including: Michael Polanyi, The Tacit Dimension, (New York, NY: Anchor Books, 1967); Richard Rorty, Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1979); Richard Dreyfus (with S. Dreyfus), Mind Over Machine (New York, NY: MacMillan, 1986).
28. The constructionist perspective is more recent that the cognitivist. The work in this area was boosted through some fundamental experiments showing how one cognitive system (like the brain) represents its world in a unique way, and acts according to this unique representation. Furthermore, a key development in the understanding of cognition in recent years has been the development of theories of neural networks. Here the cognitive system is understood as a number of networked (simple) components that mutually strengthen or weaken their connections based on sensory input. A sensory input, like a light or sound, corresponds to a certain state in the network (recognition of the image). This state however, is not only defined by the input signal, but also by the history of connections at the time when the input is received. Thus, the history of experiences plays an important role in shaping the world for the observer. The histories of the two perspectives reveal clear differences. Where the cognitivists took particular interest in the cognitive system's capacity to solve well defined problems (like calculus), the constructionists worked with non-representable problems (like painting a picture). Where the cognitivists searched for heuristic methods to problem solving, the constructionists investigated adaptive methods. Where the cognitivist searched for deductive reasoning patterns, the constructionist studied abductive reasoning. Where the cognitivist searched for representable knowledge (symbolic), the constructionist focused on know-how (action). Eventually, the cognitivist success criteria of cognition became "validity" (of representation). For the constructionist it became "viability" (allowing for effective action). Important contributions on the understanding of human cognition and knowledge include H. Maturana and F. Varela, The Tree of Knowledge (Boston, MA: New Science Library, 1987); H. Maturana and F. Varela, Autopoiesis and the Cognition: The Realization of the Living (London: Reidl, 1980); F. Varela, J.E. Thompson, and E. Rosch, The Embodied Mind (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992). These theories have also had an impact on computer science, showing some of the limitations and possibilities in dealing with explicit as well as more tacit forms of knowledge. For more on this, see, for example, T. Winograd and F. Flores, Understanding Computers and Cognition (Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1986). For additional ideas on computer modeling of cognitive systems, see F. Varela and P. Bourgine, Towards a Practice of Autonomous Systems (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992). Unlike the cognitivists, the constructionists embraced contributions from philosophers from the very beginning. The book Embodied Mind is an example of how theories of cognition (science) are coupled with aspects of philosophy and psychology. This shift was deemed necessary because constructionists worked on a concept of knowledge that covered both tacit and explicit aspects, and because individual knowledge was believed to be partly influenced by cultural factors. Constructionists frequently draw on philosophers, including: Michael Polanyi, The Tacit Dimension, (New York, NY: Anchor Books, 1967); Richard Rorty, Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1979); Richard Dreyfus (with S. Dreyfus), Mind Over Machine (New York, NY: MacMillan, 1986).
29. The constructionist perspective is more recent that the cognitivist. The work in this area was boosted through some fundamental experiments showing how one cognitive system (like the brain) represents its world in a unique way, and acts according to this unique representation. Furthermore, a key development in the understanding of cognition in recent years has been the development of theories of neural networks. Here the cognitive system is understood as a number of networked (simple) components that mutually strengthen or weaken their connections based on sensory input. A sensory input, like a light or sound, corresponds to a certain state in the network (recognition of the image). This state however, is not only defined by the input signal, but also by the history of connections at the time when the input is received. Thus, the history of experiences plays an important role in shaping the world for the observer. The histories of the two perspectives reveal clear differences. Where the cognitivists took particular interest in the cognitive system's capacity to solve well defined problems (like calculus), the constructionists worked with non-representable problems (like painting a picture). Where the cognitivists searched for heuristic methods to problem solving, the constructionists investigated adaptive methods. Where the cognitivist searched for deductive reasoning patterns, the constructionist studied abductive reasoning. Where the cognitivist searched for representable knowledge (symbolic), the constructionist focused on know-how (action). Eventually, the cognitivist success criteria of cognition became "validity" (of representation). For the constructionist it became "viability" (allowing for effective action). Important contributions on the understanding of human cognition and knowledge include H. Maturana and F. Varela, The Tree of Knowledge (Boston, MA: New Science Library, 1987); H. Maturana and F. Varela, Autopoiesis and the Cognition: The Realization of the Living (London: Reidl, 1980); F. Varela, J.E. Thompson, and E. Rosch, The Embodied Mind (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992). These theories have also had an impact on computer science, showing some of the limitations and possibilities in dealing with explicit as well as more tacit forms of knowledge. For more on this, see, for example, T. Winograd and F. Flores, Understanding Computers and Cognition (Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1986). For additional ideas on computer modeling of cognitive systems, see F. Varela and P. Bourgine, Towards a Practice of Autonomous Systems (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992). Unlike the cognitivists, the constructionists embraced contributions from philosophers from the very beginning. The book Embodied Mind is an example of how theories of cognition (science) are coupled with aspects of philosophy and psychology. This shift was deemed necessary because constructionists worked on a concept of knowledge that covered both tacit and explicit aspects, and because individual knowledge was believed to be partly influenced by cultural factors. Constructionists frequently draw on philosophers, including: Michael Polanyi, The Tacit Dimension, (New York, NY: Anchor Books, 1967); Richard Rorty, Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1979); Richard Dreyfus (with S. Dreyfus), Mind Over Machine (New York, NY: MacMillan, 1986).
30. The constructionist perspective is more recent that the cognitivist. The work in this area was boosted through some fundamental experiments showing how one cognitive system (like the brain) represents its world in a unique way, and acts according to this unique representation. Furthermore, a key development in the understanding of cognition in recent years has been the development of theories of neural networks. Here the cognitive system is understood as a number of networked (simple) components that mutually strengthen or weaken their connections based on sensory input. A sensory input, like a light or sound, corresponds to a certain state in the network (recognition of the image). This state however, is not only defined by the input signal, but also by the history of connections at the time when the input is received. Thus, the history of experiences plays an important role in shaping the world for the observer. The histories of the two perspectives reveal clear differences. Where the cognitivists took particular interest in the cognitive system's capacity to solve well defined problems (like calculus), the constructionists worked with non-representable problems (like painting a picture). Where the cognitivists searched for heuristic methods to problem solving, the constructionists investigated adaptive methods. Where the cognitivist searched for deductive reasoning patterns, the constructionist studied abductive reasoning. Where the cognitivist searched for representable knowledge (symbolic), the constructionist focused on know-how (action). Eventually, the cognitivist success criteria of cognition became "validity" (of representation). For the constructionist it became "viability" (allowing for effective action). Important contributions on the understanding of human cognition and knowledge include H. Maturana and F. Varela, The Tree of Knowledge (Boston, MA: New Science Library, 1987); H. Maturana and F. Varela, Autopoiesis and the Cognition: The Realization of the Living (London: Reidl, 1980); F. Varela, J.E. Thompson, and E. Rosch, The Embodied Mind (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992). These theories have also had an impact on computer science, showing some of the limitations and possibilities in dealing with explicit as well as more tacit forms of knowledge. For more on this, see, for example, T. Winograd and F. Flores, Understanding Computers and Cognition (Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1986). For additional ideas on computer modeling of cognitive systems, see F. Varela and P. Bourgine, Towards a Practice of Autonomous Systems (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992). Unlike the cognitivists, the constructionists embraced contributions from philosophers from the very beginning. The book Embodied Mind is an example of how theories of cognition (science) are coupled with aspects of philosophy and psychology. This shift was deemed necessary because constructionists worked on a concept of knowledge that covered both tacit and explicit aspects, and because individual knowledge was believed to be partly influenced by cultural factors. Constructionists frequently draw on philosophers, including: Michael Polanyi, The Tacit Dimension, (New York, NY: Anchor Books, 1967); Richard Rorty, Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1979); Richard Dreyfus (with S. Dreyfus), Mind Over Machine (New York, NY: MacMillan, 1986).
31. The constructionist perspective is more recent that the cognitivist. The work in this area was boosted through some fundamental experiments showing how one cognitive system (like the brain) represents its world in a unique way, and acts according to this unique representation. Furthermore, a key development in the understanding of cognition in recent years has been the development of theories of neural networks. Here the cognitive system is understood as a number of networked (simple) components that mutually strengthen or weaken their connections based on sensory input. A sensory input, like a light or sound, corresponds to a certain state in the network (recognition of the image). This state however, is not only defined by the input signal, but also by the history of connections at the time when the input is received. Thus, the history of experiences plays an important role in shaping the world for the observer. The histories of the two perspectives reveal clear differences. Where the cognitivists took particular interest in the cognitive system's capacity to solve well defined problems (like calculus), the constructionists worked with non-representable problems (like painting a picture). Where the cognitivists searched for heuristic methods to problem solving, the constructionists investigated adaptive methods. Where the cognitivist searched for deductive reasoning patterns, the constructionist studied abductive reasoning. Where the cognitivist searched for representable knowledge (symbolic), the constructionist focused on know-how (action). Eventually, the cognitivist success criteria of cognition became "validity" (of representation). For the constructionist it became "viability" (allowing for effective action). Important contributions on the understanding of human cognition and knowledge include H. Maturana and F. Varela, The Tree of Knowledge (Boston, MA: New Science Library, 1987); H. Maturana and F. Varela, Autopoiesis and the Cognition: The Realization of the Living (London: Reidl, 1980); F. Varela, J.E. Thompson, and E. Rosch, The Embodied Mind (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992). These theories have also had an impact on computer science, showing some of the limitations and possibilities in dealing with explicit as well as more tacit forms of knowledge. For more on this, see, for example, T. Winograd and F. Flores, Understanding Computers and Cognition (Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1986). For additional ideas on computer modeling of cognitive systems, see F. Varela and P. Bourgine, Towards a Practice of Autonomous Systems (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992). Unlike the cognitivists, the constructionists embraced contributions from philosophers from the very beginning. The book Embodied Mind is an example of how theories of cognition (science) are coupled with aspects of philosophy and psychology. This shift was deemed necessary because constructionists worked on a concept of knowledge that covered both tacit and explicit aspects, and because individual knowledge was believed to be partly influenced by cultural factors. Constructionists frequently draw on philosophers, including: Michael Polanyi, The Tacit Dimension, (New York, NY: Anchor Books, 1967); Richard Rorty, Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1979); Richard Dreyfus (with S. Dreyfus), Mind Over Machine (New York, NY: MacMillan, 1986).
32. For an overview, see G. von Krogh, J. Roos, and K. Slocum, "An Essay on Corporate Epistemology," Strategic Management Journal, Special Issue, 15 (1994): 53-72. Pioneers of the constructionist perspective include, among others: I. Nonaka and H. Takeuchi, op. cit.; Dorothy Leonard, Wellsprings of Knowledge (Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press, 1995); Gunnar Hedlund,
33. For an overview, see G. von Krogh, J. Roos, and K. Slocum, "An Essay on Corporate Epistemology," Strategic Management Journal, Special Issue, 15 (1994): 53-72. Pioneers of the constructionist perspective include, among others: I. Nonaka and H. Takeuchi, op. cit.; Dorothy Leonard, Wellsprings of Knowledge (Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press, 1995); Gunnar Hedlund, "A Model of Knowledge Management and the N-Form Corporation," Strategic Management Journal, Special Issue, 15 (1994): 73-90; John Seely Brown and Paul Duguid, "Organizational Learning and Communities of Practice: Towards a Unified View of Working, Learning, and Innovating," Organization Science, 2 (1991): 40-57.
34. For an overview, see G. von Krogh, J. Roos, and K. Slocum, "An Essay on Corporate Epistemology," Strategic Management Journal, Special Issue, 15 (1994): 53-72. Pioneers of the constructionist perspective include, among others: I. Nonaka and H. Takeuchi, op. cit.; Dorothy Leonard, Wellsprings of Knowledge (Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press, 1995); Gunnar Hedlund, "A Model of Knowledge Management and the N-Form Corporation," Strategic Management Journal, Special Issue, 15 (1994): 73-90; John Seely Brown and Paul Duguid, "Organizational Learning and Communities of Practice: Towards a Unified View of Working, Learning, and Innovating," Organization Science, 2 (1991): 40-57.
35. For an overview, see G. von Krogh, J. Roos, and K. Slocum, "An Essay on Corporate Epistemology," Strategic Management Journal, Special Issue, 15 (1994): 53-72. Pioneers of the constructionist perspective include, among others: I. Nonaka and H. Takeuchi, op. cit.; Dorothy Leonard, Wellsprings of Knowledge (Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press, 1995); Gunnar Hedlund, "A Model of Knowledge Management and the N-Form Corporation," Strategic Management Journal, Special Issue, 15 (1994): 73-90; John Seely Brown and Paul Duguid, "Organizational Learning and Communities of Practice: Towards a Unified View of Working, Learning, and Innovating," Organization Science, 2 (1991): 40-57.
36. For an overview, see G. von Krogh, J. Roos, and K. Slocum, "An Essay on Corporate Epistemology," Strategic Management Journal, Special Issue, 15 (1994): 53-72. Pioneers of the constructionist perspective include, among others: I. Nonaka and H. Takeuchi, op. cit.; Dorothy Leonard, Wellsprings of Knowledge (Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press, 1995); Gunnar Hedlund, "A Model of Knowledge Management and the N-Form Corporation," Strategic Management Journal, Special Issue, 15 (1994): 73-90; John Seely Brown and Paul Duguid, "Organizational Learning and Communities of Practice: Towards a Unified View of Working, Learning, and Innovating," Organization Science, 2 (1991): 40-57.
37. Nonaka and Takeuchi [op. cit., p. 21] base their definition on Plato's discourses in the Meno, Phaedo, and Theaetetus.
38. They emphasize "beliefs" and "justification" rather than "truth" to differentiate themselves from the cognitivist tradition. Note also that tacit knowledge by some authors has been understood as "tacit beliefs." See, for example, P. Churchland Neurophilosophy:Towards a Unified Science of the Mind/Brain (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1986).
39. Please note that according to the cognitivist, sharing tacit knowledge would be a matter of holding shared and complete representations, and there can be no doubt about the correspondence of these representations to reality. In a team, if one member were somewhat slow in making a representation, the "funnel model" would be utilized. Other team members would provide sufficient information so that the team member would eventually share reality with others. The constructionist takes a different point of view. Different team members hold unique, personal knowledge which is partly tacit, and the challenge in a company is to utilize this potential. In sharing knowledge, each individual must publicly justify his personal knowledge.
40. The barriers listed here have been adapted from studies in the sociology of knowledge. See, for example, the work of P. Berger and T. Luckmann, The Social Construction of Reality (New York, NY: Penguin, 1967).
41. A formal procedure captures learning but can with time become "core-rigidities" that prevent innovations in the company. For more on this, see Leonard Barthon [op. cit]. In Xerox, John Seely Brown and Paul Duguid [op. cit.] found that copier repairmen often had to go beyond the technical manuals in order to successfully repair a broken copier. Sharing stories among themselves became a major route to solving highly complex technical problems. Making such approaches legitimate, and allowing the technical repair manual to be put aside, could be seen as part of the process of making the public justification easier.
42. A formal procedure captures learning but can with time become "core-rigidities" that prevent innovations in the company. For more on this, see Leonard Barthon [op. cit]. In Xerox, John Seely Brown and Paul Duguid [op. cit.] found that copier repairmen often had to go beyond the technical manuals in order to successfully repair a broken copier. Sharing stories among themselves became a major route to solving highly complex technical problems. Making such approaches legitimate, and allowing the technical repair manual to be put aside, could be seen as part of the process of making the public justification easier.
43. See G. von Krogh, I. Nonaka, and K. Ichijo, "Enabling Knowledge Creation," to appear in G. von Krogh, J. Roos, and D. Kleine, eds., Knowledge and Organization [tentative title] (London: Sage, forthcoming 1998).
44. Some of the previous groundwork for this knowledge enabler is found in G. von Krogh, K. Ichijo, and I. Nonaka, "Bringing Care into Knowledge Creation of Business Organizations," paper presented at the Conference on Comparative Studies on Knowledge Creation, Honolulu, Hawaii, December 1996.
45. Oxford Dictionary (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995). Please note that this definition is different from "careful" in the sense of precise, methodological, rigorous, or analytical.
46. M. Mayeroff, On Caring, (New York, NY: Harper and Row, 1971), p. 1.
47. The role of care in conjunction with knowledge was recognized even by Greek philosophers such as Plato, Plutarch, and Epictetus. Plato cared for the individual development of his students and recognized the important role he assumed as a tutor of the coming generation of philosophers. In his view, care extended beyond the needs of the single individual teacher to the needs of the student. Through care for people, the philosopher could ensure that the ideas, concepts, and arguments of morals, ethics, and state would prevail over generations. For more on this, see Michel Focault, The Care for the Self (New York, NY: Vintage Books, 1972).
48. In the remarkably insightful writings of Martin Heidegger [Being and Time (San Fransisco,CA: Harper, 1962)], "care" is the most fundamental concept of explaining how human beings come to terms with the world. Care is what directs attention, at the highest level, to people, events, objects, and ideas. In Heidegger's view, care cannot be broken up into finer detail. Nevertheless, our concern is care in organizational relationships, and we search for characteristics of these relationships.
49. These dimensions are adapted from the work by Mayeroff, op. cit.; and W. Gaylin, Caring (New York, NY: Knopf, 1976). So far, to my knowledge, there are no specific studies linking care to knowledge creation. Most works in this area of care tend to center around personality studies, care-givers and care-recipients in parent/child relations, or the relations among friends. Some studies include: N. Eisenberg, G. Carlo, D. Troyer, G. Switzer, and A. Speer, "The Altruistic Personality: In What Context Is It Apparent?" Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61 (1991): 450-458; C.E. Cutrona, "Perceived Parental Social Support and Academic Achievements: An Attachment Theory Perspective," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66 (1994): 369-378; M.D. Pagel, W.W. Erdly, and J. Becker, "Social Networks," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53 (1987): 793-804. In an organizational perspective, most studies focus on the relations between professional care givers and care recipients in human service organizations like schools, churches, and hospitals. Still, there are many insightful findings that will help to advance the topic of care. Some contributions include S. Sarason, Caring and Compassion in Clinical Practice (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1985); G. Egan, The Skilled Helper (Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole Pub. Co., 1986); N. Foner, "The Hidden Injuries of Bureaucracy: Work in an American Nursing Home," Human Organization, 54 (1995): 229-237. Providing a deeper understanding of care and its relation to education, I recommend N. Noddings, Caring: A Feminine Approach to Ethics and Moral Education (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1984).
50. These dimensions are adapted from the work by Mayeroff, op. cit.; and W. Gaylin, Caring (New York, NY: Knopf, 1976). So far, to my knowledge, there are no specific studies linking care to knowledge creation. Most works in this area of care tend to center around personality studies, care-givers and care-recipients in parent/child relations, or the relations among friends. Some studies include: N. Eisenberg, G. Carlo, D. Troyer, G. Switzer, and A. Speer, "The Altruistic Personality: In What Context Is It Apparent?" Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61 (1991): 450-458; C.E. Cutrona, "Perceived Parental Social Support and Academic Achievements: An Attachment Theory Perspective," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66 (1994): 369-378; M.D. Pagel, W.W. Erdly, and J. Becker, "Social Networks," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53 (1987): 793-804. In an organizational perspective, most studies focus on the relations between professional care givers and care recipients in human service organizations like schools, churches, and hospitals. Still, there are many insightful findings that will help to advance the topic of care. Some contributions include S. Sarason, Caring and Compassion in Clinical Practice (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1985); G. Egan, The Skilled Helper (Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole Pub. Co., 1986); N. Foner, "The Hidden Injuries of Bureaucracy: Work in an American Nursing Home," Human Organization, 54 (1995): 229-237. Providing a deeper understanding of care and its relation to education, I recommend N. Noddings, Caring: A Feminine Approach to Ethics and Moral Education (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1984).
51. These dimensions are adapted from the work by Mayeroff, op. cit.; and W. Gaylin, Caring (New York, NY: Knopf, 1976). So far, to my knowledge, there are no specific studies linking care to knowledge creation. Most works in this area of care tend to center around personality studies, care-givers and care-recipients in parent/child relations, or the relations among friends. Some studies include: N. Eisenberg, G. Carlo, D. Troyer, G. Switzer, and A. Speer, "The Altruistic Personality: In What Context Is It Apparent?" Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61 (1991): 450-458; C.E. Cutrona, "Perceived Parental Social Support and Academic Achievements: An Attachment Theory Perspective," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66 (1994): 369-378; M.D. Pagel, W.W. Erdly, and J. Becker, "Social Networks," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53 (1987): 793-804. In an organizational perspective, most studies focus on the relations between professional care givers and care recipients in human service organizations like schools, churches, and hospitals. Still, there are many insightful findings that will help to advance the topic of care. Some contributions include S. Sarason, Caring and Compassion in Clinical Practice (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1985); G. Egan, The Skilled Helper (Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole Pub. Co., 1986); N. Foner, "The Hidden Injuries of Bureaucracy: Work in an American Nursing Home," Human Organization, 54 (1995): 229-237. Providing a deeper understanding of care and its relation to education, I recommend N. Noddings, Caring: A Feminine Approach to Ethics and Moral Education (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1984).
52. These dimensions are adapted from the work by Mayeroff, op. cit.; and W. Gaylin, Caring (New York, NY: Knopf, 1976). So far, to my knowledge, there are no specific studies linking care to knowledge creation. Most works in this area of care tend to center around personality studies, care-givers and care-recipients in parent/child relations, or the relations among friends. Some studies include: N. Eisenberg, G. Carlo, D. Troyer, G. Switzer, and A. Speer, "The Altruistic Personality: In What Context Is It Apparent?" Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61 (1991): 450-458; C.E. Cutrona, "Perceived Parental Social Support and Academic Achievements: An Attachment Theory Perspective," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66 (1994): 369-378; M.D. Pagel, W.W. Erdly, and J. Becker, "Social Networks," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53 (1987): 793-804. In an organizational perspective, most studies focus on the relations between professional care givers and care recipients in human service organizations like schools, churches, and hospitals. Still, there are many insightful findings that will help to advance the topic of care. Some contributions include S. Sarason, Caring and Compassion in Clinical Practice (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1985); G. Egan, The Skilled Helper (Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole Pub. Co., 1986); N. Foner, "The Hidden Injuries of Bureaucracy: Work in an American Nursing Home," Human Organization, 54 (1995): 229-237. Providing a deeper understanding of care and its relation to education, I recommend N. Noddings, Caring: A Feminine Approach to Ethics and Moral Education (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1984).
53. These dimensions are adapted from the work by Mayeroff, op. cit.; and W. Gaylin, Caring (New York, NY: Knopf, 1976). So far, to my knowledge, there are no specific studies linking care to knowledge creation. Most works in this area of care tend to center around personality studies, care-givers and care-recipients in parent/child relations, or the relations among friends. Some studies include: N. Eisenberg, G. Carlo, D. Troyer, G. Switzer, and A. Speer, "The Altruistic Personality: In What Context Is It Apparent?" Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61 (1991): 450-458; C.E. Cutrona, "Perceived Parental Social Support and Academic Achievements: An Attachment Theory Perspective," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66 (1994): 369-378; M.D. Pagel, W.W. Erdly, and J. Becker, "Social Networks," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53 (1987): 793-804. In an organizational perspective, most studies focus on the relations between professional care givers and care recipients in human service organizations like schools, churches, and hospitals. Still, there are many insightful findings that will help to advance the topic of care. Some contributions include S. Sarason, Caring and Compassion in Clinical Practice (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1985); G. Egan, The Skilled Helper (Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole Pub. Co., 1986); N. Foner, "The Hidden Injuries of Bureaucracy: Work in an American Nursing Home," Human Organization, 54 (1995): 229-237. Providing a deeper understanding of care and its relation to education, I recommend N. Noddings, Caring: A Feminine Approach to Ethics and Moral Education (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1984).
54. These dimensions are adapted from the work by Mayeroff, op. cit.; and W. Gaylin, Caring (New York, NY: Knopf, 1976). So far, to my knowledge, there are no specific studies linking care to knowledge creation. Most works in this area of care tend to center around personality studies, care-givers and care-recipients in parent/child relations, or the relations among friends. Some studies include: N. Eisenberg, G. Carlo, D. Troyer, G. Switzer, and A. Speer, "The Altruistic Personality: In What Context Is It Apparent?" Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61 (1991): 450-458; C.E. Cutrona, "Perceived Parental Social Support and Academic Achievements: An Attachment Theory Perspective," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66 (1994): 369-378; M.D. Pagel, W.W. Erdly, and J. Becker, "Social Networks," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53 (1987): 793-804. In an organizational perspective, most studies focus on the relations between professional care givers and care recipients in human service organizations like schools, churches, and hospitals. Still, there are many insightful findings that will help to advance the topic of care. Some contributions include S. Sarason, Caring and Compassion in Clinical Practice (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1985); G. Egan, The Skilled Helper (Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole Pub. Co., 1986); N. Foner, "The Hidden Injuries of Bureaucracy: Work in an American Nursing Home," Human Organization, 54 (1995): 229-237. Providing a deeper understanding of care and its relation to education, I recommend N. Noddings, Caring: A Feminine Approach to Ethics and Moral Education (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1984).
55. These dimensions are adapted from the work by Mayeroff, op. cit.; and W. Gaylin, Caring (New York, NY: Knopf, 1976). So far, to my knowledge, there are no specific studies linking care to knowledge creation. Most works in this area of care tend to center around personality studies, care-givers and care-recipients in parent/child relations, or the relations among friends. Some studies include: N. Eisenberg, G. Carlo, D. Troyer, G. Switzer, and A. Speer, "The Altruistic Personality: In What Context Is It Apparent?" Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61 (1991): 450-458; C.E. Cutrona, "Perceived Parental Social Support and Academic Achievements: An Attachment Theory Perspective," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66 (1994): 369-378; M.D. Pagel, W.W. Erdly, and J. Becker, "Social Networks," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53 (1987): 793-804. In an organizational perspective, most studies focus on the relations between professional care givers and care recipients in human service organizations like schools, churches, and hospitals. Still, there are many insightful findings that will help to advance the topic of care. Some contributions include S. Sarason, Caring and Compassion in Clinical Practice (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1985); G. Egan, The Skilled Helper (Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole Pub. Co., 1986); N. Foner, "The Hidden Injuries of Bureaucracy: Work in an American Nursing Home," Human Organization, 54 (1995): 229-237. Providing a deeper understanding of care and its relation to education, I recommend N. Noddings, Caring: A Feminine Approach to Ethics and Moral Education (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1984).
56. These dimensions are adapted from the work by Mayeroff, op. cit.; and W. Gaylin, Caring (New York, NY: Knopf, 1976). So far, to my knowledge, there are no specific studies linking care to knowledge creation. Most works in this area of care tend to center around personality studies, care-givers and care-recipients in parent/child relations, or the relations among friends. Some studies include: N. Eisenberg, G. Carlo, D. Troyer, G. Switzer, and A. Speer, "The Altruistic Personality: In What Context Is It Apparent?" Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61 (1991): 450-458; C.E. Cutrona, "Perceived Parental Social Support and Academic Achievements: An Attachment Theory Perspective," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66 (1994): 369-378; M.D. Pagel, W.W. Erdly, and J. Becker, "Social Networks," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53 (1987): 793-804. In an organizational perspective, most studies focus on the relations between professional care givers and care recipients in human service organizations like schools, churches, and hospitals. Still, there are many insightful findings that will help to advance the topic of care. Some contributions include S. Sarason, Caring and Compassion in Clinical Practice (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1985); G. Egan, The Skilled Helper (Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole Pub. Co., 1986); N. Foner, "The Hidden Injuries of Bureaucracy: Work in an American Nursing Home," Human Organization, 54 (1995): 229-237. Providing a deeper understanding of care and its relation to education, I recommend N. Noddings, Caring: A Feminine Approach to Ethics and Moral Education (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1984).
57. These dimensions are adapted from the work by Mayeroff, op. cit.; and W. Gaylin, Caring (New York, NY: Knopf, 1976). So far, to my knowledge, there are no specific studies linking care to knowledge creation. Most works in this area of care tend to center around personality studies, care-givers and care-recipients in parent/child relations, or the relations among friends. Some studies include: N. Eisenberg, G. Carlo, D. Troyer, G. Switzer, and A. Speer, "The Altruistic Personality: In What Context Is It Apparent?" Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61 (1991): 450-458; C.E. Cutrona, "Perceived Parental Social Support and Academic Achievements: An Attachment Theory Perspective," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66 (1994): 369-378; M.D. Pagel, W.W. Erdly, and J. Becker, "Social Networks," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53 (1987): 793-804. In an organizational perspective, most studies focus on the relations between professional care givers and care recipients in human service organizations like schools, churches, and hospitals. Still, there are many insightful findings that will help to advance the topic of care. Some contributions include S. Sarason, Caring and Compassion in Clinical Practice (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1985); G. Egan, The Skilled Helper (Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole Pub. Co., 1986); N. Foner, "The Hidden Injuries of Bureaucracy: Work in an American Nursing Home," Human Organization, 54 (1995): 229-237. Providing a deeper understanding of care and its relation to education, I recommend N. Noddings, Caring: A Feminine Approach to Ethics and Moral Education (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1984).
58. R.H Humphrey and B.E. Ashford, "Cognitive Scripts and Prototypes in Service Encounters," in T.A. Schwart, D.E. Bowen, and S.W. Brown, eds., Advances in Service Marketing and Management: Research and Practice, 3 (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1994).
59. According to Mayeroff [op. cit.], in caring for someone, you also pursue the deeper meanings behind his formulated needs, become sensitive to the needs that are not articulated, and help the other person to articulate his or her needs. Personal interpretations of the other person's needs might be a useful way of going about this articulation process, or alternatively, help the other person to find words whereby emotions and needs can be expressed more effectively.
60. Maurice Merleau-Ponty, The Structure of Behavior (Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1963).
61. Social knowledge is knowledge shared among individuals, and it can comprise both explicit knowledge (such as engineers knowing the way to solve a differential equation) or tacit knowledge (such as a group of fashion designers knowing how to keep a "signature" of a design (a clear style) through a variety of different clothes and models).
62. There is no preemptive generosity; people establish their "value" through long-term trust building. Not given at the outset of a relationship, trust must be built up (if at all possible) through a long process of recurrently demonstrating expertise.
63. Nonaka and Takeuchi, op. cit.
64. M. Polanyi and H. Prosch, Meaning (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1975).
65. By "equal" is meant that the personal knowledge of each individual matters.
66. For more on the topic of justice in organizations, see, for example, J. Greenberg, "Organization Justice: Yesterday, Today, Tomorrow," Journal of Management, 16 (1990): 399-432.
67. By removing layers of middle-level management, competition for higher-level positions that are fewer in number is likely to increase.
68. A case in point is a computer manufacturer studied by C.N. Darrah, "Workplace Training, Workplace Learning: A Case Study," Human Organization, 54/1 (1990): 31-41. In this company, asking for expertise on how to solve a task on the factory floor could seriously jeopardize future career moves. The employee had to present himself as competent and reliable, not needing expert advice nor even written personal notes, on how to solve the task.
69. There are many cases arguing for a strong relation between innovation and tacit knowledge. For example, G. von Krogh, K. Ichijo, and I. Nonaka ["Develop Knowledge Activists!" European Management Journal, 15/5 (1997): 475-483] provided a case of the development of a highly successful product requiring tacit social knowledge - a chicken-deboning machine. A cross-functional team of the Japanese engineering company Maekawa worked in a food-processing plant for several months in order to learn the tacit skills of "chicken deboning." Sharing this knowledge, the team could articulate the steps and movements in a process of chicken deboning. Based on this explicit knowledge, they created a concept of chicken deboning that became the cornerstone in the design and programming of the machines.
70. Often, traditional incentive systems might have an adverse effect on caring behavior, encouraging individualism and extreme forms of competitiveness. This behavior can be desirable under certain circumstances where capturing and transacting are acceptable processes of knowledge creation (e.g., a newspaper editorial staff). Yet, where the creation of tacit knowledge is important (e.g., for radical innovations in a consumer electronics firm), care-based relationships should be fostered through other types of incentive systems. I am indebted to David Teece for pointing this out to me.
71. This is what M. Hilb called a 360° performance appraisal. M. Hilb, Integriertes Personal Management (Berlin: Luchterhand, 1995).
72. Dreyfus and Dreyfus, op. cit., p. 26.
73. A word of caution. Mentoring programs should be designed to prevent emotional burnout among care givers. This effect has been noted among professional care givers such as nurses. See, for example, Foner, op. cit..
74. This case was developed with Wouter de Vries.
75. A first comprehensive test of the knowledge creation theory is already available. See I. Nonaka, P. Byosiere, C.C. Borucki, and N. Konno, "Organizational Knowledge Creation Theory: A First Comprehensive Test," International Business Review, Special Issue on Knowledge in Organizations, Knowledge Transfer, and Cooperative Strategies, 3/4 (1994): 337-351. Specific measures for care as it applies to relationships in knowledge creation still have to be developed using the constructs of "mutual trust," "active empathy," "access to help," "lenience in judgment," and "courage."
76. This statement is borrowed from the work of Maturana and Varela, op. cit.