Commercial associations and the creation of a national economy: The demand for federal bankruptcy law

Business History Review

Volumn 72, Issue 1, 1998, Pages 86-113

  Hansen, Bradley ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0032371680     PISSN: 00076805     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3116596     Document Type: Article

References (93)

1. See Tony Freyer, "The Federal Courts, Localism, and the National Economy, 1865-1900," Business History Review 53 (Autumn 1979): 343-63; Philip Merkel, "The Origins of an Expanded Federal Court Jurisdiction: Railroad Development and the Ascendancy of the Federal Court," Business History Review 58 (Autumn 1984): 336-58; Charles McCurdy, "American Law and the Marketing Structure of the Large Corporation, 1875-1890," Journal of Economic History 38 (1978): 631-49, and "The Knight Sugar Decision of 1895 and the Modernization of American Corporation Law, 1869-1903," Business History Review 53 (Autumn 1979): 305-42; William Graebner, "Federalism in the Progressive Era: A Structural Interpretation of Reform," Journal of American History 64 (Sept. 1977): 331-57; Donald J. Pisani, "Promotion and Regualtion: The Constitution and the American Economy," Journal of American History 74 (Dec. 1987): 740-68; Harry Scheiber, "Federalism and the American Economic Order, 1789-1910," Law and Society 10 (Fall 1975): 57-118; James Willard Hurst, Law and Markets in United States History (Madison, Wis., 1982).
2. See Tony Freyer, "The Federal Courts, Localism, and the National Economy, 1865-1900," Business History Review 53 (Autumn 1979): 343-63; Philip Merkel, "The Origins of an Expanded Federal Court Jurisdiction: Railroad Development and the Ascendancy of the Federal Court," Business History Review 58 (Autumn 1984): 336-58; Charles McCurdy, "American Law and the Marketing Structure of the Large Corporation, 1875-1890," Journal of Economic History 38 (1978): 631-49, and "The Knight Sugar Decision of 1895 and the Modernization of American Corporation Law, 1869-1903," Business History Review 53 (Autumn 1979): 305-42; William Graebner, "Federalism in the Progressive Era: A Structural Interpretation of Reform," Journal of American History 64 (Sept. 1977): 331-57; Donald J. Pisani, "Promotion and Regualtion: The Constitution and the American Economy," Journal of American History 74 (Dec. 1987): 740-68; Harry Scheiber, "Federalism and the American Economic Order, 1789-1910," Law and Society 10 (Fall 1975): 57-118; James Willard Hurst, Law and Markets in United States History (Madison, Wis., 1982).
3. See Tony Freyer, "The Federal Courts, Localism, and the National Economy, 1865-1900," Business History Review 53 (Autumn 1979): 343-63; Philip Merkel, "The Origins of an Expanded Federal Court Jurisdiction: Railroad Development and the Ascendancy of the Federal Court," Business History Review 58 (Autumn 1984): 336-58; Charles McCurdy, "American Law and the Marketing Structure of the Large Corporation, 1875-1890," Journal of Economic History 38 (1978): 631-49, and "The Knight Sugar Decision of 1895 and the Modernization of American Corporation Law, 1869-1903," Business History Review 53 (Autumn 1979): 305-42; William Graebner, "Federalism in the Progressive Era: A Structural Interpretation of Reform," Journal of American History 64 (Sept. 1977): 331-57; Donald J. Pisani, "Promotion and Regualtion: The Constitution and the American Economy," Journal of American History 74 (Dec. 1987): 740-68; Harry Scheiber, "Federalism and the American Economic Order, 1789-1910," Law and Society 10 (Fall 1975): 57-118; James Willard Hurst, Law and Markets in United States History (Madison, Wis., 1982).
4. See Tony Freyer, "The Federal Courts, Localism, and the National Economy, 1865-1900," Business History Review 53 (Autumn 1979): 343-63; Philip Merkel, "The Origins of an Expanded Federal Court Jurisdiction: Railroad Development and the Ascendancy of the Federal Court," Business History Review 58 (Autumn 1984): 336-58; Charles McCurdy, "American Law and the Marketing Structure of the Large Corporation, 1875-1890," Journal of Economic History 38 (1978): 631-49, and "The Knight Sugar Decision of 1895 and the Modernization of American Corporation Law, 1869-1903," Business History Review 53 (Autumn 1979): 305-42; William Graebner, "Federalism in the Progressive Era: A Structural Interpretation of Reform," Journal of American History 64 (Sept. 1977): 331-57; Donald J. Pisani, "Promotion and Regualtion: The Constitution and the American Economy," Journal of American History 74 (Dec. 1987): 740-68; Harry Scheiber, "Federalism and the American Economic Order, 1789-1910," Law and Society 10 (Fall 1975): 57-118; James Willard Hurst, Law and Markets in United States History (Madison, Wis., 1982).
5. See Tony Freyer, "The Federal Courts, Localism, and the National Economy, 1865-1900," Business History Review 53 (Autumn 1979): 343-63; Philip Merkel, "The Origins of an Expanded Federal Court Jurisdiction: Railroad Development and the Ascendancy of the Federal Court," Business History Review 58 (Autumn 1984): 336-58; Charles McCurdy, "American Law and the Marketing Structure of the Large Corporation, 1875-1890," Journal of Economic History 38 (1978): 631-49, and "The Knight Sugar Decision of 1895 and the Modernization of American Corporation Law, 1869-1903," Business History Review 53 (Autumn 1979): 305-42; William Graebner, "Federalism in the Progressive Era: A Structural Interpretation of Reform," Journal of American History 64 (Sept. 1977): 331-57; Donald J. Pisani, "Promotion and Regualtion: The Constitution and the American Economy," Journal of American History 74 (Dec. 1987): 740-68; Harry Scheiber, "Federalism and the American Economic Order, 1789-1910," Law and Society 10 (Fall 1975): 57-118; James Willard Hurst, Law and Markets in United States History (Madison, Wis., 1982).
6. See Tony Freyer, "The Federal Courts, Localism, and the National Economy, 1865-1900," Business History Review 53 (Autumn 1979): 343-63; Philip Merkel, "The Origins of an Expanded Federal Court Jurisdiction: Railroad Development and the Ascendancy of the Federal Court," Business History Review 58 (Autumn 1984): 336-58; Charles McCurdy, "American Law and the Marketing Structure of the Large Corporation, 1875-1890," Journal of Economic History 38 (1978): 631-49, and "The Knight Sugar Decision of 1895 and the Modernization of American Corporation Law, 1869-1903," Business History Review 53 (Autumn 1979): 305-42; William Graebner, "Federalism in the Progressive Era: A Structural Interpretation of Reform," Journal of American History 64 (Sept. 1977): 331-57; Donald J. Pisani, "Promotion and Regualtion: The Constitution and the American Economy," Journal of American History 74 (Dec. 1987): 740-68; Harry Scheiber, "Federalism and the American Economic Order, 1789-1910," Law and Society 10 (Fall 1975): 57-118; James Willard Hurst, Law and Markets in United States History (Madison, Wis., 1982).
7. See Tony Freyer, "The Federal Courts, Localism, and the National Economy, 1865-1900," Business History Review 53 (Autumn 1979): 343-63; Philip Merkel, "The Origins of an Expanded Federal Court Jurisdiction: Railroad Development and the Ascendancy of the Federal Court," Business History Review 58 (Autumn 1984): 336-58; Charles McCurdy, "American Law and the Marketing Structure of the Large Corporation, 1875-1890," Journal of Economic History 38 (1978): 631-49, and "The Knight Sugar Decision of 1895 and the Modernization of American Corporation Law, 1869-1903," Business History Review 53 (Autumn 1979): 305-42; William Graebner, "Federalism in the Progressive Era: A Structural Interpretation of Reform," Journal of American History 64 (Sept. 1977): 331-57; Donald J. Pisani, "Promotion and Regualtion: The Constitution and the American Economy," Journal of American History 74 (Dec. 1987): 740-68; Harry Scheiber, "Federalism and the American Economic Order, 1789-1910," Law and Society 10 (Fall 1975): 57-118; James Willard Hurst, Law and Markets in United States History (Madison, Wis., 1982).
8. See Tony Freyer, "The Federal Courts, Localism, and the National Economy, 1865-1900," Business History Review 53 (Autumn 1979): 343-63; Philip Merkel, "The Origins of an Expanded Federal Court Jurisdiction: Railroad Development and the Ascendancy of the Federal Court," Business History Review 58 (Autumn 1984): 336-58; Charles McCurdy, "American Law and the Marketing Structure of the Large Corporation, 1875-1890," Journal of Economic History 38 (1978): 631-49, and "The Knight Sugar Decision of 1895 and the Modernization of American Corporation Law, 1869-1903," Business History Review 53 (Autumn 1979): 305-42; William Graebner, "Federalism in the Progressive Era: A Structural Interpretation of Reform," Journal of American History 64 (Sept. 1977): 331-57; Donald J. Pisani, "Promotion and Regualtion: The Constitution and the American Economy," Journal of American History 74 (Dec. 1987): 740-68; Harry Scheiber, "Federalism and the American Economic Order, 1789-1910," Law and Society 10 (Fall 1975): 57-118; James Willard Hurst, Law and Markets in United States History (Madison, Wis., 1982).
9. Legislators commonly referred to the bill as the Torrey bill, i.e., the bill drafted by Jay Torrey, the president of The National Convention of Representatives of Commercial Bodies, Congressional Record, 55th Cong. 2nd sess., 1898, 1905, 6296, 6429.
10. On the Constitutional limitations of state laws see R. Kent Newmeyer, The Supreme Court under Marshall and Taney (New York, 1968), 79-80, 85-6; Jamil Zainaldin, Law in Antebellum Society (New York, 1983), 39-40; Hollis R. Bailey, "An Assignment in Insolvency and Its Effects Upon Property and Persons Out of State," Harvard Law Review 1 (1893): 281-99; and "A Discharge in Insolvency and Its Effects Upon Non-Residents," Harvard Law Review 6 (1892): 349-68.
11. On the Constitutional limitations of state laws see R. Kent Newmeyer, The Supreme Court under Marshall and Taney (New York, 1968), 79-80, 85-6; Jamil Zainaldin, Law in Antebellum Society (New York, 1983), 39-40; Hollis R. Bailey, "An Assignment in Insolvency and Its Effects Upon Property and Persons Out of State," Harvard Law Review 1 (1893): 281-99; and "A Discharge in Insolvency and Its Effects Upon Non-Residents," Harvard Law Review 6 (1892): 349-68.
12. On the Constitutional limitations of state laws see R. Kent Newmeyer, The Supreme Court under Marshall and Taney (New York, 1968), 79-80, 85-6; Jamil Zainaldin, Law in Antebellum Society (New York, 1983), 39-40; Hollis R. Bailey, "An Assignment in Insolvency and Its Effects Upon Property and Persons Out of State," Harvard Law Review 1 (1893): 281-99; and "A Discharge in Insolvency and Its Effects Upon Non-Residents," Harvard Law Review 6 (1892): 349-68.
13. On the Constitutional limitations of state laws see R. Kent Newmeyer, The Supreme Court under Marshall and Taney (New York, 1968), 79-80, 85-6; Jamil Zainaldin, Law in Antebellum Society (New York, 1983), 39-40; Hollis R. Bailey, "An Assignment in Insolvency and Its Effects Upon Property and Persons Out of State," Harvard Law Review 1 (1893): 281-99; and "A Discharge in Insolvency and Its Effects Upon Non-Residents," Harvard Law Review 6 (1892): 349-68.
14. Congressional Record, 39 Cong., 2nd sess., 1867, 1004.
15. P.R. Earling, Whom to Trust: A Practical Treatise on Mercantile Credits (Chicago, 1889), 217.
16. Charles Warren, Bankruptcy in United States History (Cambridge, Mass. 1935), 9.
17. Douglas Baird and Thomas Jackson, Cases, Problems and Materials on Bankruptcy (Boston 1985), 27.
18. Rhett Frimet, "The Birth of Bankruptcy in the United States," Commercial Law Journal 96 (1991): 160-88.
19. Teresa Sullivan, Elizabeth Warren, and Jay Westbrook, As We Forgive Our Debtors (Oxford, 1989), 231.
20. Robert Higgs, The Transformation of the American Economy, 1865-1914 (New York, 1971), 53.
21. Frimet, "The Birth of Bankruptcy in the United States"; Peter Coleman, Debtors and Creditors in America: Insolvency, Imprisonment for Debt and Bankruptcy, 1607-1900 (Madison, Wisc., 1974), 29; and Lawrence Friedman, A History of American Law (New York, 1973), 551.
22. Frimet, "The Birth of Bankruptcy in the United States"; Peter Coleman, Debtors and Creditors in America: Insolvency, Imprisonment for Debt and Bankruptcy, 1607-1900 (Madison, Wisc., 1974), 29; and Lawrence Friedman, A History of American Law (New York, 1973), 551.
23. Frimet, "The Birth of Bankruptcy in the United States"; Peter Coleman, Debtors and Creditors in America: Insolvency, Imprisonment for Debt and Bankruptcy, 1607-1900 (Madison, Wisc., 1974), 29; and Lawrence Friedman, A History of American Law (New York, 1973), 551.
24. Tony Freyer Producers versus Capitalists: Constitutional Conflict in Antebellum America (Charlottesville, N.C., 1994), 86-90;
25. and Drew McCoy, The Elusive Republic: Political Economy in Jeffersonian America (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1980), 178-84.
26. On the operation of the bankruptcy laws before the Civil War, see Barbara Matthews, "Forgive Us Our Debts: Bankruptcy and Insolvency in America, 1763-1841" (Ph.D. diss, Brown University, 1994); Edward J. Balleisen, "Vulture Capitalism in Antebellum America: The 1841 Federal bankruptcy Act and the Exploitation of Financial Distress," Business History Review 70 (Winter 1996): 473-516. On the expenses of the 1867 Act, see Expenses of Proceedings in Bankruptcy, 43rd Cong., 1st sess., Executive Document 19, 1873, serial 1580.
27. On the operation of the bankruptcy laws before the Civil War, see Barbara Matthews, "Forgive Us Our Debts: Bankruptcy and Insolvency in America, 1763-1841" (Ph.D. diss, Brown University, 1994); Edward J. Balleisen, "Vulture Capitalism in Antebellum America: The 1841 Federal bankruptcy Act and the Exploitation of Financial Distress," Business History Review 70 (Winter 1996): 473-516. On the expenses of the 1867 Act, see Expenses of Proceedings in Bankruptcy, 43rd Cong., 1st sess., Executive Document 19, 1873, serial 1580.
28. On the operation of the bankruptcy laws before the Civil War, see Barbara Matthews, "Forgive Us Our Debts: Bankruptcy and Insolvency in America, 1763-1841" (Ph.D. diss, Brown University, 1994); Edward J. Balleisen, "Vulture Capitalism in Antebellum America: The 1841 Federal bankruptcy Act and the Exploitation of Financial Distress," Business History Review 70 (Winter 1996): 473-516. On the expenses of the 1867 Act, see Expenses of Proceedings in Bankruptcy, 43rd Cong., 1st sess., Executive Document 19, 1873, serial 1580.
29. Harold Barger, Distribution's Place in the American Economy since 1869 (Princeton, N.J., 1955), 33. For a description of the role of Chicago wholesalers as creditors, see William Cronon, Nature's Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West (New York, 1991), 322-23.
30. Harold Barger, Distribution's Place in the American Economy since 1869 (Princeton, N.J., 1955), 33. For a description of the role of Chicago wholesalers as creditors, see William Cronon, Nature's Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West (New York, 1991), 322-23.
31. Paul Nystrom, The Economics of Retailing vol.1 (New York, 1924), 405.
32. Theodore Beckman and Nathaniel Engle, Wholesaling: Principles and Practice (New York, 1924), 158. In 1987 trade credit still accounted for 15 percent of nonfarm, nonfinancial business liabilities, see Gregory Elliehausen and John D. Wolken, "The Demand For Trade Credit," Federal Reserve Bulletin 79 (1993): 929-30.
33. Theodore Beckman and Nathaniel Engle, Wholesaling: Principles and Practice (New York, 1924), 158. In 1987 trade credit still accounted for 15 percent of nonfarm, nonfinancial business liabilities, see Gregory Elliehausen and John D. Wolken, "The Demand For Trade Credit," Federal Reserve Bulletin 79 (1993): 929-30.
34. On the terms and conditions commonly used for trade credit, see Harold Barger, Distribution's Place in the American Economy (Princeton, N.J., 1955), 33; Roy A. Foulke, The Sinews of American Commerce (New York, 1941), 158; James Hagerty, Mercantile Credit (New York, 1913), chaps. II and IV; and Theodore Beckman, Credits and Collections in Theory and in Practice (New York, 1924), chaps. II and V.
35. On the terms and conditions commonly used for trade credit, see Harold Barger, Distribution's Place in the American Economy (Princeton, N.J., 1955), 33; Roy A. Foulke, The Sinews of American Commerce (New York, 1941), 158; James Hagerty, Mercantile Credit (New York, 1913), chaps. II and IV; and Theodore Beckman, Credits and Collections in Theory and in Practice (New York, 1924), chaps. II and V.
36. On the terms and conditions commonly used for trade credit, see Harold Barger, Distribution's Place in the American Economy (Princeton, N.J., 1955), 33; Roy A. Foulke, The Sinews of American Commerce (New York, 1941), 158; James Hagerty, Mercantile Credit (New York, 1913), chaps. II and IV; and Theodore Beckman, Credits and Collections in Theory and in Practice (New York, 1924), chaps. II and V.
37. On the terms and conditions commonly used for trade credit, see Harold Barger, Distribution's Place in the American Economy (Princeton, N.J., 1955), 33; Roy A. Foulke, The Sinews of American Commerce (New York, 1941), 158; James Hagerty, Mercantile Credit (New York, 1913), chaps. II and IV; and Theodore Beckman, Credits and Collections in Theory and in Practice (New York, 1924), chaps. II and V.
38. Chauncey Depew, One Hundred Years of Commerce (New York, 1895), 559.
39. For the rate of commercial failures, see U.S. Census Bureau, Historical Statistics of the United States: Colonial Times to 1957 (Washington, 1974), series V 23.
40. This failure rate is calculated from Dun and Bradtsreet's records and counts as failure only firms that failed to pay their creditors. For the rate of business discontinuance, see Investigation of Concentration of Economic Power: Hearings Before the Temporary National Economic Committee, Economic Prologue (Washington, D.C., 1939), 227.
41. Charles Grosvenor, Representative from Ohio, Congressional Record, 55th Cong., 2nd sess., 1898, 1899.
42. Testimony and Arguments an Relation to a Uniform System of Bankruptcy, 46th Cong., 3rd sess., 1881, H. Misc. Doc. 9.
43. Lucius Eaton to Merchants Exchange of St. Louis, Miscellaneous Correspondence, Merchants Exchange Collection, Missouri Historical Society, 18 Oct. 1881. See Memorial of Many Commercial Bodies for Passage of Torrey Bankrupt Bill, 54th Cong., 2nd sess., 1897, S. Misc. Doc. 182, serial 2907 for a description of the variety in state laws.
44. Resolution of Retail Grocers Association of Illinois etc. on Bankruptcy, 55th Cong., 2nd sess., 1897, S. Doc. 155, serial 3600, 19.
45. For a review of state laws as they related to foreign creditors, see Hollis Bailey, "An Assignment in Insolvency and its Effect upon Property and Persons Out of State," Harvard Law Review 7 (1893): 281-99;
46. and S. Whitney Dunscomb, Bankruptcy: A Study in Comparative Legislation (New York, 1893), 151-67.
47. Proceedings of the Second Session of the National Convention of Representives of Commercial Bodies (St. Louis, Mo., 1899), 87.
48. Memorial of Convention of Commercial Bodies for Passage of Torrey Bankruptcy Bill, 51st Cong., 1st sess., 1890, S. Misc. Doc. 245, serial 2700, 4.
49. Memorials, Press Clippings, Resolutions and Documents on Torrey Bankruptcy Bill, 54th Cong., 1st sess., S. Doc. 237, serial 3354, 89.
50. Memorial of Many Commercial Bodies in Favor of Torrey Bankrupt Bill, 54th Cong., 2nd sess., 1897, S. Doc. 182, serial 2907, 70.
51. Ibid, 77.
52. Quoted in Roger F. Halsey, "Man to Loan $1,500 and Serve as Clerk: Trading Jobs for Loans in Mid-Nineteenth Century San Francisco," Journal of Economic History 54 (1994): 56.
53. Saunders Norvell, Forty Years of Hardware (New York, 1924), 117.
54. Harold Remington, "Bankruptcy Law and Peaceable Settlements of Business Failures," Yale Law Journal 19 (1908): 591.
55. Credit Men's Bullletin (Jan. 1917): 30; Bradstreet's (9 Jan. 1909): 25.
56. Credit Men's Bullletin (Jan. 1917): 30; Bradstreet's (9 Jan. 1909): 25.
57. Stanley F. Brewster, Legal Aspects of Credit (New York, 1924), 454.
58. On the history of adjustment bureaus, see Thomas Billig, "What Price Bankruptcy: A Plea for Friendly Adjustment," Cornell Law Quarterly 14 (1929): 413-46.
59. The figures for the number of adjustment bureaus are from the listings of adjustment bureaus in the Dec. issues of the journal of the National Association of Credit Men, Credit Men's Bulletin, later Credit and Financial Management; adjustment bureaus were recognized by the Association and were typically associated with a board of trade or chamber of commerce.
60. Strengthenine, Procedures in the Judicial System, 72nd Cong., 1st sess., 1931, S. Doc. 65, 184; see also Thomas Clifford Billig, What Price Bankruptcy: A Plea For 'Friendly Adjustment,"' Cornell Law Quarterly 14 (June 1929): 413-46.
61. Strengthenine, Procedures in the Judicial System, 72nd Cong., 1st sess., 1931, S. Doc. 65, 184; see also Thomas Clifford Billig, What Price Bankruptcy: A Plea For 'Friendly Adjustment,"' Cornell Law Quarterly 14 (June 1929): 413-46.
62. Bill Moeckel, The Development of the Wholesaler in the United States, 1860-1900 (New York, 1953), 118.
63. Advocates of the law spoke frequently of the high costs of the last bankruptcy law and the need to ensure that the many fees associated with it were not duplicated; see, for example, Proceedings of the National Association of Credit Men, 55th Cong., 2nd sess., 1898, S. Doc. 156, serial 3600, 11.
64. Testimony and Arguments in Relation to a Uniform System of Bankruptcy, 46th Cong., 3rd sess., 1881, H. Misc. Doc. 9.
65. Proceedings of the Second Session of the National Convention of Representatives of Commercial Bodies (St. Louis, Mo., 1899), xix.
66. New York Board of Trade to Merchants Exchange of St. Louis, Miscellaneous Correspondence, Merchants Exchange Collection, Missouri Historical Society, 26 July 1883.
67. Jerald Hoffman, "Colonel Jay L. Torrey And His Rough Rider Regiment," (M.A. thesis, University of Wyoming, 1967), 4. Hoffman's thesis provides a biography of Torrey, with an emphasis on his military activities.
68. George F. Hoar, Autobiography of Seventy Years, vol. II (New York, 1903), 302.
69. Congressional Record, 51st Cong., 1st sess., 1890, 7570.
70. Congressional Record, 55th Cong., 2nd sess., 1898, 1928.
71. Congressional Record, 55th Cong., 2nd sess., 1898, 1886.
72. For a detailed account of Torrey's activities related to the war, see Hoffman, "Jay L. Torrey and His Rough Rider Regiment."
73. Ibid, 127.
74. James Broadhead in Proceedings of the Second Session of the National Convention of Representatives of Commercial Bodies (St. Louis, Mo., 1889), 83.
75. Proceedings of the First Session of the National Convention of Representatives of Commercial Bodies (St. Louis, Mo., 1889), 33.
76. Victor Lester, Victorian Insolvency: Bankruptcy, Imprisonment for Debt, and company Winding-Up in Nineteenth-Century England (Oxford, 1995), 161.
77. Congressional Record, 51st Cong., 1st sess., 1890, 10208.
78. Congressional Record, 53rd Cong., 1st sess., 1893, 124.
79. Lance Davis and Douglass North, Institutional Change and American Economic Growth (Cambridge, U.K., 1971), 43.
80. Ibid.
81. Robert Weibe, The Search for Order, 1877-1920 (New York, 1967); Samuel Hays, The Response to Industrialism, 1885-1914 (Chicago, 1957); see also James Willard Hurst, Law and the Conditions of Freedom in the Nineteenth-Century United States (Madison, 1956), 85.
82. Robert Weibe, The Search for Order, 1877-1920 (New York, 1967); Samuel Hays, The Response to Industrialism, 1885-1914 (Chicago, 1957); see also James Willard Hurst, Law and the Conditions of Freedom in the Nineteenth-Century United States (Madison, 1956), 85.
83. Robert Weibe, The Search for Order, 1877-1920 (New York, 1967); Samuel Hays, The Response to Industrialism, 1885-1914 (Chicago, 1957); see also James Willard Hurst, Law and the Conditions of Freedom in the Nineteenth-Century United States (Madison, 1956), 85.
84. Weibe, 123.
85. Report of the Internal Commerce of the U.S., 51st Cong., 1st sess., 1890, House. Doc. 6, serial 2738.
86. William H. Becker, "American Wholesale Hardware Trade Associations, 1870-1900," Business History Review 45 (Summer 1971): 179-200;
87. and "The Wholesalers of Hardware and Drugs, 1870-1900" (Ph.D. diss., Johns Hopkins University, 1969);
88. Bill Moeckel, The Development of the Wholesaler in the United States, 1860-1900 (New York, 1986), 203;
89. F. Stuart Fitzpatrick, A Study of Businessmen's Associations (New York, 1925);
90. and Henry Foth, Trade Associations: Their Service to Industry (New York, 1930).
91. See, for example, Kenneth Sturges, American Chambers of Commerce (New York, 1915); and Lewis Atherton, Main Street on the Middle Border (Chicago, 1954), 331-2.
92. See, for example, Kenneth Sturges, American Chambers of Commerce (New York, 1915); and Lewis Atherton, Main Street on the Middle Border (Chicago, 1954), 331-2.
93. Chauncey Depew, One Hundred Years of Commerce, 624.