The savage pattern: The unity of Rousseau's thought revisited

Polity

Volumn 31, Issue 1, 1998, Pages 75-105

  Marks, Jonathan ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0032343339     PISSN: 00323497     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3235368     Document Type: Article

References (59)

1. Arthur Melzer, The Natural Goodness of Man: On the System of Rousseau's Thought (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990); Marc Plattner, Rousseau's State of Nature: An Interpretation of Rousseau's Discourse on Inequality (De Kalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1979); John Scott, "The Theodicy of the Second Discourse: The 'Pure State of Nature' and Rousseau's Political Thought," American Political Science Review , 86 (September 1992): 696-711; Leo Strauss, Natural Right and History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1953), 252-94.
2. Arthur Melzer, The Natural Goodness of Man: On the System of Rousseau's Thought (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990); Marc Plattner, Rousseau's State of Nature: An Interpretation of Rousseau's Discourse on Inequality (De Kalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1979); John Scott, "The Theodicy of the Second Discourse: The 'Pure State of Nature' and Rousseau's Political Thought," American Political Science Review , 86 (September 1992): 696-711; Leo Strauss, Natural Right and History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1953), 252-94.
3. Arthur Melzer, The Natural Goodness of Man: On the System of Rousseau's Thought (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990); Marc Plattner, Rousseau's State of Nature: An Interpretation of Rousseau's Discourse on Inequality (De Kalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1979); John Scott, "The Theodicy of the Second Discourse: The 'Pure State of Nature' and Rousseau's Political Thought," American Political Science Review , 86 (September 1992): 696-711; Leo Strauss, Natural Right and History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1953), 252-94.
4. Arthur Melzer, The Natural Goodness of Man: On the System of Rousseau's Thought (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990); Marc Plattner, Rousseau's State of Nature: An Interpretation of Rousseau's Discourse on Inequality (De Kalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1979); John Scott, "The Theodicy of the Second Discourse: The 'Pure State of Nature' and Rousseau's Political Thought," American Political Science Review , 86 (September 1992): 696-711; Leo Strauss, Natural Right and History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1953), 252-94.
5. Rousseau references are, in most cases, first to the Pléiade, then to an English translation. Letter to D'Alembert references are solely to the Bloom translation, and Letter to Malesherbes references are solely to the Pléiade. Editions are as follows. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Considerations on the Government of Poland, in Political Writings, trans. and ed. Frederick Watkins (Madison University of Wisconsin Press, 1953); Constitutional Project for Corsica, in Political Writings; Discourse on Political Economy, In Discourse on Political Economy and the Social Contract, trans. Christopher Betts (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994); Emile, or on Education, trans. Allan Bloom (New York: Basic Books, 1979); The First and Second Discourses Together with the Replies to Critics and Essay on the Origin of Languages, trans. Victor Gourevitch (New York: Harper & Row, 1986); Letter to D'Alembert, trans. Allan Bloom, in Politics and the Arts (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, Agora Editions, 1960); Oeuvres Complètes, ed. Bernard Gagnebin and Marcel Raymond (Paris: Gallimard, Bibliothèque de la Pléiade, 1959-95); Rousseau Judge of Jean-Jacques., trans. Judith Bush, Roger D. Masters and Christopher Kelly, Collected Writings of Rousseau Vol. 1, ed. Roger D. Masters and Christopher Kelly (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1990); Reveries of the Solitary Walker, trans. Peter France (London: Penguin Books, 1979); Social Contract, in Social Contract, Discourse on the Virtue Most Necessary for a Hero, Political Fragments and Geneva Manuscript, trans. Judith R. Bush, Roger D. Masters, and Christopher Kelly, Collected Writings of Rousseau, Vol. 2, (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1994).
6. Rousseau references are, in most cases, first to the Pléiade, then to an English translation. Letter to D'Alembert references are solely to the Bloom translation, and Letter to Malesherbes references are solely to the Pléiade. Editions are as follows. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Considerations on the Government of Poland, in Political Writings, trans. and ed. Frederick Watkins (Madison University of Wisconsin Press, 1953); Constitutional Project for Corsica, in Political Writings; Discourse on Political Economy, In Discourse on Political Economy and the Social Contract, trans. Christopher Betts (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994); Emile, or on Education, trans. Allan Bloom (New York: Basic Books, 1979); The First and Second Discourses Together with the Replies to Critics and Essay on the Origin of Languages, trans. Victor Gourevitch (New York: Harper & Row, 1986); Letter to D'Alembert, trans. Allan Bloom, in Politics and the Arts (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, Agora Editions, 1960); Oeuvres Complètes, ed. Bernard Gagnebin and Marcel Raymond (Paris: Gallimard, Bibliothèque de la Pléiade, 1959-95); Rousseau Judge of Jean-Jacques., trans. Judith Bush, Roger D. Masters and Christopher Kelly, Collected Writings of Rousseau Vol. 1, ed. Roger D. Masters and Christopher Kelly (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1990); Reveries of the Solitary Walker, trans. Peter France (London: Penguin Books, 1979); Social Contract, in Social Contract, Discourse on the Virtue Most Necessary for a Hero, Political Fragments and Geneva Manuscript, trans. Judith R. Bush, Roger D. Masters, and Christopher Kelly, Collected Writings of Rousseau, Vol. 2, (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1994).
7. Rousseau references are, in most cases, first to the Pléiade, then to an English translation. Letter to D'Alembert references are solely to the Bloom translation, and Letter to Malesherbes references are solely to the Pléiade. Editions are as follows. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Considerations on the Government of Poland, in Political Writings, trans. and ed. Frederick Watkins (Madison University of Wisconsin Press, 1953); Constitutional Project for Corsica, in Political Writings; Discourse on Political Economy, In Discourse on Political Economy and the Social Contract, trans. Christopher Betts (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994); Emile, or on Education, trans. Allan Bloom (New York: Basic Books, 1979); The First and Second Discourses Together with the Replies to Critics and Essay on the Origin of Languages, trans. Victor Gourevitch (New York: Harper & Row, 1986); Letter to D'Alembert, trans. Allan Bloom, in Politics and the Arts (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, Agora Editions, 1960); Oeuvres Complètes, ed. Bernard Gagnebin and Marcel Raymond (Paris: Gallimard, Bibliothèque de la Pléiade, 1959-95); Rousseau Judge of Jean-Jacques., trans. Judith Bush, Roger D. Masters and Christopher Kelly, Collected Writings of Rousseau Vol. 1, ed. Roger D. Masters and Christopher Kelly (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1990); Reveries of the Solitary Walker, trans. Peter France (London: Penguin Books, 1979); Social Contract, in Social Contract, Discourse on the Virtue Most Necessary for a Hero, Political Fragments and Geneva Manuscript, trans. Judith R. Bush, Roger D. Masters, and Christopher Kelly, Collected Writings of Rousseau, Vol. 2, (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1994).
8. Rousseau references are, in most cases, first to the Pléiade, then to an English translation. Letter to D'Alembert references are solely to the Bloom translation, and Letter to Malesherbes references are solely to the Pléiade. Editions are as follows. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Considerations on the Government of Poland, in Political Writings, trans. and ed. Frederick Watkins (Madison University of Wisconsin Press, 1953); Constitutional Project for Corsica, in Political Writings; Discourse on Political Economy, In Discourse on Political Economy and the Social Contract, trans. Christopher Betts (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994); Emile, or on Education, trans. Allan Bloom (New York: Basic Books, 1979); The First and Second Discourses Together with the Replies to Critics and Essay on the Origin of Languages, trans. Victor Gourevitch (New York: Harper & Row, 1986); Letter to D'Alembert, trans. Allan Bloom, in Politics and the Arts (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, Agora Editions, 1960); Oeuvres Complètes, ed. Bernard Gagnebin and Marcel Raymond (Paris: Gallimard, Bibliothèque de la Pléiade, 1959-95); Rousseau Judge of Jean-Jacques., trans. Judith Bush, Roger D. Masters and Christopher Kelly, Collected Writings of Rousseau Vol. 1, ed. Roger D. Masters and Christopher Kelly (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1990); Reveries of the Solitary Walker, trans. Peter France (London: Penguin Books, 1979); Social Contract, in Social Contract, Discourse on the Virtue Most Necessary for a Hero, Political Fragments and Geneva Manuscript, trans. Judith R. Bush, Roger D. Masters, and Christopher Kelly, Collected Writings of Rousseau, Vol. 2, (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1994).
9. Rousseau references are, in most cases, first to the Pléiade, then to an English translation. Letter to D'Alembert references are solely to the Bloom translation, and Letter to Malesherbes references are solely to the Pléiade. Editions are as follows. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Considerations on the Government of Poland, in Political Writings, trans. and ed. Frederick Watkins (Madison University of Wisconsin Press, 1953); Constitutional Project for Corsica, in Political Writings; Discourse on Political Economy, In Discourse on Political Economy and the Social Contract, trans. Christopher Betts (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994); Emile, or on Education, trans. Allan Bloom (New York: Basic Books, 1979); The First and Second Discourses Together with the Replies to Critics and Essay on the Origin of Languages, trans. Victor Gourevitch (New York: Harper & Row, 1986); Letter to D'Alembert, trans. Allan Bloom, in Politics and the Arts (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, Agora Editions, 1960); Oeuvres Complètes, ed. Bernard Gagnebin and Marcel Raymond (Paris: Gallimard, Bibliothèque de la Pléiade, 1959-95); Rousseau Judge of Jean-Jacques., trans. Judith Bush, Roger D. Masters and Christopher Kelly, Collected Writings of Rousseau Vol. 1, ed. Roger D. Masters and Christopher Kelly (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1990); Reveries of the Solitary Walker, trans. Peter France (London: Penguin Books, 1979); Social Contract, in Social Contract, Discourse on the Virtue Most Necessary for a Hero, Political Fragments and Geneva Manuscript, trans. Judith R. Bush, Roger D. Masters, and Christopher Kelly, Collected Writings of Rousseau, Vol. 2, (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1994).
10. Rousseau references are, in most cases, first to the Pléiade, then to an English translation. Letter to D'Alembert references are solely to the Bloom translation, and Letter to Malesherbes references are solely to the Pléiade. Editions are as follows. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Considerations on the Government of Poland, in Political Writings, trans. and ed. Frederick Watkins (Madison University of Wisconsin Press, 1953); Constitutional Project for Corsica, in Political Writings; Discourse on Political Economy, In Discourse on Political Economy and the Social Contract, trans. Christopher Betts (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994); Emile, or on Education, trans. Allan Bloom (New York: Basic Books, 1979); The First and Second Discourses Together with the Replies to Critics and Essay on the Origin of Languages, trans. Victor Gourevitch (New York: Harper & Row, 1986); Letter to D'Alembert, trans. Allan Bloom, in Politics and the Arts (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, Agora Editions, 1960); Oeuvres Complètes, ed. Bernard Gagnebin and Marcel Raymond (Paris: Gallimard, Bibliothèque de la Pléiade, 1959-95); Rousseau Judge of Jean-Jacques., trans. Judith Bush, Roger D. Masters and Christopher Kelly, Collected Writings of Rousseau Vol. 1, ed. Roger D. Masters and Christopher Kelly (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1990); Reveries of the Solitary Walker, trans. Peter France (London: Penguin Books, 1979); Social Contract, in Social Contract, Discourse on the Virtue Most Necessary for a Hero, Political Fragments and Geneva Manuscript, trans. Judith R. Bush, Roger D. Masters, and Christopher Kelly, Collected Writings of Rousseau, Vol. 2, (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1994).
11. Rousseau references are, in most cases, first to the Pléiade, then to an English translation. Letter to D'Alembert references are solely to the Bloom translation, and Letter to Malesherbes references are solely to the Pléiade. Editions are as follows. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Considerations on the Government of Poland, in Political Writings, trans. and ed. Frederick Watkins (Madison University of Wisconsin Press, 1953); Constitutional Project for Corsica, in Political Writings; Discourse on Political Economy, In Discourse on Political Economy and the Social Contract, trans. Christopher Betts (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994); Emile, or on Education, trans. Allan Bloom (New York: Basic Books, 1979); The First and Second Discourses Together with the Replies to Critics and Essay on the Origin of Languages, trans. Victor Gourevitch (New York: Harper & Row, 1986); Letter to D'Alembert, trans. Allan Bloom, in Politics and the Arts (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, Agora Editions, 1960); Oeuvres Complètes, ed. Bernard Gagnebin and Marcel Raymond (Paris: Gallimard, Bibliothèque de la Pléiade, 1959-95); Rousseau Judge of Jean-Jacques., trans. Judith Bush, Roger D. Masters and Christopher Kelly, Collected Writings of Rousseau Vol. 1, ed. Roger D. Masters and Christopher Kelly (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1990); Reveries of the Solitary Walker, trans. Peter France (London: Penguin Books, 1979); Social Contract, in Social Contract, Discourse on the Virtue Most Necessary for a Hero, Political Fragments and Geneva Manuscript, trans. Judith R. Bush, Roger D. Masters, and Christopher Kelly, Collected Writings of Rousseau, Vol. 2, (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1994).
12. Rousseau references are, in most cases, first to the Pléiade, then to an English translation. Letter to D'Alembert references are solely to the Bloom translation, and Letter to Malesherbes references are solely to the Pléiade. Editions are as follows. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Considerations on the Government of Poland, in Political Writings, trans. and ed. Frederick Watkins (Madison University of Wisconsin Press, 1953); Constitutional Project for Corsica, in Political Writings; Discourse on Political Economy, In Discourse on Political Economy and the Social Contract, trans. Christopher Betts (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994); Emile, or on Education, trans. Allan Bloom (New York: Basic Books, 1979); The First and Second Discourses Together with the Replies to Critics and Essay on the Origin of Languages, trans. Victor Gourevitch (New York: Harper & Row, 1986); Letter to D'Alembert, trans. Allan Bloom, in Politics and the Arts (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, Agora Editions, 1960); Oeuvres Complètes, ed. Bernard Gagnebin and Marcel Raymond (Paris: Gallimard, Bibliothèque de la Pléiade, 1959-95); Rousseau Judge of Jean-Jacques., trans. Judith Bush, Roger D. Masters and Christopher Kelly, Collected Writings of Rousseau Vol. 1, ed. Roger D. Masters and Christopher Kelly (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1990); Reveries of the Solitary Walker, trans. Peter France (London: Penguin Books, 1979); Social Contract, in Social Contract, Discourse on the Virtue Most Necessary for a Hero, Political Fragments and Geneva Manuscript, trans. Judith R. Bush, Roger D. Masters, and Christopher Kelly, Collected Writings of Rousseau, Vol. 2, (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1994).
13. Rousseau references are, in most cases, first to the Pléiade, then to an English translation. Letter to D'Alembert references are solely to the Bloom translation, and Letter to Malesherbes references are solely to the Pléiade. Editions are as follows. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Considerations on the Government of Poland, in Political Writings, trans. and ed. Frederick Watkins (Madison University of Wisconsin Press, 1953); Constitutional Project for Corsica, in Political Writings; Discourse on Political Economy, In Discourse on Political Economy and the Social Contract, trans. Christopher Betts (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994); Emile, or on Education, trans. Allan Bloom (New York: Basic Books, 1979); The First and Second Discourses Together with the Replies to Critics and Essay on the Origin of Languages, trans. Victor Gourevitch (New York: Harper & Row, 1986); Letter to D'Alembert, trans. Allan Bloom, in Politics and the Arts (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, Agora Editions, 1960); Oeuvres Complètes, ed. Bernard Gagnebin and Marcel Raymond (Paris: Gallimard, Bibliothèque de la Pléiade, 1959-95); Rousseau Judge of Jean-Jacques., trans. Judith Bush, Roger D. Masters and Christopher Kelly, Collected Writings of Rousseau Vol. 1, ed. Roger D. Masters and Christopher Kelly (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1990); Reveries of the Solitary Walker, trans. Peter France (London: Penguin Books, 1979); Social Contract, in Social Contract, Discourse on the Virtue Most Necessary for a Hero, Political Fragments and Geneva Manuscript, trans. Judith R. Bush, Roger D. Masters, and Christopher Kelly, Collected Writings of Rousseau, Vol. 2, (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1994).
14. Plattner and Scott stick most closely to the view I have outlined, though Plattner (Rousseau's State, 75) thinks that Rousseau may have consciously exaggerated man's natural asociality. Strauss and especially Melzer doubt the importance of Rousseau's "anthropological" description of original man but otherwise reconcile the individualist and collectivist arguments in Rousseau along those same lines.
15. See Ernst Cassirer, The Question of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, trans. and ed. Peter Gay (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989). For a discussion of the influence of Cassirer's interpretation, see Peter Gay, Intr. to Cassirer, Question, 24-26. See also Robert Pippin, "The Modern World of Leo Strauss," Political Theory, 20 (August, 1992): 448-72; and "Hegel, Ethical Reasons, Kantian Rejoinders," Philosophical Topics, 19 (Fall 1991): 99-132. He stresses Rousseau's "idealist" side with regard, at any rate, to morality and politics. For valuable discussions of Rousseau's influence on and relation to Kant, see Richard Velkley, Freedom and the End of Reason (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989) and William Galston, Kant and the Problem of History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1975). For Kant's own reading, see Immanuel Kant, "Conjectural Beginning of Human History," trans. Emil L. Fackenheim, in On History, ed. Lewis White Beck (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1963), 532-88.
16. See Ernst Cassirer, The Question of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, trans. and ed. Peter Gay (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989). For a discussion of the influence of Cassirer's interpretation, see Peter Gay, Intr. to Cassirer, Question, 24-26. See also Robert Pippin, "The Modern World of Leo Strauss," Political Theory, 20 (August, 1992): 448-72; and "Hegel, Ethical Reasons, Kantian Rejoinders," Philosophical Topics, 19 (Fall 1991): 99-132. He stresses Rousseau's "idealist" side with regard, at any rate, to morality and politics. For valuable discussions of Rousseau's influence on and relation to Kant, see Richard Velkley, Freedom and the End of Reason (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989) and William Galston, Kant and the Problem of History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1975). For Kant's own reading, see Immanuel Kant, "Conjectural Beginning of Human History," trans. Emil L. Fackenheim, in On History, ed. Lewis White Beck (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1963), 532-88.
17. See Ernst Cassirer, The Question of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, trans. and ed. Peter Gay (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989). For a discussion of the influence of Cassirer's interpretation, see Peter Gay, Intr. to Cassirer, Question, 24-26. See also Robert Pippin, "The Modern World of Leo Strauss," Political Theory, 20 (August, 1992): 448-72; and "Hegel, Ethical Reasons, Kantian Rejoinders," Philosophical Topics, 19 (Fall 1991): 99-132. He stresses Rousseau's "idealist" side with regard, at any rate, to morality and politics. For valuable discussions of Rousseau's influence on and relation to Kant, see Richard Velkley, Freedom and the End of Reason (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989) and William Galston, Kant and the Problem of History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1975). For Kant's own reading, see Immanuel Kant, "Conjectural Beginning of Human History," trans. Emil L. Fackenheim, in On History, ed. Lewis White Beck (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1963), 532-88.
18. See Ernst Cassirer, The Question of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, trans. and ed. Peter Gay (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989). For a discussion of the influence of Cassirer's interpretation, see Peter Gay, Intr. to Cassirer, Question, 24-26. See also Robert Pippin, "The Modern World of Leo Strauss," Political Theory, 20 (August, 1992): 448-72; and "Hegel, Ethical Reasons, Kantian Rejoinders," Philosophical Topics, 19 (Fall 1991): 99-132. He stresses Rousseau's "idealist" side with regard, at any rate, to morality and politics. For valuable discussions of Rousseau's influence on and relation to Kant, see Richard Velkley, Freedom and the End of Reason (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989) and William Galston, Kant and the Problem of History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1975). For Kant's own reading, see Immanuel Kant, "Conjectural Beginning of Human History," trans. Emil L. Fackenheim, in On History, ed. Lewis White Beck (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1963), 532-88.
19. See Ernst Cassirer, The Question of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, trans. and ed. Peter Gay (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989). For a discussion of the influence of Cassirer's interpretation, see Peter Gay, Intr. to Cassirer, Question, 24-26. See also Robert Pippin, "The Modern World of Leo Strauss," Political Theory, 20 (August, 1992): 448-72; and "Hegel, Ethical Reasons, Kantian Rejoinders," Philosophical Topics, 19 (Fall 1991): 99-132. He stresses Rousseau's "idealist" side with regard, at any rate, to morality and politics. For valuable discussions of Rousseau's influence on and relation to Kant, see Richard Velkley, Freedom and the End of Reason (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989) and William Galston, Kant and the Problem of History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1975). For Kant's own reading, see Immanuel Kant, "Conjectural Beginning of Human History," trans. Emil L. Fackenheim, in On History, ed. Lewis White Beck (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1963), 532-88.
20. See Ernst Cassirer, The Question of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, trans. and ed. Peter Gay (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989). For a discussion of the influence of Cassirer's interpretation, see Peter Gay, Intr. to Cassirer, Question, 24-26. See also Robert Pippin, "The Modern World of Leo Strauss," Political Theory, 20 (August, 1992): 448-72; and "Hegel, Ethical Reasons, Kantian Rejoinders," Philosophical Topics, 19 (Fall 1991): 99-132. He stresses Rousseau's "idealist" side with regard, at any rate, to morality and politics. For valuable discussions of Rousseau's influence on and relation to Kant, see Richard Velkley, Freedom and the End of Reason (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989) and William Galston, Kant and the Problem of History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1975). For Kant's own reading, see Immanuel Kant, "Conjectural Beginning of Human History," trans. Emil L. Fackenheim, in On History, ed. Lewis White Beck (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1963), 532-88.
21. See Ernst Cassirer, The Question of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, trans. and ed. Peter Gay (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989). For a discussion of the influence of Cassirer's interpretation, see Peter Gay, Intr. to Cassirer, Question, 24-26. See also Robert Pippin, "The Modern World of Leo Strauss," Political Theory, 20 (August, 1992): 448-72; and "Hegel, Ethical Reasons, Kantian Rejoinders," Philosophical Topics, 19 (Fall 1991): 99-132. He stresses Rousseau's "idealist" side with regard, at any rate, to morality and politics. For valuable discussions of Rousseau's influence on and relation to Kant, see Richard Velkley, Freedom and the End of Reason (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989) and William Galston, Kant and the Problem of History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1975). For Kant's own reading, see Immanuel Kant, "Conjectural Beginning of Human History," trans. Emil L. Fackenheim, in On History, ed. Lewis White Beck (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1963), 532-88.
22. Cassirer, Question, 25, 75, 56.
23. Quoted from "Idea of a Universal History in the Interest of World Citizenship" in Ernst Cassirer, Rousseau, Kant, Goethe (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1945), 23.
24. Cassirer, Question, 56; italics in original.
25. Cf. Melzer, Natural Goodness, 90: "If the contradiction of society . . . is what divides man against himself and others, then he can be restored to unity and justice by inducing him to embrace totally either side of the contradiction: complete selfishness or complete sociability. To eliminate divisive personal dependence, men must be either totally separated or wholly united."
26. The Hobbesian reading allows that unity may also be restored by removing oneself from society, but this individualistic attempt to recapture the goodness of nature can succeed only for "a few isolated and rare human beings" (Melzer, Natural Goodness, 93). In keeping with his view that original, natural individuality is not true individuality, Cassirer denies that the mature Rousseau held his own life up as any kind of alternative to citizenship: "it is completely mistaken to make Rousseau's ethics responsible for the weaknesses of his character" (Cassirer, Question, 95).
27. The Hobbesian reading allows that unity may also be restored by removing oneself from society, but this individualistic attempt to recapture the goodness of nature can succeed only for "a few isolated and rare human beings" (Melzer, Natural Goodness, 93). In keeping with his view that original, natural individuality is not true individuality, Cassirer denies that the mature Rousseau held his own life up as any kind of alternative to citizenship: "it is completely mistaken to make Rousseau's ethics responsible for the weaknesses of his character" (Cassirer, Question, 95).
28. In Judith Shklar, Men and Citizens: A Study of Rousseau's Political Theory (Cambridge: University of Cambridge Press, 1969), the Spartan citizen and the peasant of the "golden age" are two utopian models between which no compromise is possible, and "because they are incompatible, the attempt to pursue both enhances the strain under which men actually labor" (6).
29. Melzer (Natural Goodness, 92), for example, describes the solution of Emile as "a less extreme, if also less perfect form of the individualistic solution."
30. Melzer argues that some middling states are acceptable to Rousseau because what they lack in unity they make up for in "extent" or the capacity to feel life more (Natural Goodness, 70). This explanation is an important elaboration of the Hobbesian interpretation and a powerful alternative to my reading. I will take it up toward the end of this paper.
31. I have altered Gourevitch's translation, substituting "most durable" for "longest-lasting." The French is "la plus durable."
32. I have altered Gourevitch's translation, substituting "sweets of independent commerce" for "gentleness of independent dealings." The French is "des douceurs d'un commerce independant."
33. Rousseau, as he notes, is quoting from the fifth volume of the Histoire Générale des Voyages (Paris: Didot, 1748), 175.
34. I have altered Gourevitch's translation, substituting "manners and morals" for "morals." The French is "moeurs." In translating moeurs, I follow Allan Bloom's practice in his translation of the Letter to D'Alembert.
35. For a different treatment of the savage nation which, however, recognizes its importance in Rousseau's thought, see Lovejoy, "The Supposed Primitivism of Rousseau's Discourse on Inequality," in Essays in the History of Ideas (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1948), 29-30.
36. Cassirer, Question, 121-27.
37. Allan Bloom, Introduction to Emile, or On Education (New York: Basic Books, 1979), 28.
38. E, 482n.
39. I will limit myself to discussing the Dialogues, the Reveries and the Letters to Malesherbes, all of which have the advantage of concentrating on Rousseau's life in solitude.
40. Cf. D, II, 820; 124, II, II, 869; 162.
41. Cf. D, II, 854; 150.
42. See also Letter to d'Alembert, 37-45, in which Rousseau treats misanthropy at length.
43. Cf. D, II, 814-815; 119, II, 858; 153, M, I, 1131.
44. Similarly, the Letters to Malesherbes, which proclaim Rousseau's happiness in retreat, end with the hope for a new, intimate society with the Luxembourgs.
45. It is worth noting, however, that his imagination is inflamed once again by the end of the First Walk.
46. Cf. R, VIII, 1074; 123.
47. Commerce.
48. Cf. R, III, 1013; 50. For a very helpful discussion of the interdependence of independence and sociality, see Melzer, Natural Goodness, 77-78.
49. It may not be too farfetched to compare this manipulative and distanced role to that of the legislator of the Social Contract or the tutor in Emile.
50. See Chapter 13 of Melzer, Natural Goodness.
51. Particuliers.
52. I have altered Watkins's translation, substituting "savage" for "wild." The French is "sauvages." By making this change, I draw attention, as the French does, to the connection between Corsicans and "savages."
53. Judith Shklar notes this element but views it as anomalous. She writes that the rustic golden age is fundamentally "anti-political" (Shklar, Men and Citizens, 27), and the goods of the rustic and Spartan utopias are simply not compatible. I disagree.
54. Because Rousseau makes Rome above all his model, I do not take up the case of Sparta. While Sparta was surely still more collectivistic than Rome, Rousseau does not regard it as the peak of republicanism. One reason for Sparta's lesser status may be that the Spartan maintains his independence and self-sufficiency to much less of a degree than does the Roman.
55. Gay summarizes and gives references to this tendency in the literature in the Introduction and Postscript to Cassirer, Question, 7-8, 137-38.
56. Melzer, Natural Goodness, 90
57. Melzer, Natural Goodness, 70.
58. Melzer, Natural Goodness, 44-45, 89-90
59. Amour propre.