A gendered enterprise: Placing nineteenth-century businesswomen in history

Business History Review

Volumn 72, Issue 2, 1998, Pages 188-218

  Gamber, Wendy ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0032348073     PISSN: 00076805     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3116275     Document Type: Article

References (186)

1. H. A. Stimson, "The Small Business as a School of Manhood," Atlantic Monthly 93 (1904): 337-340. See Peter G. Filene, Him/Her/Self: Sex Roles in Modern America, 2nd ed. (Baltimore, 1986), 72-78, and Angel Kwolek-Folland, Engendering Business: Men and Women in the Corporate Office, 1870-1930 (Baltimore, 1994), 45-55, for similar interpretations.
2. H. A. Stimson, "The Small Business as a School of Manhood," Atlantic Monthly 93 (1904): 337-340. See Peter G. Filene, Him/Her/Self: Sex Roles in Modern America, 2nd ed. (Baltimore, 1986), 72-78, and Angel Kwolek-Folland, Engendering Business: Men and Women in the Corporate Office, 1870-1930 (Baltimore, 1994), 45-55, for similar interpretations.
3. H. A. Stimson, "The Small Business as a School of Manhood," Atlantic Monthly 93 (1904): 337-340. See Peter G. Filene, Him/Her/Self: Sex Roles in Modern America, 2nd ed. (Baltimore, 1986), 72-78, and Angel Kwolek-Folland, Engendering Business: Men and Women in the Corporate Office, 1870-1930 (Baltimore, 1994), 45-55, for similar interpretations.
4. Linda Kerber, "Separate Spheres, Female Worlds, Woman's Place," Journal of American History 75 (June 1988): 9-39, offers a superb review of this concept and its applications by both contemporaries and subsequent historians.
5. For evidence of women's entrepreneurial activities, see Natalie Zemon Davis, "Women in the Crafts in Sixteenth-Century Lyon," Feminist Studies 8 (Spring 1982): 46-80; Alice Clark, Working Life of Women in the Seventeenth Century (1919; reprint, New York, 1968); Elizabeth Sanderson, "The Edinburgh Milliners, 1720-1820," Costume (1986): 18-28; Elisabeth Anthony Dexter, Career Women of America, 1776-1840 (1950; reprint, Clifton, N.J., 1972); Clyde and Sally Griffen, Natives and Newcomers: The Ordering of Opportunity in Mid-Nineteenth-Century Poughkeepsie (Cambridge, Mass., 1978), 242-247; Mary P. Ryan, Cradle of the Middle Class: The Family in Oneida County, New York, 1790-1865 (Cambridge, 1981); Suzanne Lebsock, The Free Women of Petersburg: Status and Culture in a Southern Town, 1784-1860 (New York, 1984); Christine Stansell, City of Women: Sex and Class in New York, 1789-1860 (New York, 1986), 13-15; Claudia Goldin, "The Economic Status of Women in the Early Republic: Quantitative Evidence," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 15 (Winter 1986): 375-404; Barbara Meil Hobson, Uneasy Virtue: The Politics of Prostitution and the American Reform Tradition (New York, 1987), 23, 36-38; Lucy Eldersveld Murphy, "Her Own Boss: Businesswomen and Separate Spheres in the Midwest, 1850-1880," Illinois Historical Journal 80 (Autumn 1987): 155-176; Murphy, "Business Ladies: Midwestern Women and Enterprise, 1850-1880," Journal of Women's History 3 (Spring 1991): 65-89; Wendy Gamber, The Female Economy: The Millinery and Dressmaking Trades, 1860-1930 (Urbana, Ill., 1997), esp. 27-30; and John N. Ingham, "Patterns of African-American Female Self-Employment and Entrepreneurship in Ten Southern Cities, 1880-1930," paper presented at the Tenth Berkshire Conference on the History of Women, June 1996, 1. Ingham discusses the "lady embalmer."
6. For evidence of women's entrepreneurial activities, see Natalie Zemon Davis, "Women in the Crafts in Sixteenth-Century Lyon," Feminist Studies 8 (Spring 1982): 46-80; Alice Clark, Working Life of Women in the Seventeenth Century (1919; reprint, New York, 1968); Elizabeth Sanderson, "The Edinburgh Milliners, 1720-1820," Costume (1986): 18-28; Elisabeth Anthony Dexter, Career Women of America, 1776-1840 (1950; reprint, Clifton, N.J., 1972); Clyde and Sally Griffen, Natives and Newcomers: The Ordering of Opportunity in Mid-Nineteenth-Century Poughkeepsie (Cambridge, Mass., 1978), 242-247; Mary P. Ryan, Cradle of the Middle Class: The Family in Oneida County, New York, 1790-1865 (Cambridge, 1981); Suzanne Lebsock, The Free Women of Petersburg: Status and Culture in a Southern Town, 1784-1860 (New York, 1984); Christine Stansell, City of Women: Sex and Class in New York, 1789-1860 (New York, 1986), 13-15; Claudia Goldin, "The Economic Status of Women in the Early Republic: Quantitative Evidence," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 15 (Winter 1986): 375-404; Barbara Meil Hobson, Uneasy Virtue: The Politics of Prostitution and the American Reform Tradition (New York, 1987), 23, 36-38; Lucy Eldersveld Murphy, "Her Own Boss: Businesswomen and Separate Spheres in the Midwest, 1850-1880," Illinois Historical Journal 80 (Autumn 1987): 155-176; Murphy, "Business Ladies: Midwestern Women and Enterprise, 1850-1880," Journal of Women's History 3 (Spring 1991): 65-89; Wendy Gamber, The Female Economy: The Millinery and Dressmaking Trades, 1860-1930 (Urbana, Ill., 1997), esp. 27-30; and John N. Ingham, "Patterns of African-American Female Self-Employment and Entrepreneurship in Ten Southern Cities, 1880-1930," paper presented at the Tenth Berkshire Conference on the History of Women, June 1996, 1. Ingham discusses the "lady embalmer."
7. For evidence of women's entrepreneurial activities, see Natalie Zemon Davis, "Women in the Crafts in Sixteenth-Century Lyon," Feminist Studies 8 (Spring 1982): 46-80; Alice Clark, Working Life of Women in the Seventeenth Century (1919; reprint, New York, 1968); Elizabeth Sanderson, "The Edinburgh Milliners, 1720-1820," Costume (1986): 18-28; Elisabeth Anthony Dexter, Career Women of America, 1776-1840 (1950; reprint, Clifton, N.J., 1972); Clyde and Sally Griffen, Natives and Newcomers: The Ordering of Opportunity in Mid-Nineteenth-Century Poughkeepsie (Cambridge, Mass., 1978), 242-247; Mary P. Ryan, Cradle of the Middle Class: The Family in Oneida County, New York, 1790-1865 (Cambridge, 1981); Suzanne Lebsock, The Free Women of Petersburg: Status and Culture in a Southern Town, 1784-1860 (New York, 1984); Christine Stansell, City of Women: Sex and Class in New York, 1789-1860 (New York, 1986), 13-15; Claudia Goldin, "The Economic Status of Women in the Early Republic: Quantitative Evidence," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 15 (Winter 1986): 375-404; Barbara Meil Hobson, Uneasy Virtue: The Politics of Prostitution and the American Reform Tradition (New York, 1987), 23, 36-38; Lucy Eldersveld Murphy, "Her Own Boss: Businesswomen and Separate Spheres in the Midwest, 1850-1880," Illinois Historical Journal 80 (Autumn 1987): 155-176; Murphy, "Business Ladies: Midwestern Women and Enterprise, 1850-1880," Journal of Women's History 3 (Spring 1991): 65-89; Wendy Gamber, The Female Economy: The Millinery and Dressmaking Trades, 1860-1930 (Urbana, Ill., 1997), esp. 27-30; and John N. Ingham, "Patterns of African-American Female Self-Employment and Entrepreneurship in Ten Southern Cities, 1880-1930," paper presented at the Tenth Berkshire Conference on the History of Women, June 1996, 1. Ingham discusses the "lady embalmer."
8. For evidence of women's entrepreneurial activities, see Natalie Zemon Davis, "Women in the Crafts in Sixteenth-Century Lyon," Feminist Studies 8 (Spring 1982): 46-80; Alice Clark, Working Life of Women in the Seventeenth Century (1919; reprint, New York, 1968); Elizabeth Sanderson, "The Edinburgh Milliners, 1720-1820," Costume (1986): 18-28; Elisabeth Anthony Dexter, Career Women of America, 1776-1840 (1950; reprint, Clifton, N.J., 1972); Clyde and Sally Griffen, Natives and Newcomers: The Ordering of Opportunity in Mid-Nineteenth-Century Poughkeepsie (Cambridge, Mass., 1978), 242-247; Mary P. Ryan, Cradle of the Middle Class: The Family in Oneida County, New York, 1790-1865 (Cambridge, 1981); Suzanne Lebsock, The Free Women of Petersburg: Status and Culture in a Southern Town, 1784-1860 (New York, 1984); Christine Stansell, City of Women: Sex and Class in New York, 1789-1860 (New York, 1986), 13-15; Claudia Goldin, "The Economic Status of Women in the Early Republic: Quantitative Evidence," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 15 (Winter 1986): 375-404; Barbara Meil Hobson, Uneasy Virtue: The Politics of Prostitution and the American Reform Tradition (New York, 1987), 23, 36-38; Lucy Eldersveld Murphy, "Her Own Boss: Businesswomen and Separate Spheres in the Midwest, 1850-1880," Illinois Historical Journal 80 (Autumn 1987): 155-176; Murphy, "Business Ladies: Midwestern Women and Enterprise, 1850-1880," Journal of Women's History 3 (Spring 1991): 65-89; Wendy Gamber, The Female Economy: The Millinery and Dressmaking Trades, 1860-1930 (Urbana, Ill., 1997), esp. 27-30; and John N. Ingham, "Patterns of African-American Female Self-Employment and Entrepreneurship in Ten Southern Cities, 1880-1930," paper presented at the Tenth Berkshire Conference on the History of Women, June 1996, 1. Ingham discusses the "lady embalmer."
9. For evidence of women's entrepreneurial activities, see Natalie Zemon Davis, "Women in the Crafts in Sixteenth-Century Lyon," Feminist Studies 8 (Spring 1982): 46-80; Alice Clark, Working Life of Women in the Seventeenth Century (1919; reprint, New York, 1968); Elizabeth Sanderson, "The Edinburgh Milliners, 1720-1820," Costume (1986): 18-28; Elisabeth Anthony Dexter, Career Women of America, 1776-1840 (1950; reprint, Clifton, N.J., 1972); Clyde and Sally Griffen, Natives and Newcomers: The Ordering of Opportunity in Mid-Nineteenth-Century Poughkeepsie (Cambridge, Mass., 1978), 242-247; Mary P. Ryan, Cradle of the Middle Class: The Family in Oneida County, New York, 1790-1865 (Cambridge, 1981); Suzanne Lebsock, The Free Women of Petersburg: Status and Culture in a Southern Town, 1784-1860 (New York, 1984); Christine Stansell, City of Women: Sex and Class in New York, 1789-1860 (New York, 1986), 13-15; Claudia Goldin, "The Economic Status of Women in the Early Republic: Quantitative Evidence," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 15 (Winter 1986): 375-404; Barbara Meil Hobson, Uneasy Virtue: The Politics of Prostitution and the American Reform Tradition (New York, 1987), 23, 36-38; Lucy Eldersveld Murphy, "Her Own Boss: Businesswomen and Separate Spheres in the Midwest, 1850-1880," Illinois Historical Journal 80 (Autumn 1987): 155-176; Murphy, "Business Ladies: Midwestern Women and Enterprise, 1850-1880," Journal of Women's History 3 (Spring 1991): 65-89; Wendy Gamber, The Female Economy: The Millinery and Dressmaking Trades, 1860-1930 (Urbana, Ill., 1997), esp. 27-30; and John N. Ingham, "Patterns of African-American Female Self-Employment and Entrepreneurship in Ten Southern Cities, 1880-1930," paper presented at the Tenth Berkshire Conference on the History of Women, June 1996, 1. Ingham discusses the "lady embalmer."
10. For evidence of women's entrepreneurial activities, see Natalie Zemon Davis, "Women in the Crafts in Sixteenth-Century Lyon," Feminist Studies 8 (Spring 1982): 46-80; Alice Clark, Working Life of Women in the Seventeenth Century (1919; reprint, New York, 1968); Elizabeth Sanderson, "The Edinburgh Milliners, 1720-1820," Costume (1986): 18-28; Elisabeth Anthony Dexter, Career Women of America, 1776-1840 (1950; reprint, Clifton, N.J., 1972); Clyde and Sally Griffen, Natives and Newcomers: The Ordering of Opportunity in Mid-Nineteenth-Century Poughkeepsie (Cambridge, Mass., 1978), 242-247; Mary P. Ryan, Cradle of the Middle Class: The Family in Oneida County, New York, 1790-1865 (Cambridge, 1981); Suzanne Lebsock, The Free Women of Petersburg: Status and Culture in a Southern Town, 1784-1860 (New York, 1984); Christine Stansell, City of Women: Sex and Class in New York, 1789-1860 (New York, 1986), 13-15; Claudia Goldin, "The Economic Status of Women in the Early Republic: Quantitative Evidence," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 15 (Winter 1986): 375-404; Barbara Meil Hobson, Uneasy Virtue: The Politics of Prostitution and the American Reform Tradition (New York, 1987), 23, 36-38; Lucy Eldersveld Murphy, "Her Own Boss: Businesswomen and Separate Spheres in the Midwest, 1850-1880," Illinois Historical Journal 80 (Autumn 1987): 155-176; Murphy, "Business Ladies: Midwestern Women and Enterprise, 1850-1880," Journal of Women's History 3 (Spring 1991): 65-89; Wendy Gamber, The Female Economy: The Millinery and Dressmaking Trades, 1860-1930 (Urbana, Ill., 1997), esp. 27-30; and John N. Ingham, "Patterns of African-American Female Self-Employment and Entrepreneurship in Ten Southern Cities, 1880-1930," paper presented at the Tenth Berkshire Conference on the History of Women, June 1996, 1. Ingham discusses the "lady embalmer."
11. For evidence of women's entrepreneurial activities, see Natalie Zemon Davis, "Women in the Crafts in Sixteenth-Century Lyon," Feminist Studies 8 (Spring 1982): 46-80; Alice Clark, Working Life of Women in the Seventeenth Century (1919; reprint, New York, 1968); Elizabeth Sanderson, "The Edinburgh Milliners, 1720-1820," Costume (1986): 18-28; Elisabeth Anthony Dexter, Career Women of America, 1776-1840 (1950; reprint, Clifton, N.J., 1972); Clyde and Sally Griffen, Natives and Newcomers: The Ordering of Opportunity in Mid-Nineteenth-Century Poughkeepsie (Cambridge, Mass., 1978), 242-247; Mary P. Ryan, Cradle of the Middle Class: The Family in Oneida County, New York, 1790-1865 (Cambridge, 1981); Suzanne Lebsock, The Free Women of Petersburg: Status and Culture in a Southern Town, 1784-1860 (New York, 1984); Christine Stansell, City of Women: Sex and Class in New York, 1789-1860 (New York, 1986), 13-15; Claudia Goldin, "The Economic Status of Women in the Early Republic: Quantitative Evidence," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 15 (Winter 1986): 375-404; Barbara Meil Hobson, Uneasy Virtue: The Politics of Prostitution and the American Reform Tradition (New York, 1987), 23, 36-38; Lucy Eldersveld Murphy, "Her Own Boss: Businesswomen and Separate Spheres in the Midwest, 1850-1880," Illinois Historical Journal 80 (Autumn 1987): 155-176; Murphy, "Business Ladies: Midwestern Women and Enterprise, 1850-1880," Journal of Women's History 3 (Spring 1991): 65-89; Wendy Gamber, The Female Economy: The Millinery and Dressmaking Trades, 1860-1930 (Urbana, Ill., 1997), esp. 27-30; and John N. Ingham, "Patterns of African-American Female Self-Employment and Entrepreneurship in Ten Southern Cities, 1880-1930," paper presented at the Tenth Berkshire Conference on the History of Women, June 1996, 1. Ingham discusses the "lady embalmer."
12. For evidence of women's entrepreneurial activities, see Natalie Zemon Davis, "Women in the Crafts in Sixteenth-Century Lyon," Feminist Studies 8 (Spring 1982): 46-80; Alice Clark, Working Life of Women in the Seventeenth Century (1919; reprint, New York, 1968); Elizabeth Sanderson, "The Edinburgh Milliners, 1720-1820," Costume (1986): 18-28; Elisabeth Anthony Dexter, Career Women of America, 1776-1840 (1950; reprint, Clifton, N.J., 1972); Clyde and Sally Griffen, Natives and Newcomers: The Ordering of Opportunity in Mid-Nineteenth-Century Poughkeepsie (Cambridge, Mass., 1978), 242-247; Mary P. Ryan, Cradle of the Middle Class: The Family in Oneida County, New York, 1790-1865 (Cambridge, 1981); Suzanne Lebsock, The Free Women of Petersburg: Status and Culture in a Southern Town, 1784-1860 (New York, 1984); Christine Stansell, City of Women: Sex and Class in New York, 1789-1860 (New York, 1986), 13-15; Claudia Goldin, "The Economic Status of Women in the Early Republic: Quantitative Evidence," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 15 (Winter 1986): 375-404; Barbara Meil Hobson, Uneasy Virtue: The Politics of Prostitution and the American Reform Tradition (New York, 1987), 23, 36-38; Lucy Eldersveld Murphy, "Her Own Boss: Businesswomen and Separate Spheres in the Midwest, 1850-1880," Illinois Historical Journal 80 (Autumn 1987): 155-176; Murphy, "Business Ladies: Midwestern Women and Enterprise, 1850-1880," Journal of Women's History 3 (Spring 1991): 65-89; Wendy Gamber, The Female Economy: The Millinery and Dressmaking Trades, 1860-1930 (Urbana, Ill., 1997), esp. 27-30; and John N. Ingham, "Patterns of African-American Female Self-Employment and Entrepreneurship in Ten Southern Cities, 1880-1930," paper presented at the Tenth Berkshire Conference on the History of Women, June 1996, 1. Ingham discusses the "lady embalmer."
13. For evidence of women's entrepreneurial activities, see Natalie Zemon Davis, "Women in the Crafts in Sixteenth-Century Lyon," Feminist Studies 8 (Spring 1982): 46-80; Alice Clark, Working Life of Women in the Seventeenth Century (1919; reprint, New York, 1968); Elizabeth Sanderson, "The Edinburgh Milliners, 1720-1820," Costume (1986): 18-28; Elisabeth Anthony Dexter, Career Women of America, 1776-1840 (1950; reprint, Clifton, N.J., 1972); Clyde and Sally Griffen, Natives and Newcomers: The Ordering of Opportunity in Mid-Nineteenth-Century Poughkeepsie (Cambridge, Mass., 1978), 242-247; Mary P. Ryan, Cradle of the Middle Class: The Family in Oneida County, New York, 1790-1865 (Cambridge, 1981); Suzanne Lebsock, The Free Women of Petersburg: Status and Culture in a Southern Town, 1784-1860 (New York, 1984); Christine Stansell, City of Women: Sex and Class in New York, 1789-1860 (New York, 1986), 13-15; Claudia Goldin, "The Economic Status of Women in the Early Republic: Quantitative Evidence," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 15 (Winter 1986): 375-404; Barbara Meil Hobson, Uneasy Virtue: The Politics of Prostitution and the American Reform Tradition (New York, 1987), 23, 36-38; Lucy Eldersveld Murphy, "Her Own Boss: Businesswomen and Separate Spheres in the Midwest, 1850-1880," Illinois Historical Journal 80 (Autumn 1987): 155-176; Murphy, "Business Ladies: Midwestern Women and Enterprise, 1850-1880," Journal of Women's History 3 (Spring 1991): 65-89; Wendy Gamber, The Female Economy: The Millinery and Dressmaking Trades, 1860-1930 (Urbana, Ill., 1997), esp. 27-30; and John N. Ingham, "Patterns of African-American Female Self-Employment and Entrepreneurship in Ten Southern Cities, 1880-1930," paper presented at the Tenth Berkshire Conference on the History of Women, June 1996, 1. Ingham discusses the "lady embalmer."
14. For evidence of women's entrepreneurial activities, see Natalie Zemon Davis, "Women in the Crafts in Sixteenth-Century Lyon," Feminist Studies 8 (Spring 1982): 46-80; Alice Clark, Working Life of Women in the Seventeenth Century (1919; reprint, New York, 1968); Elizabeth Sanderson, "The Edinburgh Milliners, 1720-1820," Costume (1986): 18-28; Elisabeth Anthony Dexter, Career Women of America, 1776-1840 (1950; reprint, Clifton, N.J., 1972); Clyde and Sally Griffen, Natives and Newcomers: The Ordering of Opportunity in Mid-Nineteenth-Century Poughkeepsie (Cambridge, Mass., 1978), 242-247; Mary P. Ryan, Cradle of the Middle Class: The Family in Oneida County, New York, 1790-1865 (Cambridge, 1981); Suzanne Lebsock, The Free Women of Petersburg: Status and Culture in a Southern Town, 1784-1860 (New York, 1984); Christine Stansell, City of Women: Sex and Class in New York, 1789-1860 (New York, 1986), 13-15; Claudia Goldin, "The Economic Status of Women in the Early Republic: Quantitative Evidence," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 15 (Winter 1986): 375-404; Barbara Meil Hobson, Uneasy Virtue: The Politics of Prostitution and the American Reform Tradition (New York, 1987), 23, 36-38; Lucy Eldersveld Murphy, "Her Own Boss: Businesswomen and Separate Spheres in the Midwest, 1850-1880," Illinois Historical Journal 80 (Autumn 1987): 155-176; Murphy, "Business Ladies: Midwestern Women and Enterprise, 1850-1880," Journal of Women's History 3 (Spring 1991): 65-89; Wendy Gamber, The Female Economy: The Millinery and Dressmaking Trades, 1860-1930 (Urbana, Ill., 1997), esp. 27-30; and John N. Ingham, "Patterns of African-American Female Self-Employment and Entrepreneurship in Ten Southern Cities, 1880-1930," paper presented at the Tenth Berkshire Conference on the History of Women, June 1996, 1. Ingham discusses the "lady embalmer."
15. For evidence of women's entrepreneurial activities, see Natalie Zemon Davis, "Women in the Crafts in Sixteenth-Century Lyon," Feminist Studies 8 (Spring 1982): 46-80; Alice Clark, Working Life of Women in the Seventeenth Century (1919; reprint, New York, 1968); Elizabeth Sanderson, "The Edinburgh Milliners, 1720-1820," Costume (1986): 18-28; Elisabeth Anthony Dexter, Career Women of America, 1776-1840 (1950; reprint, Clifton, N.J., 1972); Clyde and Sally Griffen, Natives and Newcomers: The Ordering of Opportunity in Mid-Nineteenth-Century Poughkeepsie (Cambridge, Mass., 1978), 242-247; Mary P. Ryan, Cradle of the Middle Class: The Family in Oneida County, New York, 1790-1865 (Cambridge, 1981); Suzanne Lebsock, The Free Women of Petersburg: Status and Culture in a Southern Town, 1784-1860 (New York, 1984); Christine Stansell, City of Women: Sex and Class in New York, 1789-1860 (New York, 1986), 13-15; Claudia Goldin, "The Economic Status of Women in the Early Republic: Quantitative Evidence," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 15 (Winter 1986): 375-404; Barbara Meil Hobson, Uneasy Virtue: The Politics of Prostitution and the American Reform Tradition (New York, 1987), 23, 36-38; Lucy Eldersveld Murphy, "Her Own Boss: Businesswomen and Separate Spheres in the Midwest, 1850-1880," Illinois Historical Journal 80 (Autumn 1987): 155-176; Murphy, "Business Ladies: Midwestern Women and Enterprise, 1850-1880," Journal of Women's History 3 (Spring 1991): 65-89; Wendy Gamber, The Female Economy: The Millinery and Dressmaking Trades, 1860-1930 (Urbana, Ill., 1997), esp. 27-30; and John N. Ingham, "Patterns of African-American Female Self-Employment and Entrepreneurship in Ten Southern Cities, 1880-1930," paper presented at the Tenth Berkshire Conference on the History of Women, June 1996, 1. Ingham discusses the "lady embalmer."
16. For evidence of women's entrepreneurial activities, see Natalie Zemon Davis, "Women in the Crafts in Sixteenth-Century Lyon," Feminist Studies 8 (Spring 1982): 46-80; Alice Clark, Working Life of Women in the Seventeenth Century (1919; reprint, New York, 1968); Elizabeth Sanderson, "The Edinburgh Milliners, 1720-1820," Costume (1986): 18-28; Elisabeth Anthony Dexter, Career Women of America, 1776-1840 (1950; reprint, Clifton, N.J., 1972); Clyde and Sally Griffen, Natives and Newcomers: The Ordering of Opportunity in Mid-Nineteenth-Century Poughkeepsie (Cambridge, Mass., 1978), 242-247; Mary P. Ryan, Cradle of the Middle Class: The Family in Oneida County, New York, 1790-1865 (Cambridge, 1981); Suzanne Lebsock, The Free Women of Petersburg: Status and Culture in a Southern Town, 1784-1860 (New York, 1984); Christine Stansell, City of Women: Sex and Class in New York, 1789-1860 (New York, 1986), 13-15; Claudia Goldin, "The Economic Status of Women in the Early Republic: Quantitative Evidence," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 15 (Winter 1986): 375-404; Barbara Meil Hobson, Uneasy Virtue: The Politics of Prostitution and the American Reform Tradition (New York, 1987), 23, 36-38; Lucy Eldersveld Murphy, "Her Own Boss: Businesswomen and Separate Spheres in the Midwest, 1850-1880," Illinois Historical Journal 80 (Autumn 1987): 155-176; Murphy, "Business Ladies: Midwestern Women and Enterprise, 1850-1880," Journal of Women's History 3 (Spring 1991): 65-89; Wendy Gamber, The Female Economy: The Millinery and Dressmaking Trades, 1860-1930 (Urbana, Ill., 1997), esp. 27-30; and John N. Ingham, "Patterns of African-American Female Self-Employment and Entrepreneurship in Ten Southern Cities, 1880-1930," paper presented at the Tenth Berkshire Conference on the History of Women, June 1996, 1. Ingham discusses the "lady embalmer."
17. For evidence of women's entrepreneurial activities, see Natalie Zemon Davis, "Women in the Crafts in Sixteenth-Century Lyon," Feminist Studies 8 (Spring 1982): 46-80; Alice Clark, Working Life of Women in the Seventeenth Century (1919; reprint, New York, 1968); Elizabeth Sanderson, "The Edinburgh Milliners, 1720-1820," Costume (1986): 18-28; Elisabeth Anthony Dexter, Career Women of America, 1776-1840 (1950; reprint, Clifton, N.J., 1972); Clyde and Sally Griffen, Natives and Newcomers: The Ordering of Opportunity in Mid-Nineteenth-Century Poughkeepsie (Cambridge, Mass., 1978), 242-247; Mary P. Ryan, Cradle of the Middle Class: The Family in Oneida County, New York, 1790-1865 (Cambridge, 1981); Suzanne Lebsock, The Free Women of Petersburg: Status and Culture in a Southern Town, 1784-1860 (New York, 1984); Christine Stansell, City of Women: Sex and Class in New York, 1789-1860 (New York, 1986), 13-15; Claudia Goldin, "The Economic Status of Women in the Early Republic: Quantitative Evidence," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 15 (Winter 1986): 375-404; Barbara Meil Hobson, Uneasy Virtue: The Politics of Prostitution and the American Reform Tradition (New York, 1987), 23, 36-38; Lucy Eldersveld Murphy, "Her Own Boss: Businesswomen and Separate Spheres in the Midwest, 1850-1880," Illinois Historical Journal 80 (Autumn 1987): 155-176; Murphy, "Business Ladies: Midwestern Women and Enterprise, 1850-1880," Journal of Women's History 3 (Spring 1991): 65-89; Wendy Gamber, The Female Economy: The Millinery and Dressmaking Trades, 1860-1930 (Urbana, Ill., 1997), esp. 27-30; and John N. Ingham, "Patterns of African-American Female Self-Employment and Entrepreneurship in Ten Southern Cities, 1880-1930," paper presented at the Tenth Berkshire Conference on the History of Women, June 1996, 1. Ingham discusses the "lady embalmer."
18. For evidence of women's entrepreneurial activities, see Natalie Zemon Davis, "Women in the Crafts in Sixteenth-Century Lyon," Feminist Studies 8 (Spring 1982): 46-80; Alice Clark, Working Life of Women in the Seventeenth Century (1919; reprint, New York, 1968); Elizabeth Sanderson, "The Edinburgh Milliners, 1720-1820," Costume (1986): 18-28; Elisabeth Anthony Dexter, Career Women of America, 1776-1840 (1950; reprint, Clifton, N.J., 1972); Clyde and Sally Griffen, Natives and Newcomers: The Ordering of Opportunity in Mid-Nineteenth-Century Poughkeepsie (Cambridge, Mass., 1978), 242-247; Mary P. Ryan, Cradle of the Middle Class: The Family in Oneida County, New York, 1790-1865 (Cambridge, 1981); Suzanne Lebsock, The Free Women of Petersburg: Status and Culture in a Southern Town, 1784-1860 (New York, 1984); Christine Stansell, City of Women: Sex and Class in New York, 1789-1860 (New York, 1986), 13-15; Claudia Goldin, "The Economic Status of Women in the Early Republic: Quantitative Evidence," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 15 (Winter 1986): 375-404; Barbara Meil Hobson, Uneasy Virtue: The Politics of Prostitution and the American Reform Tradition (New York, 1987), 23, 36-38; Lucy Eldersveld Murphy, "Her Own Boss: Businesswomen and Separate Spheres in the Midwest, 1850-1880," Illinois Historical Journal 80 (Autumn 1987): 155-176; Murphy, "Business Ladies: Midwestern Women and Enterprise, 1850-1880," Journal of Women's History 3 (Spring 1991): 65-89; Wendy Gamber, The Female Economy: The Millinery and Dressmaking Trades, 1860-1930 (Urbana, Ill., 1997), esp. 27-30; and John N. Ingham, "Patterns of African-American Female Self-Employment and Entrepreneurship in Ten Southern Cities, 1880-1930," paper presented at the Tenth Berkshire Conference on the History of Women, June 1996, 1. Ingham discusses the "lady embalmer."
19. Goldin, "Economic Status of Women," esp. 402; Griffen and Griffen, Natives and Newcomers, 242; Ryan, Cradle of the Middle Class, 205.
20. Goldin, "Economic Status of Women," esp. 402; Griffen and Griffen, Natives and Newcomers, 242; Ryan, Cradle of the Middle Class, 205.
21. Goldin, "Economic Status of Women," esp. 402; Griffen and Griffen, Natives and Newcomers, 242; Ryan, Cradle of the Middle Class, 205.
22. Gerda Lerner, "Placing Women in History: Definitions and Challenges," Feminist Studies 3 (Fall 1975): 5-14.
23. For analyses of the relations between business and masculinity, see Filene, Him/Her/Self, 72-78; Kwolek-Folland, Engendering Business; Toby L. Ditz, "Shipwrecked; or, Masculinity Imperiled: Mercantile Representations of Failure and the Gendered Self in Eighteenth-Century Philadelphia," Journal of American History 81 (June 1994): 51-80; and forthcoming work by Philip Scranton and Pamela Laird.
24. For analyses of the relations between business and masculinity, see Filene, Him/Her/Self, 72-78; Kwolek-Folland, Engendering Business; Toby L. Ditz, "Shipwrecked; or, Masculinity Imperiled: Mercantile Representations of Failure and the Gendered Self in Eighteenth-Century Philadelphia," Journal of American History 81 (June 1994): 51-80; and forthcoming work by Philip Scranton and Pamela Laird.
25. For analyses of the relations between business and masculinity, see Filene, Him/Her/Self, 72-78; Kwolek-Folland, Engendering Business; Toby L. Ditz, "Shipwrecked; or, Masculinity Imperiled: Mercantile Representations of Failure and the Gendered Self in Eighteenth-Century Philadelphia," Journal of American History 81 (June 1994): 51-80; and forthcoming work by Philip Scranton and Pamela Laird.
26. For analyses of the relations between business and masculinity, see Filene, Him/Her/Self, 72-78; Kwolek-Folland, Engendering Business; Toby L. Ditz, "Shipwrecked; or, Masculinity Imperiled: Mercantile Representations of Failure and the Gendered Self in Eighteenth-Century Philadelphia," Journal of American History 81 (June 1994): 51-80; and forthcoming work by Philip Scranton and Pamela Laird.
27. For brief mentions of women in business, see Griffen and Griffen, Natives and Newcomers 242-247; Ryan, Cradle of the Middle Class; Lebsock, Free Women of Petersburg; Hobson, Uneasy Virtue, 23, 36-38; and Stansell, City of Women, 13-15. The celebratory approach typifies what Lerner has called "compensatory history"; see Lerner, "Placing Women in History," 5. For examples, see Elisabeth A. Dexter, Colonial Women of Affairs: A Study of Women in Business and the Professions in American Before 1776 (Boston, 1924); and Career Women of America; Caroline Bird, Enterprising Women (New York, 1976); Sallye Clark "Carrie Taylor: Kentucky Dressmaker," Dress 6 (1980): 13-23; Judith Jerde, "Mary Molloy: St Paul's Extraordinary Dressmaker," Dress 7 (1981): 82-89; and Christie Daily, "A Woman's Concern: Millinery in Central Iowa, 1870-1880," Journal of the West 21 (1982): 26-32.
28. For brief mentions of women in business, see Griffen and Griffen, Natives and Newcomers 242-247; Ryan, Cradle of the Middle Class; Lebsock, Free Women of Petersburg; Hobson, Uneasy Virtue, 23, 36-38; and Stansell, City of Women, 13-15. The celebratory approach typifies what Lerner has called "compensatory history"; see Lerner, "Placing Women in History," 5. For examples, see Elisabeth A. Dexter, Colonial Women of Affairs: A Study of Women in Business and the Professions in American Before 1776 (Boston, 1924); and Career Women of America; Caroline Bird, Enterprising Women (New York, 1976); Sallye Clark "Carrie Taylor: Kentucky Dressmaker," Dress 6 (1980): 13-23; Judith Jerde, "Mary Molloy: St Paul's Extraordinary Dressmaker," Dress 7 (1981): 82-89; and Christie Daily, "A Woman's Concern: Millinery in Central Iowa, 1870-1880," Journal of the West 21 (1982): 26-32.
29. For brief mentions of women in business, see Griffen and Griffen, Natives and Newcomers 242-247; Ryan, Cradle of the Middle Class; Lebsock, Free Women of Petersburg; Hobson, Uneasy Virtue, 23, 36-38; and Stansell, City of Women, 13-15. The celebratory approach typifies what Lerner has called "compensatory history"; see Lerner, "Placing Women in History," 5. For examples, see Elisabeth A. Dexter, Colonial Women of Affairs: A Study of Women in Business and the Professions in American Before 1776 (Boston, 1924); and Career Women of America; Caroline Bird, Enterprising Women (New York, 1976); Sallye Clark "Carrie Taylor: Kentucky Dressmaker," Dress 6 (1980): 13-23; Judith Jerde, "Mary Molloy: St Paul's Extraordinary Dressmaker," Dress 7 (1981): 82-89; and Christie Daily, "A Woman's Concern: Millinery in Central Iowa, 1870-1880," Journal of the West 21 (1982): 26-32.
30. For brief mentions of women in business, see Griffen and Griffen, Natives and Newcomers 242-247; Ryan, Cradle of the Middle Class; Lebsock, Free Women of Petersburg; Hobson, Uneasy Virtue, 23, 36-38; and Stansell, City of Women, 13-15. The celebratory approach typifies what Lerner has called "compensatory history"; see Lerner, "Placing Women in History," 5. For examples, see Elisabeth A. Dexter, Colonial Women of Affairs: A Study of Women in Business and the Professions in American Before 1776 (Boston, 1924); and Career Women of America; Caroline Bird, Enterprising Women (New York, 1976); Sallye Clark "Carrie Taylor: Kentucky Dressmaker," Dress 6 (1980): 13-23; Judith Jerde, "Mary Molloy: St Paul's Extraordinary Dressmaker," Dress 7 (1981): 82-89; and Christie Daily, "A Woman's Concern: Millinery in Central Iowa, 1870-1880," Journal of the West 21 (1982): 26-32.
31. For brief mentions of women in business, see Griffen and Griffen, Natives and Newcomers 242-247; Ryan, Cradle of the Middle Class; Lebsock, Free Women of Petersburg; Hobson, Uneasy Virtue, 23, 36-38; and Stansell, City of Women, 13-15. The celebratory approach typifies what Lerner has called "compensatory history"; see Lerner, "Placing Women in History," 5. For examples, see Elisabeth A. Dexter, Colonial Women of Affairs: A Study of Women in Business and the Professions in American Before 1776 (Boston, 1924); and Career Women of America; Caroline Bird, Enterprising Women (New York, 1976); Sallye Clark "Carrie Taylor: Kentucky Dressmaker," Dress 6 (1980): 13-23; Judith Jerde, "Mary Molloy: St Paul's Extraordinary Dressmaker," Dress 7 (1981): 82-89; and Christie Daily, "A Woman's Concern: Millinery in Central Iowa, 1870-1880," Journal of the West 21 (1982): 26-32.
32. For brief mentions of women in business, see Griffen and Griffen, Natives and Newcomers 242-247; Ryan, Cradle of the Middle Class; Lebsock, Free Women of Petersburg; Hobson, Uneasy Virtue, 23, 36-38; and Stansell, City of Women, 13-15. The celebratory approach typifies what Lerner has called "compensatory history"; see Lerner, "Placing Women in History," 5. For examples, see Elisabeth A. Dexter, Colonial Women of Affairs: A Study of Women in Business and the Professions in American Before 1776 (Boston, 1924); and Career Women of America; Caroline Bird, Enterprising Women (New York, 1976); Sallye Clark "Carrie Taylor: Kentucky Dressmaker," Dress 6 (1980): 13-23; Judith Jerde, "Mary Molloy: St Paul's Extraordinary Dressmaker," Dress 7 (1981): 82-89; and Christie Daily, "A Woman's Concern: Millinery in Central Iowa, 1870-1880," Journal of the West 21 (1982): 26-32.
33. For brief mentions of women in business, see Griffen and Griffen, Natives and Newcomers 242-247; Ryan, Cradle of the Middle Class; Lebsock, Free Women of Petersburg; Hobson, Uneasy Virtue, 23, 36-38; and Stansell, City of Women, 13-15. The celebratory approach typifies what Lerner has called "compensatory history"; see Lerner, "Placing Women in History," 5. For examples, see Elisabeth A. Dexter, Colonial Women of Affairs: A Study of Women in Business and the Professions in American Before 1776 (Boston, 1924); and Career Women of America; Caroline Bird, Enterprising Women (New York, 1976); Sallye Clark "Carrie Taylor: Kentucky Dressmaker," Dress 6 (1980): 13-23; Judith Jerde, "Mary Molloy: St Paul's Extraordinary Dressmaker," Dress 7 (1981): 82-89; and Christie Daily, "A Woman's Concern: Millinery in Central Iowa, 1870-1880," Journal of the West 21 (1982): 26-32.
34. For brief mentions of women in business, see Griffen and Griffen, Natives and Newcomers 242-247; Ryan, Cradle of the Middle Class; Lebsock, Free Women of Petersburg; Hobson, Uneasy Virtue, 23, 36-38; and Stansell, City of Women, 13-15. The celebratory approach typifies what Lerner has called "compensatory history"; see Lerner, "Placing Women in History," 5. For examples, see Elisabeth A. Dexter, Colonial Women of Affairs: A Study of Women in Business and the Professions in American Before 1776 (Boston, 1924); and Career Women of America; Caroline Bird, Enterprising Women (New York, 1976); Sallye Clark "Carrie Taylor: Kentucky Dressmaker," Dress 6 (1980): 13-23; Judith Jerde, "Mary Molloy: St Paul's Extraordinary Dressmaker," Dress 7 (1981): 82-89; and Christie Daily, "A Woman's Concern: Millinery in Central Iowa, 1870-1880," Journal of the West 21 (1982): 26-32.
35. For brief mentions of women in business, see Griffen and Griffen, Natives and Newcomers 242-247; Ryan, Cradle of the Middle Class; Lebsock, Free Women of Petersburg; Hobson, Uneasy Virtue, 23, 36-38; and Stansell, City of Women, 13-15. The celebratory approach typifies what Lerner has called "compensatory history"; see Lerner, "Placing Women in History," 5. For examples, see Elisabeth A. Dexter, Colonial Women of Affairs: A Study of Women in Business and the Professions in American Before 1776 (Boston, 1924); and Career Women of America; Caroline Bird, Enterprising Women (New York, 1976); Sallye Clark "Carrie Taylor: Kentucky Dressmaker," Dress 6 (1980): 13-23; Judith Jerde, "Mary Molloy: St Paul's Extraordinary Dressmaker," Dress 7 (1981): 82-89; and Christie Daily, "A Woman's Concern: Millinery in Central Iowa, 1870-1880," Journal of the West 21 (1982): 26-32.
36. For brief mentions of women in business, see Griffen and Griffen, Natives and Newcomers 242-247; Ryan, Cradle of the Middle Class; Lebsock, Free Women of Petersburg; Hobson, Uneasy Virtue, 23, 36-38; and Stansell, City of Women, 13-15. The celebratory approach typifies what Lerner has called "compensatory history"; see Lerner, "Placing Women in History," 5. For examples, see Elisabeth A. Dexter, Colonial Women of Affairs: A Study of Women in Business and the Professions in American Before 1776 (Boston, 1924); and Career Women of America; Caroline Bird, Enterprising Women (New York, 1976); Sallye Clark "Carrie Taylor: Kentucky Dressmaker," Dress 6 (1980): 13-23; Judith Jerde, "Mary Molloy: St Paul's Extraordinary Dressmaker," Dress 7 (1981): 82-89; and Christie Daily, "A Woman's Concern: Millinery in Central Iowa, 1870-1880," Journal of the West 21 (1982): 26-32.
37. For brief mentions of women in business, see Griffen and Griffen, Natives and Newcomers 242-247; Ryan, Cradle of the Middle Class; Lebsock, Free Women of Petersburg; Hobson, Uneasy Virtue, 23, 36-38; and Stansell, City of Women, 13-15. The celebratory approach typifies what Lerner has called "compensatory history"; see Lerner, "Placing Women in History," 5. For examples, see Elisabeth A. Dexter, Colonial Women of Affairs: A Study of Women in Business and the Professions in American Before 1776 (Boston, 1924); and Career Women of America; Caroline Bird, Enterprising Women (New York, 1976); Sallye Clark "Carrie Taylor: Kentucky Dressmaker," Dress 6 (1980): 13-23; Judith Jerde, "Mary Molloy: St Paul's Extraordinary Dressmaker," Dress 7 (1981): 82-89; and Christie Daily, "A Woman's Concern: Millinery in Central Iowa, 1870-1880," Journal of the West 21 (1982): 26-32.
38. For brief mentions of women in business, see Griffen and Griffen, Natives and Newcomers 242-247; Ryan, Cradle of the Middle Class; Lebsock, Free Women of Petersburg; Hobson, Uneasy Virtue, 23, 36-38; and Stansell, City of Women, 13-15. The celebratory approach typifies what Lerner has called "compensatory history"; see Lerner, "Placing Women in History," 5. For examples, see Elisabeth A. Dexter, Colonial Women of Affairs: A Study of Women in Business and the Professions in American Before 1776 (Boston, 1924); and Career Women of America; Caroline Bird, Enterprising Women (New York, 1976); Sallye Clark "Carrie Taylor: Kentucky Dressmaker," Dress 6 (1980): 13-23; Judith Jerde, "Mary Molloy: St Paul's Extraordinary Dressmaker," Dress 7 (1981): 82-89; and Christie Daily, "A Woman's Concern: Millinery in Central Iowa, 1870-1880," Journal of the West 21 (1982): 26-32.
39. Scholars concerned with writing the history of women in business may well find other subdisciplines more relevant to their research.
40. Exceptional cases can be illuminating. See Lynn Hudson's fascinating study of Mary Ellen Pleasant, "When 'Mammy' Becomes a Millionaire: Mary Ellen Pleasant, an African American Entrepreneur" (Ph.D. diss., Indiana University, Bloomington, 1996).
41. This tendency owes a great deal to the work of Alfred D. Chandler, Jr.; see esp. The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, Mass., 1977); and Scale and Scope: The Dynamics of Industrial Capitalism (Cambridge, Mass., 1990).
42. This tendency owes a great deal to the work of Alfred D. Chandler, Jr.; see esp. The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, Mass., 1977); and Scale and Scope: The Dynamics of Industrial Capitalism (Cambridge, Mass., 1990).
43. Stuart W. Bruchey, ed., Small Business in American Life (New York, 1980); Mansel G. Blackford, "Small Business in America: A Historiographic Survey," Business History Review 65 (1991): 1-26; Blackford, A History of Small Business in America (New York, 1991); Philip Scranton, "Diversity in Diversity: Flexible Production and American Industrialization, 1880-1930," Business History Review 65 (1991): 27-90; and Endless Novelty: Specialty Production and American Industrialization, 1865-1925 (Princeton, N.J., 1997); Howell John Harris, "Getting it Together: The Metal Manufacturers' Association of Philadelphia, c. 1900-1930," in Sanford M. Jacoby, ed., Masters to Managers: Historical and Comparative Perspectives on American Employers (New York, 1991), 111-131; Walter Licht, "Studying Work: Personnel Policies in Philadelphia Firms, 1850-1950," in Jacoby, ed., Masters to Managers; Stana Nenadic, R. J. Morris, James Smyth, and Chris Rainger, "Record Linkage and the Small Family Firm: Edinburgh 1861-1891," Bulletin of the John Rylands University Library of Manchester 74 (Autumn 1992): 169-195.
44. Stuart W. Bruchey, ed., Small Business in American Life (New York, 1980); Mansel G. Blackford, "Small Business in America: A Historiographic Survey," Business History Review 65 (1991): 1-26; Blackford, A History of Small Business in America (New York, 1991); Philip Scranton, "Diversity in Diversity: Flexible Production and American Industrialization, 1880-1930," Business History Review 65 (1991): 27-90; and Endless Novelty: Specialty Production and American Industrialization, 1865-1925 (Princeton, N.J., 1997); Howell John Harris, "Getting it Together: The Metal Manufacturers' Association of Philadelphia, c. 1900-1930," in Sanford M. Jacoby, ed., Masters to Managers: Historical and Comparative Perspectives on American Employers (New York, 1991), 111-131; Walter Licht, "Studying Work: Personnel Policies in Philadelphia Firms, 1850-1950," in Jacoby, ed., Masters to Managers; Stana Nenadic, R. J. Morris, James Smyth, and Chris Rainger, "Record Linkage and the Small Family Firm: Edinburgh 1861-1891," Bulletin of the John Rylands University Library of Manchester 74 (Autumn 1992): 169-195.
45. Stuart W. Bruchey, ed., Small Business in American Life (New York, 1980); Mansel G. Blackford, "Small Business in America: A Historiographic Survey," Business History Review 65 (1991): 1-26; Blackford, A History of Small Business in America (New York, 1991); Philip Scranton, "Diversity in Diversity: Flexible Production and American Industrialization, 1880-1930," Business History Review 65 (1991): 27-90; and Endless Novelty: Specialty Production and American Industrialization, 1865-1925 (Princeton, N.J., 1997); Howell John Harris, "Getting it Together: The Metal Manufacturers' Association of Philadelphia, c. 1900-1930," in Sanford M. Jacoby, ed., Masters to Managers: Historical and Comparative Perspectives on American Employers (New York, 1991), 111-131; Walter Licht, "Studying Work: Personnel Policies in Philadelphia Firms, 1850-1950," in Jacoby, ed., Masters to Managers; Stana Nenadic, R. J. Morris, James Smyth, and Chris Rainger, "Record Linkage and the Small Family Firm: Edinburgh 1861-1891," Bulletin of the John Rylands University Library of Manchester 74 (Autumn 1992): 169-195.
46. Stuart W. Bruchey, ed., Small Business in American Life (New York, 1980); Mansel G. Blackford, "Small Business in America: A Historiographic Survey," Business History Review 65 (1991): 1-26; Blackford, A History of Small Business in America (New York, 1991); Philip Scranton, "Diversity in Diversity: Flexible Production and American Industrialization, 1880-1930," Business History Review 65 (1991): 27-90; and Endless Novelty: Specialty Production and American Industrialization, 1865-1925 (Princeton, N.J., 1997); Howell John Harris, "Getting it Together: The Metal Manufacturers' Association of Philadelphia, c. 1900-1930," in Sanford M. Jacoby, ed., Masters to Managers: Historical and Comparative Perspectives on American Employers (New York, 1991), 111-131; Walter Licht, "Studying Work: Personnel Policies in Philadelphia Firms, 1850-1950," in Jacoby, ed., Masters to Managers; Stana Nenadic, R. J. Morris, James Smyth, and Chris Rainger, "Record Linkage and the Small Family Firm: Edinburgh 1861-1891," Bulletin of the John Rylands University Library of Manchester 74 (Autumn 1992): 169-195.
47. Stuart W. Bruchey, ed., Small Business in American Life (New York, 1980); Mansel G. Blackford, "Small Business in America: A Historiographic Survey," Business History Review 65 (1991): 1-26; Blackford, A History of Small Business in America (New York, 1991); Philip Scranton, "Diversity in Diversity: Flexible Production and American Industrialization, 1880-1930," Business History Review 65 (1991): 27-90; and Endless Novelty: Specialty Production and American Industrialization, 1865-1925 (Princeton, N.J., 1997); Howell John Harris, "Getting it Together: The Metal Manufacturers' Association of Philadelphia, c. 1900-1930," in Sanford M. Jacoby, ed., Masters to Managers: Historical and Comparative Perspectives on American Employers (New York, 1991), 111-131; Walter Licht, "Studying Work: Personnel Policies in Philadelphia Firms, 1850-1950," in Jacoby, ed., Masters to Managers; Stana Nenadic, R. J. Morris, James Smyth, and Chris Rainger, "Record Linkage and the Small Family Firm: Edinburgh 1861-1891," Bulletin of the John Rylands University Library of Manchester 74 (Autumn 1992): 169-195.
48. Stuart W. Bruchey, ed., Small Business in American Life (New York, 1980); Mansel G. Blackford, "Small Business in America: A Historiographic Survey," Business History Review 65 (1991): 1-26; Blackford, A History of Small Business in America (New York, 1991); Philip Scranton, "Diversity in Diversity: Flexible Production and American Industrialization, 1880-1930," Business History Review 65 (1991): 27-90; and Endless Novelty: Specialty Production and American Industrialization, 1865-1925 (Princeton, N.J., 1997); Howell John Harris, "Getting it Together: The Metal Manufacturers' Association of Philadelphia, c. 1900-1930," in Sanford M. Jacoby, ed., Masters to Managers: Historical and Comparative Perspectives on American Employers (New York, 1991), 111-131; Walter Licht, "Studying Work: Personnel Policies in Philadelphia Firms, 1850-1950," in Jacoby, ed., Masters to Managers; Stana Nenadic, R. J. Morris, James Smyth, and Chris Rainger, "Record Linkage and the Small Family Firm: Edinburgh 1861-1891," Bulletin of the John Rylands University Library of Manchester 74 (Autumn 1992): 169-195.
49. Stuart W. Bruchey, ed., Small Business in American Life (New York, 1980); Mansel G. Blackford, "Small Business in America: A Historiographic Survey," Business History Review 65 (1991): 1-26; Blackford, A History of Small Business in America (New York, 1991); Philip Scranton, "Diversity in Diversity: Flexible Production and American Industrialization, 1880-1930," Business History Review 65 (1991): 27-90; and Endless Novelty: Specialty Production and American Industrialization, 1865-1925 (Princeton, N.J., 1997); Howell John Harris, "Getting it Together: The Metal Manufacturers' Association of Philadelphia, c. 1900-1930," in Sanford M. Jacoby, ed., Masters to Managers: Historical and Comparative Perspectives on American Employers (New York, 1991), 111-131; Walter Licht, "Studying Work: Personnel Policies in Philadelphia Firms, 1850-1950," in Jacoby, ed., Masters to Managers; Stana Nenadic, R. J. Morris, James Smyth, and Chris Rainger, "Record Linkage and the Small Family Firm: Edinburgh 1861-1891," Bulletin of the John Rylands University Library of Manchester 74 (Autumn 1992): 169-195.
50. Stuart W. Bruchey, ed., Small Business in American Life (New York, 1980); Mansel G. Blackford, "Small Business in America: A Historiographic Survey," Business History Review 65 (1991): 1-26; Blackford, A History of Small Business in America (New York, 1991); Philip Scranton, "Diversity in Diversity: Flexible Production and American Industrialization, 1880-1930," Business History Review 65 (1991): 27-90; and Endless Novelty: Specialty Production and American Industrialization, 1865-1925 (Princeton, N.J., 1997); Howell John Harris, "Getting it Together: The Metal Manufacturers' Association of Philadelphia, c. 1900-1930," in Sanford M. Jacoby, ed., Masters to Managers: Historical and Comparative Perspectives on American Employers (New York, 1991), 111-131; Walter Licht, "Studying Work: Personnel Policies in Philadelphia Firms, 1850-1950," in Jacoby, ed., Masters to Managers; Stana Nenadic, R. J. Morris, James Smyth, and Chris Rainger, "Record Linkage and the Small Family Firm: Edinburgh 1861-1891," Bulletin of the John Rylands University Library of Manchester 74 (Autumn 1992): 169-195.
51. For analyses of businesswomen's assets, see Murphy, "Business Ladies," esp. 72, 74-77;
52. Griffen and Griffen, Natives and Newcomers, 124, 243-245;
53. Gamber, Female Economy, 36-37, 244-245, n.22. Griffen and Griffen found that 61 percent of female entrepreneurs in mid-nineteenth-century Poughkeepsie, New York, headed firms valued at $1,000 or less; this was true of only 35 percent of male grocers and fancy goods dealers. The property holdings of female dressmakers and milliners in Boston in 1860 $284, those of their male counterparts, $6,000.
54. John Eatwell, Murray Milgate, and Peter Newman, eds., The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, vol. 2 (London, 1987), 357. find Margaret Levenstein's definition of an entrepreneur "as one who runs his or her own business" helpful; see "African American Entrepreneurship: The View from the 1910 Census," Business and Economic History 24 (Fall 1995): 106-122. See also John Benson, The Penny Capitalists: A Study of Nineteenth-Century Working-Class Entrepreneurs (Dublin, 1983), 5. See Lori D. Ginzberg's discussion of the business-like activities of female philanthropists in Women and the Work of Benevolence: Morality, Politics, and Class in the Nineteenth-Century United States (New Haven, Conn., 1990), 36-66.
55. John Eatwell, Murray Milgate, and Peter Newman, eds., The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, vol. 2 (London, 1987), 357. find Margaret Levenstein's definition of an entrepreneur "as one who runs his or her own business" helpful; see "African American Entrepreneurship: The View from the 1910 Census," Business and Economic History 24 (Fall 1995): 106-122. See also John Benson, The Penny Capitalists: A Study of Nineteenth-Century Working-Class Entrepreneurs (Dublin, 1983), 5. See Lori D. Ginzberg's discussion of the business-like activities of female philanthropists in Women and the Work of Benevolence: Morality, Politics, and Class in the Nineteenth-Century United States (New Haven, Conn., 1990), 36-66.
56. John Eatwell, Murray Milgate, and Peter Newman, eds., The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, vol. 2 (London, 1987), 357. find Margaret Levenstein's definition of an entrepreneur "as one who runs his or her own business" helpful; see "African American Entrepreneurship: The View from the 1910 Census," Business and Economic History 24 (Fall 1995): 106-122. See also John Benson, The Penny Capitalists: A Study of Nineteenth-Century Working-Class Entrepreneurs (Dublin, 1983), 5. See Lori D. Ginzberg's discussion of the business-like activities of female philanthropists in Women and the Work of Benevolence: Morality, Politics, and Class in the Nineteenth-Century United States (New Haven, Conn., 1990), 36-66.
57. John Eatwell, Murray Milgate, and Peter Newman, eds., The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, vol. 2 (London, 1987), 357. find Margaret Levenstein's definition of an entrepreneur "as one who runs his or her own business" helpful; see "African American Entrepreneurship: The View from the 1910 Census," Business and Economic History 24 (Fall 1995): 106-122. See also John Benson, The Penny Capitalists: A Study of Nineteenth-Century Working-Class Entrepreneurs (Dublin, 1983), 5. See Lori D. Ginzberg's discussion of the business-like activities of female philanthropists in Women and the Work of Benevolence: Morality, Politics, and Class in the Nineteenth-Century United States (New Haven, Conn., 1990), 36-66.
58. Claudia Goldin found that 67 percent of hucksters in Philadelphia in 1860 were women; see "Economic Status of Women," 402. For the British case, see Benson, Penny Capitalists.
59. Claudia Goldin found that 67 percent of hucksters in Philadelphia in 1860 were women; see "Economic Status of Women," 402. For the British case, see Benson, Penny Capitalists.
60. I do not mean to imply that labor history as a field has successfully incorporated either women wage-earners or gender as a tool of analysis; on these points, see Ava Baron, "Gender and Labor History: Learning From the Past, Looking to the Future," in Baron, ed., Work Engendered: Toward a New History of American Labor (Ithaca, N.Y., 1991), 1-46; and Joan Wallach Scott, "On Language, Gender, and Working-Class History" and "Women in The Making of the English Working Class," in Gender and the Politics of History (New York, 1988), 53-90
61. I do not mean to imply that labor history as a field has successfully incorporated either women wage-earners or gender as a tool of analysis; on these points, see Ava Baron, "Gender and Labor History: Learning From the Past, Looking to the Future," in Baron, ed., Work Engendered: Toward a New History of American Labor (Ithaca, N.Y., 1991), 1-46; and Joan Wallach Scott, "On Language, Gender, and Working-Class History" and "Women in The Making of the English Working Class," in Gender and the Politics of History (New York, 1988), 53-90
62. Paul Faler, Mechanics and Manufacturers in the Early Industrial Revolution: Lynn, Massachusetts, 1780-1860 (Albany, N.Y., 1981); Alan Dawley, Class and Community: The Industrial Revolution in Lynn (Cambridge, Mass., 1976); Bruce Laurie, Working, People of Philadelphia, 1800-1850 (Philadelphia, 1980), esp. 1-14; Sean Wilentz, Chants Democratic: New York City and the Rise of the American Working Class, 1788-1850 (New York, 1984), esp. 27-48; Richard B. Stott, Workers in the Metropolis: Class, Ethnicity, and Youth in Antebellum New York City (Ithaca, N.Y., 1990), 34-58.
63. Paul Faler, Mechanics and Manufacturers in the Early Industrial Revolution: Lynn, Massachusetts, 1780-1860 (Albany, N.Y., 1981); Alan Dawley, Class and Community: The Industrial Revolution in Lynn (Cambridge, Mass., 1976); Bruce Laurie, Working, People of Philadelphia, 1800-1850 (Philadelphia, 1980), esp. 1-14; Sean Wilentz, Chants Democratic: New York City and the Rise of the American Working Class, 1788-1850 (New York, 1984), esp. 27-48; Richard B. Stott, Workers in the Metropolis: Class, Ethnicity, and Youth in Antebellum New York City (Ithaca, N.Y., 1990), 34-58.
64. Paul Faler, Mechanics and Manufacturers in the Early Industrial Revolution: Lynn, Massachusetts, 1780-1860 (Albany, N.Y., 1981); Alan Dawley, Class and Community: The Industrial Revolution in Lynn (Cambridge, Mass., 1976); Bruce Laurie, Working, People of Philadelphia, 1800-1850 (Philadelphia, 1980), esp. 1-14; Sean Wilentz, Chants Democratic: New York City and the Rise of the American Working Class, 1788-1850 (New York, 1984), esp. 27-48; Richard B. Stott, Workers in the Metropolis: Class, Ethnicity, and Youth in Antebellum New York City (Ithaca, N.Y., 1990), 34-58.
65. Paul Faler, Mechanics and Manufacturers in the Early Industrial Revolution: Lynn, Massachusetts, 1780-1860 (Albany, N.Y., 1981); Alan Dawley, Class and Community: The Industrial Revolution in Lynn (Cambridge, Mass., 1976); Bruce Laurie, Working, People of Philadelphia, 1800-1850 (Philadelphia, 1980), esp. 1-14; Sean Wilentz, Chants Democratic: New York City and the Rise of the American Working Class, 1788-1850 (New York, 1984), esp. 27-48; Richard B. Stott, Workers in the Metropolis: Class, Ethnicity, and Youth in Antebellum New York City (Ithaca, N.Y., 1990), 34-58.
66. Paul Faler, Mechanics and Manufacturers in the Early Industrial Revolution: Lynn, Massachusetts, 1780-1860 (Albany, N.Y., 1981); Alan Dawley, Class and Community: The Industrial Revolution in Lynn (Cambridge, Mass., 1976); Bruce Laurie, Working, People of Philadelphia, 1800-1850 (Philadelphia, 1980), esp. 1-14; Sean Wilentz, Chants Democratic: New York City and the Rise of the
67. Roy Rosenzweig, Eight Hours for What We Will: Workers and Leisure in an Industrial City, 1870-1920 (Cambridge, U.K., 1983), 48-53, quotation, 48; Stuart M. Blumin, The Emergence of the Middle Class: Social Experience in the American City, 1760-1900 (Cambridge, U.K., 1989), 133-134.
68. Roy Rosenzweig, Eight Hours for What We Will: Workers and Leisure in an Industrial City, 1870-1920 (Cambridge, U.K., 1983), 48-53, quotation, 48; Stuart M. Blumin, The Emergence of the Middle Class: Social Experience in the American City, 1760-1900 (Cambridge, U.K., 1989), 133-134.
69. Rosenzweig, Eight Hours for What We Will, 53.
70. "What is a Grocer, Papa?" in Artemus Ward, comp., The Grocers' Hand-Book and Directory for 1883 (Philadelphia, 1882), 304.
71. Milliners and dressmakers accounted for 42 percent of all female entrepreneurs in late-nineteenth-century Boston; Murphy's figures indicate that they made up 61 percent of Midwestern women proprietors in 1870. See Gamber, Female Economy, 28, 30; Murphy, "Business Ladies," 66 (Table 1). For discussions of dressmakers' and milliners' social origins, see Female Economy, 32-35, 64-68. For descriptions of urban shopping districts and their social identities, see William Dean Howells, A Woman's Reason (Boston, 1883), 185, 376; Moses King, King's How-To-See Boston (Boston, 1895), 99; Blumin, Emergence of the Middle Class, 86; Lorinda Perry, The Millinery Trade in Boston and Philadelphia: A Study of Women in Industry (Binghamton, N.Y., 1916), 27-28; and Mary Van Kleeck, A Seasonal Industry: A Study of the Millinery Trade in New York (New York, 1917), 35-37, 108-109.
72. Milliners and dressmakers accounted for 42 percent of all female entrepreneurs in late-nineteenth-century Boston; Murphy's figures indicate that they made up 61 percent of Midwestern women proprietors in 1870. See Gamber, Female Economy, 28, 30; Murphy, "Business Ladies," 66 (Table 1). For discussions of dressmakers' and milliners' social origins, see Female Economy, 32-35, 64-68. For descriptions of urban shopping districts and their social identities, see William Dean Howells, A Woman's Reason (Boston, 1883), 185, 376; Moses King, King's How-To-See Boston (Boston, 1895), 99; Blumin, Emergence of the Middle Class, 86; Lorinda Perry, The Millinery Trade in Boston and Philadelphia: A Study of Women in Industry (Binghamton, N.Y., 1916), 27-28; and Mary Van Kleeck, A Seasonal Industry: A Study of the Millinery Trade in New York (New York, 1917), 35-37, 108-109.
73. Milliners and dressmakers accounted for 42 percent of all female entrepreneurs in late-nineteenth-century Boston; Murphy's figures indicate that they made up 61 percent of Midwestern women proprietors in 1870. See Gamber, Female Economy, 28, 30; Murphy, "Business Ladies," 66 (Table 1). For discussions of dressmakers' and milliners' social origins, see Female Economy, 32-35, 64-68. For descriptions of urban shopping districts and their social identities, see William Dean Howells, A Woman's Reason (Boston, 1883), 185, 376; Moses King, King's How-To-See Boston (Boston, 1895), 99; Blumin, Emergence of the Middle Class, 86; Lorinda Perry, The Millinery Trade in Boston and Philadelphia: A Study of Women in Industry (Binghamton, N.Y., 1916), 27-28; and Mary Van Kleeck, A Seasonal Industry: A Study of the Millinery Trade in New York (New York, 1917), 35-37, 108-109.
74. Milliners and dressmakers accounted for 42 percent of all female entrepreneurs in late-nineteenth-century Boston; Murphy's figures indicate that they made up 61 percent of Midwestern women proprietors in 1870. See Gamber, Female Economy, 28, 30; Murphy, "Business Ladies," 66 (Table 1). For discussions of dressmakers' and milliners' social origins, see Female Economy, 32-35, 64-68. For descriptions of urban shopping districts and their social identities, see William Dean Howells, A Woman's Reason (Boston, 1883), 185, 376; Moses King, King's How-To-See Boston (Boston, 1895), 99; Blumin, Emergence of the Middle Class, 86; Lorinda Perry, The Millinery Trade in Boston and Philadelphia: A Study of Women in Industry (Binghamton, N.Y., 1916), 27-28; and Mary Van Kleeck, A Seasonal Industry: A Study of the Millinery Trade in New York (New York, 1917), 35-37, 108-109.
75. Milliners and dressmakers accounted for 42 percent of all female entrepreneurs in late-nineteenth-century Boston; Murphy's figures indicate that they made up 61 percent of Midwestern women proprietors in 1870. See Gamber, Female Economy, 28, 30; Murphy, "Business Ladies," 66 (Table 1). For discussions of dressmakers' and milliners' social origins, see Female Economy, 32-35, 64-68. For descriptions of urban shopping districts and their social identities, see William Dean Howells, A Woman's Reason (Boston, 1883), 185, 376; Moses King, King's How-To-See Boston (Boston, 1895), 99; Blumin, Emergence of the Middle Class, 86; Lorinda Perry, The Millinery Trade in Boston and Philadelphia: A Study of Women in Industry (Binghamton, N.Y., 1916), 27-28; and Mary Van Kleeck, A Seasonal Industry: A Study of the Millinery Trade in New York (New York, 1917), 35-37, 108-109.
76. Milliners and dressmakers accounted for 42 percent of all female entrepreneurs in late-nineteenth-century Boston; Murphy's figures indicate that they made up 61 percent of Midwestern women proprietors in 1870. See Gamber, Female Economy, 28, 30; Murphy, "Business Ladies," 66 (Table 1). For discussions of dressmakers' and milliners' social origins, see Female Economy, 32-35, 64-68. For descriptions of urban shopping districts and their social identities, see William Dean Howells, A Woman's Reason (Boston, 1883), 185, 376; Moses King, King's How-To-See Boston (Boston, 1895), 99; Blumin, Emergence of the Middle Class, 86; Lorinda Perry, The Millinery Trade in Boston and Philadelphia: A Study of Women in Industry (Binghamton, N.Y., 1916), 27-28; and Mary Van Kleeck, A Seasonal Industry: A Study of the Millinery Trade in New York (New York, 1917), 35-37, 108-109.
77. Milliners and dressmakers accounted for 42 percent of all female entrepreneurs in late-nineteenth-century Boston; Murphy's figures indicate that they made up 61 percent of Midwestern women proprietors in 1870. See Gamber, Female Economy, 28, 30; Murphy, "Business Ladies," 66 (Table 1). For discussions of dressmakers' and milliners' social origins, see Female Economy, 32-35, 64-68. For descriptions of urban shopping districts and their social identities, see William Dean Howells, A Woman's Reason (Boston, 1883), 185, 376; Moses King, King's How-To-See Boston (Boston, 1895), 99; Blumin, Emergence of the Middle Class, 86; Lorinda Perry, The Millinery Trade in Boston and Philadelphia: A Study of Women in Industry (Binghamton, N.Y., 1916), 27-28; and Mary Van Kleeck, A Seasonal Industry: A Study of the Millinery Trade in New York (New York, 1917), 35-37, 108-109.
78. Carolyn Steedman, Landscape for a Good Woman: A Story of Two Lives (New Brunswick, N.J., 1987), 6-9.
79. Mary Field Parton, ed., The Autobiography of Mother Jones, 3rd. ed. (Chicago, 1976), 11-13.
80. Gamber, Female Economy, 96-124, esp. 103-108; E. P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class (New York, 1964), esp. 9-11; Kathleen Canning, "Gender and the Politics of Class Formation: Rethinking German Labor History," American Historical Review 97 (June 1992): 736-768; Daniel J. Walkowitz, "The Making of a Feminine Professional Identity: Social Workers in the 1920s," American Historical Review 95 (Oct. 1990): 1051-1075. also found Walkowitz's presentation at 1996 meeting of the Social Science History Association helpful for thinking about the issue of class. Nancy Hewitt's concept of "multiplicity" is also useful for thinking about multiple identities; see "Compounding Differences," Feminist Studies 18 (Summer 1992): esp. 319-324.
81. Gamber, Female Economy, 96-124, esp. 103-108; E. P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class (New York, 1964), esp. 9-11; Kathleen Canning, "Gender and the Politics of Class Formation: Rethinking German Labor History," American Historical Review 97 (June 1992): 736-768; Daniel J. Walkowitz, "The Making of a Feminine Professional Identity: Social Workers in the 1920s," American Historical Review 95 (Oct. 1990): 1051-1075. also found Walkowitz's presentation at 1996 meeting of the Social Science History Association helpful for thinking about the issue of class. Nancy Hewitt's concept of "multiplicity" is also useful for thinking about multiple identities; see "Compounding Differences," Feminist Studies 18 (Summer 1992): esp. 319-324.
82. Gamber, Female Economy, 96-124, esp. 103-108; E. P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class (New York, 1964), esp. 9-11; Kathleen Canning, "Gender and the Politics of Class Formation: Rethinking German Labor History," American Historical Review 97 (June 1992): 736-768; Daniel J. Walkowitz, "The Making of a Feminine Professional Identity: Social Workers in the 1920s," American Historical Review 95 (Oct. 1990): 1051-1075. also found Walkowitz's presentation at 1996 meeting of the Social Science History Association helpful for thinking about the issue of class. Nancy Hewitt's concept of "multiplicity" is also useful for thinking about multiple identities; see "Compounding Differences," Feminist Studies 18 (Summer 1992): esp. 319-324.
83. Gamber, Female Economy, 96-124, esp. 103-108; E. P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class (New York, 1964), esp. 9-11; Kathleen Canning, "Gender and the Politics of Class Formation: Rethinking German Labor History," American Historical Review 97 (June 1992): 736-768; Daniel J. Walkowitz, "The Making of a Feminine Professional Identity: Social Workers in the 1920s," American Historical Review 95 (Oct. 1990): 1051-1075. also found Walkowitz's presentation at 1996 meeting of the Social Science History Association helpful for thinking about the issue of class. Nancy Hewitt's concept of "multiplicity" is also useful for thinking about multiple identities; see "Compounding Differences," Feminist Studies 18 (Summer 1992): esp. 319-324.
84. Gamber, Female Economy, 96-124, esp. 103-108; E. P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class (New York, 1964), esp. 9-11; Kathleen Canning, "Gender and the Politics of Class Formation: Rethinking German Labor History," American Historical Review 97 (June 1992): 736-768; Daniel J. Walkowitz, "The Making of a Feminine Professional Identity: Social Workers in the 1920s," American Historical Review 95 (Oct. 1990): 1051-1075. also found Walkowitz's presentation at 1996 meeting of the Social Science History Association helpful for thinking about the issue of class. Nancy Hewitt's concept of "multiplicity" is also useful for thinking about multiple identities; see "Compounding Differences," Feminist Studies 18 (Summer 1992): esp. 319-324.
85. Dexter, Colonial Women of Affairs; see Mary Beth Norton, "The Evolution of White Women's Experience in Early America," American Historical Review 89 (June 1984): 593-594; Goldin "Economic Status of Women in the Early Republic"; and Kathleen M. Brown, "Brave New Worlds: Women's and Gender History," William and Mary Quarterly, 3d series, L (Apr. 1993): 311-328 for discussions and critiques of the golden age hypothesis.
86. Dexter, Colonial Women of Affairs; see Mary Beth Norton, "The Evolution of White Women's Experience in Early America," American Historical Review 89 (June 1984): 593-594; Goldin "Economic Status of Women in the Early Republic"; and Kathleen M. Brown, "Brave New Worlds: Women's and Gender History," William and Mary Quarterly, 3d series, L (Apr. 1993): 311-328 for discussions and critiques of the golden age hypothesis.
87. Dexter, Colonial Women of Affairs; see Mary Beth Norton, "The Evolution of White Women's Experience in Early America," American Historical Review 89 (June 1984): 593-594; Goldin "Economic Status of Women in the Early Republic"; and Kathleen M. Brown, "Brave New Worlds: Women's and Gender History," William and Mary Quarterly, 3d series, L (Apr. 1993): 311-328 for discussions and critiques of the golden age hypothesis.
88. Dexter, Colonial Women of Affairs; see Mary Beth Norton, "The Evolution of White Women's Experience in Early America," American Historical Review 89 (June 1984): 593-594; Goldin "Economic Status of Women in the Early Republic"; and Kathleen M. Brown, "Brave New Worlds: Women's and Gender History," William and Mary Quarterly, 3d series, L (Apr. 1993): 311-328 for discussions and critiques of the golden age hypothesis.
89. I do not mean to imply that the feminist movement of the late 1960s and 1970s was homogeneous or monolithic; see Alice Echols, Daring to be Bad: Radical Feminism in America, 1967-1975 (Minneapolis, 1989); Yeager, "Women in Business," 17-18, 35-38.
90. I do not mean to imply that the feminist movement of the late 1960s and 1970s was homogeneous or monolithic; see Alice Echols, Daring to be Bad: Radical Feminism in America, 1967-1975 (Minneapolis, 1989); Yeager, "Women in Business," 17-18, 35-38.
91. Yeager, "Women in Business"; for the best review of women's labor history, see Baron, "Gender and Labor History," 1-46.
92. Yeager, "Women in Business"; for the best review of women's labor history, see Baron, "Gender and Labor History," 1-46.
93. Barbara Welter, "The Cult of True Womanhood, 1820-1860," American Quarterly 18 (1966): 151-74; Gerda Lerner, "The Lady and the Mill Girl: Changes in the Status of Women in the Age of Jackson, 1800-1840," in Nancy F. Cott and Elizabeth H. Pleck, A Heritage of Her Own: Toward a New Social History of American Women (New York, 1979), 182-196; Nancy F. Cott, The Bonds of Womanhood: "Woman's Sphere" in New England, 1780-1835 (New Haven, Conn., 1977).
94. Barbara Welter, "The Cult of True Womanhood, 1820-1860," American Quarterly 18 (1966): 151-74; Gerda Lerner, "The Lady and the Mill Girl: Changes in the Status of Women in the Age of Jackson, 1800-1840," in Nancy F. Cott and Elizabeth H. Pleck, A Heritage of Her Own: Toward a New Social History of American Women (New York, 1979), 182-196; Nancy F. Cott, The Bonds of Womanhood: "Woman's Sphere" in New England, 1780-1835 (New Haven, Conn., 1977).
95. Barbara Welter, "The Cult of True Womanhood, 1820-1860," American Quarterly 18 (1966): 151-74; Gerda Lerner, "The Lady and the Mill Girl: Changes in the Status of Women in the Age of Jackson, 1800-1840," in Nancy F. Cott and Elizabeth H. Pleck, A Heritage of Her Own: Toward a New Social History of American Women (New York, 1979), 182-196; Nancy F. Cott, The Bonds of Womanhood: "Woman's Sphere" in New England, 1780-1835 (New Haven, Conn., 1977).
96. Kerber, "Separate Spheres, Female Worlds, Woman's Place"; Jeanne Boydston, Home and Work: Household, Wages, and the Ideology of Labor in the Early Republic (New York, 1990), 144.
97. The concept of women's culture owes a great deal to Carroll Smith-Rosenberg's very influential "The Female World of Love and Ritual," Signs 1 (1975): 1-29, reprint, in Smith-Rosenberg, Disorderly Conduct: Visions of Gender in Victorian America (New York, 1985), 53-76, quotations, 63; see also Cott, Bonds of Womanhood. On cultural feminism, see Echols, Daring to Be Bad, 243-256, 269-281. "Feminist businesses," as Echols points out, were a by-product of cultural feminism; see 272-281.
98. The concept of women's culture owes a great deal to Carroll Smith-Rosenberg's very influential "The Female World of Love and Ritual," Signs 1 (1975): 1-29, reprint, in Smith-Rosenberg, Disorderly Conduct: Visions of Gender in Victorian America (New York, 1985), 53-76, quotations, 63; see also Cott, Bonds of Womanhood. On cultural feminism, see Echols, Daring to Be Bad, 243-256, 269-281. "Feminist businesses," as Echols points out, were a by-product of cultural feminism; see 272-281.
99. The concept of women's culture owes a great deal to Carroll Smith-Rosenberg's very influential "The Female World of Love and Ritual," Signs 1 (1975): 1-29, reprint, in Smith-Rosenberg, Disorderly Conduct: Visions of Gender in Victorian America (New York, 1985), 53-76, quotations, 63; see also Cott, Bonds of Womanhood. On cultural feminism, see Echols, Daring to Be Bad, 243-256, 269-281. "Feminist businesses," as Echols points out, were a by-product of cultural feminism; see 272-281.
100. The concept of women's culture owes a great deal to Carroll Smith-Rosenberg's very influential "The Female World of Love and Ritual," Signs 1 (1975): 1-29, reprint, in Smith-Rosenberg, Disorderly Conduct: Visions of Gender in Victorian America (New York, 1985), 53-76, quotations, 63; see also Cott, Bonds of Womanhood. On cultural feminism, see Echols, Daring to Be Bad, 243-256, 269-281. "Feminist businesses," as Echols points out, were a by-product of cultural feminism; see 272-281.
101. The concept of women's culture owes a great deal to Carroll Smith-Rosenberg's very influential "The Female World of Love and Ritual," Signs 1 (1975): 1-29, reprint, in Smith-Rosenberg, Disorderly Conduct: Visions of Gender in Victorian America (New York, 1985), 53-76, quotations, 63; see also Cott, Bonds of Womanhood. On cultural feminism, see Echols, Daring to Be Bad, 243-256, 269-281. "Feminist businesses," as Echols points out, were a by-product of cultural feminism; see 272-281.
102. Ellen DuBois, Mari Jo Buhle, Temma Kaplan, Gerda Lerner, and Carroll Smith-tling the golden age theory, but by this time, few historians were willing to give the notion their unqualified support. Work in progress by Susan Ingalls Lewis and John Ingham suggests new and promising ways of conceptualizing the history of women in business. Susan Ingalls Lewis, "Female Entrepreneurs, Artisans, and Workers: Milliners in Albany, 1840-1885," paper presented at the North American Labor History Conference, Oct. 1990; "Beyond Horatia Alger: Breaking Through Gendered Assumptions about Business 'Success' in Mid-Nineteenth-Century America," Business and Economic History 24 (Fall 1995): 97-105; and "Female Entrepreneurs in Albany, 1840-1885," Business and Economic History, 2nd series, 22 (1992): 65-7.3; Ingham, "Patterns of African-American Female Self-Employment and Entrepreneurship."
103. Ellen DuBois, Mari Jo Buhle, Temma Kaplan, Gerda Lerner, and Carroll Smith-tling the golden age theory, but by this time, few historians were willing to give the notion their unqualified support. Work in progress by Susan Ingalls Lewis and John Ingham suggests new and promising ways of conceptualizing the history of women in business. Susan Ingalls Lewis, "Female Entrepreneurs, Artisans, and Workers: Milliners in Albany, 1840-1885," paper presented at the North American Labor History Conference, Oct. 1990; "Beyond Horatia Alger: Breaking Through Gendered Assumptions about Business 'Success' in Mid-Nineteenth-Century America," Business and Economic History 24 (Fall 1995): 97-105; and "Female Entrepreneurs in Albany, 1840-1885," Business and Economic History, 2nd series, 22 (1992): 65-7.3; Ingham, "Patterns of African-American Female Self-Employment and Entrepreneurship."
104. Ellen DuBois, Mari Jo Buhle, Temma Kaplan, Gerda Lerner, and Carroll Smith-tling the golden age theory, but by this time, few historians were willing to give the notion their unqualified support. Work in progress by Susan Ingalls Lewis and John Ingham suggests new and promising ways of conceptualizing the history of women in business. Susan Ingalls Lewis, "Female Entrepreneurs, Artisans, and Workers: Milliners in Albany, 1840-1885," paper presented at the North American Labor History Conference, Oct. 1990; "Beyond Horatia Alger: Breaking Through Gendered Assumptions about Business 'Success' in Mid-Nineteenth-Century America," Business and Economic History 24 (Fall 1995): 97-105; and "Female Entrepreneurs in Albany, 1840-1885," Business and Economic History, 2nd series, 22 (1992): 65-7.3; Ingham, "Patterns of African-American Female Self-Employment and Entrepreneurship."
105. Ellen DuBois, Mari Jo Buhle, Temma Kaplan, Gerda Lerner, and Carroll Smith-tling the golden age theory, but by this time, few historians were willing to give the notion their unqualified support. Work in progress by Susan Ingalls Lewis and John Ingham suggests new and promising ways of conceptualizing the history of women in business. Susan Ingalls Lewis, "Female Entrepreneurs, Artisans, and Workers: Milliners in Albany, 1840-1885," paper presented at the North American Labor History Conference, Oct. 1990; "Beyond Horatia Alger: Breaking Through Gendered Assumptions about Business 'Success' in Mid-Nineteenth-Century America," Business and Economic History 24 (Fall 1995): 97-105; and "Female Entrepreneurs in Albany, 1840-1885," Business and Economic History, 2nd series, 22 (1992): 65-7.3; Ingham, "Patterns of African-American Female Self-Employment and Entrepreneurship."
106. Gamber, Female Economy, 83-88; David Brody, "Labor and Small-Scale Enterprise During Industrialization," in Bruchey, ed., Small Business in American Life, 263-279.
107. Gamber, Female Economy, 83-88; David Brody, "Labor and Small-Scale Enterprise During Industrialization," in Bruchey, ed., Small Business in American Life, 263-279.
108. Murphy's more recent work tries to balance businesswomen's economic imperatives with an interpretation premised on the notion of women's culture; see "Business Ladies," 65-89; Faye Dudden's discussion of the analogies between relations between mistresses and domestic service and between industrial employers and employees provides a useful model; see Serving Women: Household Service in Nineteenth-Century America (Hanover, N.H., 1983), 155-183 .
109. Murphy's more recent work tries to balance businesswomen's economic imperatives with an interpretation premised on the notion of women's culture; see "Business Ladies," 65-89; Faye Dudden's discussion of the analogies between relations between mistresses and domestic service and between industrial employers and employees provides a useful model; see Serving Women: Household Service in Nineteenth-Century America (Hanover, N.H., 1983), 155-183 .
110. Joan Scott, "Gender: A Useful Category of Historical Analysis," American Historical Review 91 (1986): 1053-1075; Scott, "Introduction" in Gender and the Politics of History, 1-11; Linda Nicholson, "Interpreting Gender," Signs 20 (Autumn 1994): 79-105, quotation, 79 ; see also Brown, "Brave New Worlds," 311-328.
111. Joan Scott, "Gender: A Useful Category of Historical Analysis," American Historical Review 91 (1986): 1053-1075; Scott, "Introduction" in Gender and the Politics of History, 1-11; Linda Nicholson, "Interpreting Gender," Signs 20 (Autumn 1994): 79-105, quotation, 79 ; see also Brown, "Brave New Worlds," 311-328.
112. Joan Scott, "Gender: A Useful Category of Historical Analysis," American Historical Review 91 (1986): 1053-1075; Scott, "Introduction" in Gender and the Politics of History, 1-11; Linda Nicholson, "Interpreting Gender," Signs 20 (Autumn 1994): 79-105, quotation, 79 ; see also Brown, "Brave New Worlds," 311-328.
113. Joan Scott, "Gender: A Useful Category of Historical Analysis," American Historical Review 91 (1986): 1053-1075; Scott, "Introduction" in Gender and the Politics of History, 1-11; Linda Nicholson, "Interpreting Gender," Signs 20 (Autumn 1994): 79-105, quotation, 79 ; see also Brown, "Brave New Worlds," 311-328.
114. By "Victorian," I mean a nineteenth-century middle-class conception of gender relations that depended on a series of rigid dichotomies, distinguishing "male" from "female," "public" from "private," "respectable" women from "disreputable" women. On the important of particular contexts, see Nicholson, "Interpreting Gender," 83-88; and Brown, "Brave New Worlds," 316-328.
115. By "Victorian," I mean a nineteenth-century middle-class conception of gender relations that depended on a series of rigid dichotomies, distinguishing "male" from "female," "public" from "private," "respectable" women from "disreputable" women. On the important of particular contexts, see Nicholson, "Interpreting Gender," 83-88; and Brown, "Brave New Worlds," 316-328.
116. See Sanford M. Jacoby, "Masters to Managers: An Introduction," in Jacoby, ed., Masters to Managers, 1-15, esp. 2-8.
117. For analyses that document the gender biases hidden beneath definitions of "skilled" and "unskilled" labor, see Benson, Counter Cultures, 229; Judith A. McGaw, "No Passive Victims No Separate Spheres: A Feminist Perspective on Technology's History," in Stephen H. Cutcliffe and Robert C. Post, eds., In Context: History and the History of Technology (Bethlehem Pa., 1989), 78-184; Anne Phillips and Barbara Taylor, "Sex and Skill: Notes towards a Feminist Economics," Feminist Review 6 (1981): 79-88; and Joan Wallach Scott, "Work Identities for Men and Women: The Politics of Work and Family in the Parisian Garment Trades in 1848," in Gender and the Politics of History, 93-112.
118. For analyses that document the gender biases hidden beneath definitions of "skilled" and "unskilled" labor, see Benson, Counter Cultures, 229; Judith A. McGaw, "No Passive Victims No Separate Spheres: A Feminist Perspective on Technology's History," in Stephen H. Cutcliffe and Robert C. Post, eds., In Context: History and the History of Technology (Bethlehem Pa., 1989), 78-184; Anne Phillips and Barbara Taylor, "Sex and Skill: Notes towards a Feminist Economics," Feminist Review 6 (1981): 79-88; and Joan Wallach Scott, "Work Identities for Men and Women: The Politics of Work and Family in the Parisian Garment Trades in 1848," in Gender and the Politics of History, 93-112.
119. For analyses that document the gender biases hidden beneath definitions of "skilled" and "unskilled" labor, see Benson, Counter Cultures, 229; Judith A. McGaw, "No Passive Victims No Separate Spheres: A Feminist Perspective on Technology's History," in Stephen H. Cutcliffe and Robert C. Post, eds., In Context: History and the History of Technology (Bethlehem Pa., 1989), 78-184; Anne Phillips and Barbara Taylor, "Sex and Skill: Notes towards a Feminist Economics," Feminist Review 6 (1981): 79-88; and Joan Wallach Scott, "Work Identities for Men and Women: The Politics of Work and Family in the Parisian Garment Trades in 1848," in Gender and the Politics of History, 93-112.
120. For analyses that document the gender biases hidden beneath definitions of "skilled" and "unskilled" labor, see Benson, Counter Cultures, 229; Judith A. McGaw, "No Passive Victims No Separate Spheres: A Feminist Perspective on Technology's History," in Stephen H. Cutcliffe and Robert C. Post, eds., In Context: History and the History of Technology (Bethlehem Pa., 1989), 78-184; Anne Phillips and Barbara Taylor, "Sex and Skill: Notes towards a Feminist Economics," Feminist Review 6 (1981): 79-88; and Joan Wallach Scott, "Work Identities for Men and Women: The Politics of Work and Family in the Parisian Garment Trades in 1848," in Gender and the Politics of History, 93-112.
121. Clark, Working Life of Women in the Seventeenth Century, 195, 234; Fiona Clark, Hats (London, 1982); Claudia B. Kidwell, Cutting a Fashionable Fit: Dressmakers' Drafting Systems in the United States (Washington, D.C., 1979), 3-4, 11-13; Judith G. Coffin, "Woman's Place and Women's Work in the Paris Clothing Trades, 1830-1914" (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1985), 28-43; and The Politics of Women's Work: The Paris Garment Trades, 1750-1915 (Princeton, N.J., 1996); Valerie Steele, Fashion and Eroticism: Ideals of Feminine Beauty from the Victorian Era to the Jazz Age (New York, 1985). See Roscoe Conkling's comments on reformers, quoted in Morton Keller, Affairs of State: Public Life in Late Nineteenth Century America (Cambridge, Mass., 1977), 248.
122. Clark, Working Life of Women in the Seventeenth Century, 195, 234; Fiona Clark, Hats (London, 1982); Claudia B. Kidwell, Cutting a Fashionable Fit: Dressmakers' Drafting Systems in the United States (Washington, D.C., 1979), 3-4, 11-13; Judith G. Coffin, "Woman's Place and Women's Work in the Paris Clothing Trades, 1830-1914" (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1985), 28-43; and The Politics of Women's Work: The Paris Garment Trades, 1750-1915 (Princeton, N.J., 1996); Valerie Steele, Fashion and Eroticism: Ideals of Feminine Beauty from the Victorian Era to the Jazz Age (New York, 1985). See Roscoe Conkling's comments on reformers, quoted in Morton Keller, Affairs of State: Public Life in Late Nineteenth Century America (Cambridge, Mass., 1977), 248.
123. Clark, Working Life of Women in the Seventeenth Century, 195, 234; Fiona Clark, Hats (London, 1982); Claudia B. Kidwell, Cutting a Fashionable Fit: Dressmakers' Drafting Systems in the United States (Washington, D.C., 1979), 3-4, 11-13; Judith G. Coffin, "Woman's Place and Women's Work in the Paris Clothing Trades, 1830-1914" (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1985), 28-43; and The Politics of Women's Work: The Paris Garment Trades, 1750-1915 (Princeton, N.J., 1996); Valerie Steele, Fashion and Eroticism: Ideals of Feminine Beauty from the Victorian Era to the Jazz Age (New York, 1985). See Roscoe Conkling's comments on reformers, quoted in Morton Keller, Affairs of State: Public Life in Late Nineteenth Century America (Cambridge, Mass., 1977), 248.
124. Clark, Working Life of Women in the Seventeenth Century, 195, 234; Fiona Clark, Hats (London, 1982); Claudia B. Kidwell, Cutting a Fashionable Fit: Dressmakers' Drafting Systems in the United States (Washington, D.C., 1979), 3-4, 11-13; Judith G. Coffin, "Woman's Place and Women's Work in the Paris Clothing Trades, 1830-1914" (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1985), 28-43; and The Politics of Women's Work: The Paris Garment Trades, 1750-1915 (Princeton, N.J., 1996); Valerie Steele, Fashion and Eroticism: Ideals of Feminine Beauty from the Victorian Era to the Jazz Age (New York, 1985). See Roscoe Conkling's comments on reformers, quoted in Morton Keller, Affairs of State: Public Life in Late Nineteenth Century America (Cambridge, Mass., 1977), 248.
125. Clark, Working Life of Women in the Seventeenth Century, 195, 234; Fiona Clark, Hats (London, 1982); Claudia B. Kidwell, Cutting a Fashionable Fit: Dressmakers' Drafting Systems in the United States (Washington, D.C., 1979), 3-4, 11-13; Judith G. Coffin, "Woman's Place and Women's Work in the Paris Clothing Trades, 1830-1914" (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1985), 28-43; and The Politics of Women's Work: The Paris Garment Trades, 1750-1915 (Princeton, N.J., 1996); Valerie Steele, Fashion and Eroticism: Ideals of Feminine Beauty from the Victorian Era to the Jazz Age (New York, 1985). See Roscoe Conkling's comments on reformers, quoted in Morton Keller, Affairs of State: Public Life in Late Nineteenth Century America (Cambridge, Mass., 1977), 248.
126. Clark, Working Life of Women in the Seventeenth Century, 195, 234; Fiona Clark, Hats (London, 1982); Claudia B. Kidwell, Cutting a Fashionable Fit: Dressmakers' Drafting Systems in the United States (Washington, D.C., 1979), 3-4, 11-13; Judith G. Coffin, "Woman's Place and Women's Work in the Paris Clothing Trades, 1830-1914" (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1985), 28-43; and The Politics of Women's Work: The Paris Garment Trades, 1750-1915 (Princeton, N.J., 1996); Valerie Steele, Fashion and Eroticism: Ideals of Feminine Beauty from the Victorian Era to the Jazz Age (New York, 1985). See Roscoe Conkling's comments on reformers, quoted in Morton Keller, Affairs of State: Public Life in Late Nineteenth Century America (Cambridge, Mass., 1977), 248.
127. Clark, Working Life of Women in the Seventeenth Century, 195, 234; Fiona Clark, Hats (London, 1982); Claudia B. Kidwell, Cutting a Fashionable Fit: Dressmakers' Drafting Systems in the United States (Washington, D.C., 1979), 3-4, 11-13; Judith G. Coffin, "Woman's Place and Women's Work in the Paris Clothing Trades, 1830-1914" (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1985), 28-43; and The Politics of Women's Work: The Paris Garment Trades, 1750-1915 (Princeton, N.J., 1996); Valerie Steele, Fashion and Eroticism: Ideals of Feminine Beauty from the Victorian Era to the Jazz Age (New York, 1985). See Roscoe Conkling's comments on reformers, quoted in Morton Keller, Affairs of State: Public Life in Late Nineteenth Century America (Cambridge, Mass., 1977), 248.
128. Amy Simon, "'She is So Neat and Fits So Well': Garment Construction and the Millinery Business of Eliza Oliver Dodds, 1821-1833" (M.A. thesis, University of Delaware, 1993), 73; Gamber, Female Economy, 129-134, 178-182.
129. Amy Simon, "'She is So Neat and Fits So Well': Garment Construction and the Millinery Business of Eliza Oliver Dodds, 1821-1833" (M.A. thesis, University of Delaware, 1993), 73; Gamber, Female Economy, 129-134, 178-182.
130. See, for example, J. H. Ingraham, Grace Weldon, Or, Frederica, The Bonnet-Girl: A Tale of Boston and Its Bay (Boston, 1845); Emeret H. Sedge, "Grace Ellerslie," Peterson's
131. See, for example, J. H. Ingraham, Grace Weldon, Or, Frederica, The Bonnet-Girl: A Tale of Boston and Its Bay (Boston, 1845); Emeret H. Sedge, "Grace Ellerslie," Peterson's
132. Kidwell, Cutting a Fashionable Fit, 93-94; Virginia Penny, The Employments of Women: A Cyclopedia of Woman's Work (Boston, 1863), 317-318; and Penny, Think and Act: A Series of Articles Pertaining to Men and Women, Work and Wages (1869; reprint, New York, 1971), 290; Illustrated Milliner 1 (Aug. 1900): 79.
133. Kidwell, Cutting a Fashionable Fit, 93-94; Virginia Penny, The Employments of Women: A Cyclopedia of Woman's Work (Boston, 1863), 317-318; and Penny, Think and Act: A Series of Articles Pertaining to Men and Women, Work and Wages (1869; reprint, New York, 1971), 290; Illustrated Milliner 1 (Aug. 1900): 79.
134. Kidwell, Cutting a Fashionable Fit, 93-94; Virginia Penny, The Employments of Women: A Cyclopedia of Woman's Work (Boston, 1863), 317-318; and Penny, Think and Act: A Series of Articles Pertaining to Men and Women, Work and Wages (1869; reprint, New York, 1971), 290; Illustrated Milliner 1 (Aug. 1900): 79.
135. Kidwell, Cutting a Fashionable Fit, 93-94; Virginia Penny, The Employments of Women: A Cyclopedia of Woman's Work (Boston, 1863), 317-318; and Penny, Think and Act: A Series of Articles Pertaining to Men and Women, Work and Wages (1869; reprint, New York, 1971), 290; Illustrated Milliner 1 (Aug. 1900): 79.
136. Nancy Page Fernandez, "'If a Woman Had Taste': Home Sewing and the Making of Fashion, 1850-1910" (Ph.D. diss., University of California, Irvine, 1987), 103-5; and Fernandez, "Women, Work and Wages in the Industrialization of American Dressmaking, 1860-1910," paper presented at the Ninth Berkshire Conference on the History of Women, June 1993, 8-10.
137. Nancy Page Fernandez, "'If a Woman Had Taste': Home Sewing and the Making of Fashion, 1850-1910" (Ph.D. diss., University of California, Irvine, 1987), 103-5; and Fernandez, "Women, Work and Wages in the Industrialization of American Dressmaking, 1860-1910," paper presented at the Ninth Berkshire Conference on the History of Women, June 1993, 8-10.
138. Evelyn Fox Keller, Reflections on Gender and Science (New Haven, Conn., 1985), esp. 7-13, 33-65, 75-94.
139. Charles Hecklinger, The Dress and Cloak Cutter. In Two Parts. (New York, 1883), preface ; The McDowell Standard System of Garment Cutting (New York, [1886?]), 2 ; see also Caleb H. Griffin and David Knox, The Science and Art of Cutting and Making Ladies' Garments, As Demonstrated by Griffin & Knox's Great American Draughting Machine (Lynn, Mass., 1873), 6.
140. Charles Hecklinger, The Dress and Cloak Cutter. In Two Parts. (New York, 1883), preface ; The McDowell Standard System of Garment Cutting (New York, [1886?]), 2 ; see also Caleb H. Griffin and David Knox, The Science and Art of Cutting and Making Ladies' Garments, As Demonstrated by Griffin & Knox's Great American Draughting Machine (Lynn, Mass., 1873), 6.
141. Charles Hecklinger, The Dress and Cloak Cutter. In Two Parts. (New York, 1883), preface ; The McDowell Standard System of Garment Cutting (New York, [1886?]), 2 ; see also Caleb H. Griffin and David Knox, The Science and Art of Cutting and Making Ladies' Garments, As Demonstrated by Griffin & Knox's Great American Draughting Machine (Lynn, Mass., 1873), 6.
142. The best discussions of "conventional" deskilling are Harry Braverman, Labor and Monopoly Capital: The Degradation of Work in the Twentieth Century (New York, 1974); and David Montgomery, Workers' Control in America: Studies in the History of Work, Technology, and Labor Struggle (Cambridge, 1979). See Glenn, Daughters of the Shtetl, 102, for a critique of the masculinist bias of this literature.
143. The best discussions of "conventional" deskilling are Harry Braverman, Labor and Monopoly Capital: The Degradation of Work in the Twentieth Century (New York, 1974); and David Montgomery, Workers' Control in America: Studies in the History of Work, Technology, and Labor Struggle (Cambridge, 1979). See Glenn, Daughters of the Shtetl, 102, for a critique of the masculinist bias of this literature.
144. The best discussions of "conventional" deskilling are Harry Braverman, Labor and Monopoly Capital: The Degradation of Work in the Twentieth Century (New York, 1974); and David Montgomery, Workers' Control in America: Studies in the History of Work, Technology, and Labor Struggle (Cambridge, 1979). See Glenn, Daughters of the Shtetl, 102, for a critique of the masculinist bias of this literature.
145. See Bill Reid Moeckel, The Development of the Wholesaler in the United States 1860-1900 (New York, 1986); and Glenn Porter and Harold C. Livesay, Merchants and Manufacturers: Studies in the Changing Structure of Nineteenth-Century Marketing (Baltimore, 1971) for general histories of wholesaling.
146. See Bill Reid Moeckel, The Development of the Wholesaler in the United States 1860-1900 (New York, 1986); and Glenn Porter and Harold C. Livesay, Merchants and Manufacturers: Studies in the Changing Structure of Nineteenth-Century Marketing (Baltimore, 1971) for general histories of wholesaling.
147. At least 10/222 of the proprietors of Boston dressmaking and millinery shops in 1860 and 18/325 in 1890 were men. The Boston Directory (Boston, 1860); and Boston Directory (Boston, 1890). I found no female wholesalers in nineteenth-century Boston directories; the R. G. Dun & Co. records refer to one, Harriet Lowell; see Massachusetts vol. 68, 44; and vol. 75, 283, 287, R. G. Dun & Co. Collection, Baker Library, Harvard University Graduate School of Business Administration, Boston, Mass. (hereafter cited as RGD).
148. At least 10/222 of the proprietors of Boston dressmaking and millinery shops in 1860 and 18/325 in 1890 were men. The Boston Directory (Boston, 1860); and Boston Directory (Boston, 1890). I found no female wholesalers in nineteenth-century Boston directories; the R. G. Dun & Co. records refer to one, Harriet Lowell; see Massachusetts vol. 68, 44; and vol. 75, 283, 287, R. G. Dun & Co. Collection, Baker Library, Harvard University Graduate School of Business Administration, Boston, Mass. (hereafter cited as RGD).
149. Penny, Think and Act, 25; Milliner 26 (Feb. 1915): 81; and 25 (Dec. 1914): 42. I have been unable to locate similar descriptions for the nineteenth century, primarily because trade journals that documented wholesalers' activities were creations of the twentieth century.
150. Penny, Think and Act, 25; Milliner 26 (Feb. 1915): 81; and 25 (Dec. 1914): 42. I have been unable to locate similar descriptions for the nineteenth century, primarily because trade journals that documented wholesalers' activities were creations of the twentieth century.
151. See Ditz, "Shipwrecked."
152. Harold Barger, Distribution's Place in the American Economy since 1869 (Princeton, N.J., 1955).
153. Philo [pseud.], Twelve Letters to a Young Milliner (New York, 1883), 5-6.
154. P. R. Earling, Whom to Trust: A Practical Treatise on Mercantile Credits (Chicago and New York, 1890), 151; Gamber, Female Economy, 163-165.
155. P. R. Earling, Whom to Trust: A Practical Treatise on Mercantile Credits (Chicago and New York, 1890), 151; Gamber, Female Economy, 163-165.
156. James H. Madison, "The Credit Reports of R. G. Dun & Co. as Historical Sources," Historical Methods Newsletter 8 (1975): 28-131; Madison, "The Evolution of Commercial Credit Reporting Agencies in Nineteenth-Century America," Business History Review 48 (1974): 164-186; and Gamber, Female Economy, 162.
157. James H. Madison, "The Credit Reports of R. G. Dun & Co. as Historical Sources," Historical Methods Newsletter 8 (1975): 28-131; Madison, "The Evolution of Commercial Credit Reporting Agencies in Nineteenth-Century America," Business History Review 48 (1974): 164-186; and Gamber, Female Economy, 162.
158. James H. Madison, "The Credit Reports of R. G. Dun & Co. as Historical Sources," Historical Methods Newsletter 8 (1975): 28-131; Madison, "The Evolution of Commercial Credit Reporting Agencies in Nineteenth-Century America," Business History Review 48 (1974): 164-186; and Gamber, Female Economy, 162.
159. I examined all Dun & Co. reports for male milliners in Boston as well as those for a small sample of tailors (see Gamber, Female Economy, 257, n. 70, 263, n. 13). In sharp contrast to the regularity with which this adjective was applied to female proprietors, the partners of only one firm were described as "respectable."
160. See, for example, George C. Foster, New York by Gas-Light: With Here and There a Streak of Sunshine (New York, 1850), 66; Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper 7 (Feb. 12, 1859): 160; Lewis, "Female Entrepreneurs, Artisans, and Workers," 16.
161. See, for example, George C. Foster, New York by Gas-Light: With Here and There a Streak of Sunshine (New York, 1850), 66; Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper 7 (Feb. 12, 1859): 160; Lewis, "Female Entrepreneurs, Artisans, and Workers," 16.
162. See, for example, George C. Foster, New York by Gas-Light: With Here and There a Streak of Sunshine (New York, 1850), 66; Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper 7 (Feb. 12, 1859): 160; Lewis, "Female Entrepreneurs, Artisans, and Workers," 16.
163. Female dependency was an important cultural ideal for both the middle and working classes; on the working-class notion of the family wage, see Martha May, "Bread Before Roses; American Worlkingmen, Labor Unions, and the Family Wage," in Ruth Milkman, ed., Women, Work, and Protest: A Century of US Women's Labor History (Boston, 1985), 1-21; and Alice Kessler-Harris, A Woman's Wage: Historical Meanings and Social Consequences (Lexington, Ky., 1990), esp. 8-12, 19-20.
164. Female dependency was an important cultural ideal for both the middle and working classes; on the working-class notion of the family wage, see Martha May, "Bread Before Roses; American Worlkingmen, Labor Unions, and the Family Wage," in Ruth Milkman, ed., Women, Work, and Protest: A Century of US Women's Labor History (Boston, 1985), 1-21; and Alice Kessler-Harris, A Woman's Wage: Historical Meanings and Social Consequences (Lexington, Ky., 1990), esp. 8-12, 19-20.
165. Mass. vol. 75: 91; vol. 73: 78; vol. 75: 411; vol. 67: 216 a/4, RGD. After the Civil War, Dun & Co. reporters increasingly favored economic considerations over those based on moral character. But character remained an important basis for credit; see James D. Norris, R. G. Dun & Co., 1841-1900: The Development of Credit-Reporting in the Nineteenth Century (Westport, Conn., 1978), xvii, 93-94, 130. See, for example, the credit reports of Martha J. Davis and Mary McManus (Mass. vol. 72: 456; vol. 75: 256; vol. 84: 197; vol. 78: 318, 156, RGD).
166. Mass. vol. 75: 91; vol. 73: 78; vol. 75: 411; vol. 67: 216 a/4, RGD. After the Civil War, Dun & Co. reporters increasingly favored economic considerations over those based on moral character. But character remained an important basis for credit; see James D. Norris, R. G. Dun & Co., 1841-1900: The Development of Credit-Reporting in the Nineteenth Century (Westport, Conn., 1978), xvii, 93-94, 130. See, for example, the credit reports of Martha J. Davis and Mary McManus (Mass. vol. 72: 456; vol. 75: 256; vol. 84: 197; vol. 78: 318, 156, RGD).
167. Philo, Twelve Letters to a Young Milliner, 14-15; see also 35, 46; Illustrated Milliner 4 (Apr. 1900): 70.
168. Philo, Twelve Letters to a Young Milliner, 14-15; see also 35, 46; Illustrated Milliner 4 (Apr. 1900): 70.
169. Philo, Twelve Letters to a Young Milliner, 14-15; see also 35, 46; Illustrated Milliner 4 (Apr. 1900): 70.
170. Earling, Whom to Trust, 58, 64, 149-150; Mass. vol. 70: 898, RGD.
171. Earling, Whom to Trust, 58, 64; Philo, Twelve Letters to a Young Milliner, 5-6; Dry Goods Merchants Trade Journal 22 (Nov. 1921): 60; and 23 (Dec. 1921): 17; Stimson, "Small Business as a School of Manhood," 337-340; Illustrated Milliner 4 (May 1903): 46; and 4 (July 1903): 43; Alice Kessler-Harris, "Independence and Virtue in the Lives of Wage-Earning Women: The United States, 1870-1930," in Judith Friedlander, Blanche Wiesen Cook, Alice Kessler-Harris, and Carroll Smith-Rosenberg, eds., Women in Culture and Politics: A Century of Change (Bloomington, Ind., 1986), 3-17.
172. Earling, Whom to Trust, 58, 64; Philo, Twelve Letters to a Young Milliner, 5-6; Dry Goods Merchants Trade Journal 22 (Nov. 1921): 60; and 23 (Dec. 1921): 17; Stimson, "Small Business as a School of Manhood," 337-340; Illustrated Milliner 4 (May 1903): 46; and 4 (July 1903): 43; Alice Kessler-Harris, "Independence and Virtue in the Lives of Wage-Earning Women: The United States, 1870-1930," in Judith Friedlander, Blanche Wiesen Cook, Alice Kessler-Harris, and Carroll Smith-Rosenberg, eds., Women in Culture and Politics: A Century of Change (Bloomington, Ind., 1986), 3-17.
173. Earling, Whom to Trust, 58, 64; Philo, Twelve Letters to a Young Milliner, 5-6; Dry Goods Merchants Trade Journal 22 (Nov. 1921): 60; and 23 (Dec. 1921): 17; Stimson, "Small Business as a School of Manhood," 337-340; Illustrated Milliner 4 (May 1903): 46; and 4 (July 1903): 43; Alice Kessler-Harris, "Independence and Virtue in the Lives of Wage-Earning Women: The United States, 1870-1930," in Judith Friedlander, Blanche Wiesen Cook, Alice Kessler-Harris, and Carroll Smith-Rosenberg, eds., Women in Culture and Politics: A Century of Change (Bloomington, Ind., 1986), 3-17.
174. Earling, Whom to Trust, 58, 64; Philo, Twelve Letters to a Young Milliner, 5-6; Dry Goods Merchants Trade Journal 22 (Nov. 1921): 60; and 23 (Dec. 1921): 17; Stimson, "Small Business as a School of Manhood," 337-340; Illustrated Milliner 4 (May 1903): 46; and 4 (July 1903): 43; Alice Kessler-Harris, "Independence and Virtue in the Lives of Wage-Earning Women: The United States, 1870-1930," in Judith Friedlander, Blanche Wiesen Cook, Alice Kessler-Harris, and Carroll Smith-Rosenberg, eds., Women in Culture and Politics: A Century of Change (Bloomington, Ind., 1986), 3-17.
175. Earling, Whom to Trust, 58, 64; Philo, Twelve Letters to a Young Milliner, 5-6; Dry Goods Merchants Trade Journal 22 (Nov. 1921): 60; and 23 (Dec. 1921): 17; Stimson, "Small Business as a School of Manhood," 337-340; Illustrated Milliner 4 (May 1903): 46; and 4 (July 1903): 43; Alice Kessler-Harris, "Independence and Virtue in the Lives of Wage-Earning Women: The United States, 1870-1930," in Judith Friedlander, Blanche Wiesen Cook, Alice Kessler-Harris, and Carroll Smith-Rosenberg, eds., Women in Culture and Politics: A Century of Change (Bloomington, Ind., 1986), 3-17.
176. Earling, Whom to Trust, 58, 64; Philo, Twelve Letters to a Young Milliner, 5-6; Dry Goods Merchants Trade Journal 22 (Nov. 1921): 60; and 23 (Dec. 1921): 17; Stimson, "Small Business as a School of Manhood," 337-340; Illustrated Milliner 4 (May 1903): 46; and 4 (July 1903): 43; Alice Kessler-Harris, "Independence and Virtue in the Lives of Wage-Earning Women: The United States, 1870-1930," in Judith Friedlander, Blanche Wiesen Cook, Alice Kessler-Harris, and Carroll Smith-Rosenberg, eds., Women in Culture and Politics: A Century of Change (Bloomington, Ind., 1986), 3-17.
177. Earling, Whom to Trust, 58, 64; Philo, Twelve Letters to a Young Milliner, 5-6; Dry Goods Merchants Trade Journal 22 (Nov. 1921): 60; and 23 (Dec. 1921): 17; Stimson, "Small Business as a School of Manhood," 337-340; Illustrated Milliner 4 (May 1903): 46; and 4 (July 1903): 43; Alice Kessler-Harris, "Independence and Virtue in the Lives of Wage-Earning Women: The United States, 1870-1930," in Judith Friedlander, Blanche Wiesen Cook, Alice Kessler-Harris, and Carroll Smith-Rosenberg, eds., Women in Culture and Politics: A Century of Change (Bloomington, Ind., 1986), 3-17.
178. Earling, Whom to Trust, 58, 64; Philo, Twelve Letters to a Young Milliner, 5-6; Dry Goods Merchants Trade Journal 22 (Nov. 1921): 60; and 23 (Dec. 1921): 17; Stimson, "Small Business as a School of Manhood," 337-340; Illustrated Milliner 4 (May 1903): 46; and 4 (July 1903): 43; Alice Kessler-Harris, "Independence and Virtue in the Lives of Wage-Earning Women: The United States, 1870-1930," in Judith Friedlander, Blanche Wiesen Cook, Alice Kessler-Harris, and Carroll Smith-Rosenberg, eds., Women in Culture and Politics: A Century of Change (Bloomington, Ind., 1986), 3-17.
179. Mass. vol. 70: 699, 857, RGD; see also the reports on Mehitable Sampson and Maria and Catherine Roeth (Mass. vol. 75: 131; and vol. 67: 216a/9, RGD).
180. Gamber, Female Economy, 36-37, 166-167.
181. Ibid., 160-161.
182. Ibid., 170-176.
183. See Alice Kessler-Harris, "Ideologies and Innovation: Gender Dimensions of Business History," Business and Economic History 20 (1991): 46.
184. Lipartito "Culture and the Practice of Business History," 33.
185. Kwolek-Folland, Engendering, Business; Ditz, "Shipwrecked."
186. See Wilentz, Chants Democratic, 105-142, for the notion of "bastard" workshops that is, those in which traditional craft practices had been diluted by divisions of labor. Interestingly, the term itself has gendered implications.