The Multilevel and Multifaceted Character of Computer Self-Efficacy: Toward Clarification of the Construct and an Integrative Framework for Research

Information Systems Research

Volumn 9, Issue 2, 1998, Pages 126-163

  Marakas, George M ^a   Yi, Mun Y ^b   Johnson, Richard D ^c  

^a INDIANA UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH CAROLINA   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND   (United States)

Author keywords

Computer Self Efficacy; Social Learning Theory; Training Performance

Indexed keywords

INFORMATION SYSTEMS;

COMPUTER SELF-EFFICACY; CONCEPTUAL MODEL; EMPIRICAL FINDINGS; INTEGRATED MODELING; INTEGRATIVE FRAMEWORK; MODERATING FACTORS; SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY;

HARDWARE;

EID: 0032341068     PISSN: 10477047     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1287/isre.9.2.126     Document Type: Article

References (130)

1. Arch, E. C. and D. E. Cummins, "Structured and Unstructured Exposure to Computers: Sex Differences in Attitude and Use Among College Students," Sex Roles, 20 (1989), 245-254.
2. Baltes, P. B. and G. V. Labouvie, "Adult Development of Intellectual Performance: Description, Explanation, and Modification, in C. Eisdorfer and M. P. Lawton (Eds.), The Psychology of Adult Development and Aging American Psychological Association, Washington, DC, 1973.
3. Bandura, A., Social Learning Theory, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1977a.
4. _, "Self-Efficacy: Toward a Unifying Theory of Behavioral Change," Psychological Rev., 84, 2 (1977b), 191-215.
5. _, "The Self System in Reciprocal Determinism," American Psychologist, 33 (1978a), 344-358.
6. _, "Reflections on Self-Efficacy," Advances in Behavioral Res. and Therapy, 1 (1978b), 237-269.
7. _, "Self-Efficacy in Mechanism Human Agency," American Psychologist, 37 (1982), 122-147.
8. _, Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1986.
9. _, "Self-Regulation of Motivation and Action through Goal Systems," in V. Hamilton, G. H. Bower, and N. H. Frijda (Eds.), Cognitive Perspectives on Emotion and Motivation, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 1988.
10. _, Self-Efficacy: The Exercise of Control, W. H. Freeman, New York, 1997.
11. _, "Regulation of Cognitive Processes through Perceived Self-Efficacy," Developmental Psychology, 25, 5 (1989), 729-735.
12. _ and Adams, "Analysis of Self-Efficacy Theory of Behavioral Change," Cognitive Therapy and Research, 1 (1977), 287-308.
13. _ and J. Beyer, "Cognitive Processes Mediating Behavioral Change," J. Personality and Social Psychology, 35 (1977), 125-139.
14. _ and D. Cervone, "Self-Evaluative and Self-Efficacy Mechanisms Governing the Motivational Effects of Goal Systems," J. Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 5 (1983), 1017-1028.
15. _, "Differential Engagement of Self-Reactive Influences in Cognitively Based Motivation," Unpublished Manuscript, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 1984.
16. _, "Differential Engagement of Self-Reactive Influences in Cognitive Motivation," Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 38 (1986), 92-113.
17. _ and F. J. Jourden, "Self-Regulatory Mechanisms Governing the Impact of Social Comparison on Complex Decision Making," J. Personality and Social Psychology, 60 (1991), 941-951.
18. _ and D. H. Schunk, "Cultivating Competence, Self-Efficacy, and Intrinsic Interest through Proximal Self-Motivation," J. Personality and Social Psychology, 41 (1981), 586-598.
19. Berry, J. M., R. L. West, and D. Dennehey, "Reliability and Validity of the Memory Self-Efficacy Questionnaire," Developmental Psychology, 25 (1989), 701-713.
20. Bloom, A. J. and J. E. Hautaluoma, "Anxiety Management Training as a Strategy for Enhancing Computer User Performance," Computers in Human Behavior, 6 (1990), 337-349.
21. Brown, I., Jr. and D. K. Inouye, "Learned Helplessness through Modeling: The Role of Perceived Similarity in Competence," J. Personality and Social Psychology, 36 (1978), 900-908.
22. Brown, S. D., R. W. Lent, and K. C. Larkin, "Self-Efficacy as a Moderator of Scholastic Aptitude-Academic Performance Relationships," J. Vocational Behavior, 35 (1989), 64-75.
23. Burkhardt, M. E. and D. J. Brass, "Changing Patterns or Patterns of Change: The Effects of a Change in Technology on Social Network Structure and Power," Adm. Sci. Quarterly, 35 (1990), 104-127.
24. Busch, T. "Gender Differences in Self-Efficacy and Attitudes Toward Computers," J. Educational Computing Res., 12, 2 (1995), 147-158.
25. Campbell, D. J. "Task Complexity: A Review and Analysis," Acad. Management Rev., 13 (1988), 40-52.
26. Carlson, R. D. and B. L. Grabowski, "The Effects of Computer Self-Efficacy on Direction-Following Behavior in Computer-Assisted Instruction," J. Computer-Based Instruction, 19, 1 (1992), 6-11.
27. Cervone, D., "Self-Efficacy Judgment under Uncertainty: Availability Biases in Perceived Self-Efficacy and Behavior," Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 1985.
28. _, "The Role of Self-Referent Cognitions in Goal Setting, Motivation, and Performance," in M. Robinowitz (Ed.), Applied Cognition, Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ.
29. _ and B. W. Palmer, "Anchoring Biases and the Perseverance of Self-Efficacy Beliefs," Cognitive Therapy and Res., 14 (1990), 401-416.
30. _ and P. K. Peake, "Anchoring, Efficacy, and Action: The Influence of Judgmental Heuristics on Self-Efficacy Judgments and Behavior," J. Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 3 (1986), 492-501.
31. Clement, S. "The Self-Efficacy Expectation and Occupational Preferences of Females and Males," J. Occupational Psychology, 60 (1986), 257-265.
32. Compeau, D. R. and C. A. Higgins, "The Development of a Measure of Computer Self-Efficacy," paper presented at The Administrative Science Association of Canada, Niagara Falls, ON, May 30-June 1, 1991a.
33. _, "A Social Cognitive Theory Perspective on Individual Reactions to Computing Technology," in J. DeGross, I. Benbasat, G. DeSanctis, and C. Beath (Eds.), Proc. Twelfth International Conf. on Information Systems, New York, 1991b.
34. _, "Computer Self-Efficacy: Development of a Measure and Initial Test," MIS Quarterly, 19, 2 (1995a), 189-211.
35. _, "Application of Social Cognitive Theory to Training for Computer Skills," Information Systems Res., 6, 2 (1995b), 118-143.
36. Davis, F. D. "Perceived Usefulness, Perceived Ease of Use, and User Acceptance of Information Technology," MIS Quarterly, 13, 3 (1989), 319-340.
37. _, R. P. Bagozzi, and P. R. Warshaw, "User Acceptance of Computer Technology: A Comparison of two Theoretical Models," Management Sci., 35, 8 (1989), 982-1003.
38. Delcourt, M. A. B. and M. B. Kinzie, "Computer Technologies in Teacher Education: The Measurement of Attitudes and Self-Efficacy," J. Res. and Development in Education, 27, 1 (1993), 35-41.
39. DeSanctis, G., "Expectancy Theory as an Explanation of Voluntary Use of a Decision Support System," Psychological Reports, 52 (1983), 247-260.
40. Doll, W. J. and G. Torkzadeh, "The Measurement of End-User Computing Satisfaction," MIS Quarterly, 12, 2 (1988), 259-274.
41. Dorwick, P. W., "Self Modeling," in P. W. Dorwick and S. J. Biggs (Eds.), Using Video: Psychological and Social Applications, Wiley, London, 1983.
42. Dweck, C. S. and E. S. Elliott, "Achievement Motivation," in P. H. Mussen and E. M. Heatherington (Eds.), Handbook of Child Psychology: Socialization, Personality, and Social Development, 4th Ed., Wiley, New York, 1983.
43. Eastman, C. and J. S. Marzillier, "Theoretical and Methodological Difficulties in Bandura's Self-Efficacy Theory," Cognitive Therapy and Res., 8 (1984), 213-229.
44. Eden, D. and A. Aviram, "Self-Efficacy Training to Speed Reemployment: Helping People to Help Themselves," J. Applied Psychology, 78, 3 (1993), 352-360.
45. Eden and Kinnar, "Modeling Galatea: Boosting Self-Efficacy to Increase Volunteering," J. Applied Psychology, 76, 6 (1991), 770-780.
46. Ertmer, P. A., E. Evenbeck, K. S. Cennamo, and J. D. Lehman, "Enhancing Self-Efficacy for Computer Technologies through the Use of Positive Classroom Experiences," Educational Technology Res. and Development, 42, 3 (1994), 45-62.
47. Gist, M. E., "Self-Efficacy: Implications for Organizational Behavior and Human Resource Management," Acad. Management Rev., 12 (1987), 472-485.
48. _ and T. R. Mitchell, "Self-Efficacy: A Theoretical Analysis of Its Determinants and Malleability," Acad. Management Rev., 17 (1992), 183-211.
49. _, C. Schwoerer, and B. Rosen, "Effects of Alternative Training Methods on Self-Efficacy and Performance in Computer Software Training," J. Applied Psychology, 74 (1989), 884-891.
50. Glass, C. G. and L. A. Knight, "Cognitive Factors in Computer Anxiety," Cognitive Therapy and Res. 12 (1988), 351-366.
51. Gonzales, F. and P. Dorwick, "Mechanisms of Self-Modeling: An Investigation of Skills Acquisition versus Self-Belief," Unpublished Manuscript, University of Alaska, Anchorage, AK, 1983.
52. Gutek, B. A., and S. J. Winter, "Computer Use, Control Over Computers, and Job Satisfaction," in S. Oskamp and S. Spacapan (Eds.), People's Reactions to Technology, The Claremont Symposium on Applied Social Psychology, Volume 4, Sage Publications, Newbury Park, CA, 1990.
53. Harrison, A. W. and K. Rainer, Jr. "An Examination of the Factor Structures and Concurrent Validities for the Computer Attitude Scale, the Computer Anxiety Rating Scale, and the Computer Self-Efficacy Scale," Educational and Psychological Measurement, 52 (1992), 735-745.
54. Henderson, R. D., F. P. Deane, and M. J. Ward, "Occupational Differences in Computer-Related Anxiety: Implications for the Implementation of a Computerized Patient Management Information System," Behaviour and Information Technology, 14, 1 (1995), 23-31.
55. Henry, J. W. and R. W. Stone, "A Structural Equation Model of End-User Satisfaction with a Computer-Based Medical Information System," Information Resources Management J., 7, 3 (1994), 21-33.
56. _, "Computer Self-Efficacy and Outcome Expectancy: The Effects on the End-User's Job Satisfaction," Computer Personnel, (1995), 15-34.
57. Hill, T., N. D. Smith, and M. F. Mann, "Communicating Innovations: Convincing Computer Phobics to Adopt Innovative Technologies," in R. J. Lutz (Ed.), Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 13, Association for Consumer Research, Provo, UT, 1985.
58. _, "Role of Efficacy Expectations in Predicting the Decision to Use Advanced Technologies: The Case for Computers," J. Applied Psychology, 72, 2 (1987), 307-313.
59. Hollenbeck, J. R. and A. P. Brief, "The Effects of Individual Differences and Goal Origin and Goal Setting and Performance," Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 40 (1987), 392-414.
60. Igbaria, M. and J. Iivari, "The Effects of Self-Efficacy on Computer Usage," Omega, 23, 6 (1995), 587-605.
61. Jorde-Bloom, P. "Self-Efficacy Expectations as a Predictor of Computer Use: A Look at Early Childhood Administrators," Computers in the Schools, 5 (1988), 45-63.
62. _ and M. Ford, "Factors Influencing Early Childhood Administrators' Decisions Regarding the Adoption of Computer Technology," J. Educational Computing Res., 4, 1 (1988), 31-47.
63. Kanfer, and P. L. Ackerman, "Motivation and Cognitive Abilities: An Integrative/Aptitude-Treatment Interaction Approach to Skill Acquisition," J. Applied Psychology, 74 (1989), 657-689.
64. Kavanagh, D. J. and G. H. Bower, "Mood and Self-Efficacy: Impact of Joy and Sadness on Perceived Capabilities," Cognitive Therapy and Res., 9, (1985), 507-525.
65. Kelley, H. H., Attributions in Social Interactions, General Learning Press, Morristown, NJ, 1971.
66. _ and J. L. Michela, "Attribution Theory and Research," Annual Rev. of Psychology, 31 (1980), 457-501.
67. Kerr, N. L., "Illusions of Efficacy: The Effects of Group Size on Perceived Efficacy in Social Dilemmas," J. Experimental Social Psychology, 25 (1989), 287-313.
68. Killian, J., "Teachers Who Seek Computer Education: Their Attitudes, Needs, and Motivation," Proc. Annual Meeting of the American Education Association, New Orleans, LA, 1985.
69. Kinzie, M. B., M. A. B. Delcourt, and S. M. Powers, "Computer Technologies: Attitudes and Self-Efficacy Across Undergraduate Disciplines," Res. Higher Education, 35, 6 (1994), 745-768.
70. Latham, G. P. and E. A. Locke, "Self-Regulation Through Goal Setting," Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50 (1991), 212-247.
71. Lazarus and S. Folkman, Stress, Appraisal, and Coping, Springer, New York, 1984.
72. Lee, C. and P. Bobko, "Self-Efficacy Beliefs: Comparison of Five Measures," J. Applied Psychology, 79, 3 (1994), 364-369.
73. Lent, R. W., S. D. Brown, and K. C. Larkin, "Comparison of Three Theoretically Derived Variables in Predicting Career and Academic Behavior: Self-Efficacy, Interest Congruence, and Consequence Thinking," J. Counseling Psychology, 34, 3, (1987), 293-298.
74. Locke, E. A., E. Frederick, C. Lee, and P. Bobko, "Effect of Self-Efficacy, Goals, and Task Strategies on Task Performance," J. Applied Psychology, 69, 2 (1984), 241-251.
75. Loyd, B. H. and C. P. Gressard, "Reliability and Factorial Validity of Computer Attitude Scales," Educational and Psychological Measurement, 44 (1984), 501-505.
76. Marakas, G. M., "Anthropomorphic Behavior and Information Technology: When the Metaphor Becomes the Model," Acad. Management Conf. Dallas, TX, 1994.
77. _ and S. F. Hornik, "Passive Resistance Misuse: Overt Support and Covert Recalcitrance in IS Implementation," European J. Information Systems, 5 (1996), 208-219.
78. _, M. Y. Yi, and R. D. Johnson, "The Multilevel Construct of Computer Self-Efficacy: An Empirical Investigation at the General and Task-Specific Levels," in J. I. DeGross, S. Jarvenpaa, and A. Srinivasan (Eds.), Proc. Seventeenth International Conf. on Information Systems, Cleveland, OH, 1996.
79. Martocchio, J. J., "Microcomputer Usage as an Opportunity: The Influence of Context in Employee Training," Personnel Psychology, 45, 3 (1992), 529-552.
80. _, "Effects of Conceptions of Ability on Anxiety, Self-Efficacy, and Learning in Training," J. Applied Psychology, 79, 6 (1994a), 819-825.
81. _ and J. Dulebohn, "Performance Feedback Effects in Training: The Role of Perceived Controllability," Personnel Psychology, 47, 2 (1994), 357-373.
82. _ and J. Webster, "Effects of Feedback and Cognitive Playfulness on Performance in Microcomputer Software Training," Personnel Psychology, 45 (1992), 553-578.
83. Meier, S. T., "Computer Aversion," Computers in Human Behavior, 1 (1985), 171-179.
84. Mischel, W., "Sex-typing and Socialization," in P. H. Mussen (Ed.), Carmichaels Manual of Child Psychology, 2, John Wiley, New York, 1970.
85. Mitchell, T. R., H. Hopper, D. Daniels, J. George-Falvy, and L. R. James, "Predicting Self-Efficacy and Performance During Skill Acquisition," J. Applied Psychology, 79, 4 (1994), 506-517.
86. Miura, I. T., "The Relationship Between Self-Efficacy Expectations to Computer Interest and Course Enrollment in College," Sex Roles, 16, 5-6 (1987), 303-311.
87. Mone, M. A., "Comparative Validity of Two Measures of Self-Efficacy in Predicting Academic Goals and Performance," Educational and Psychological Measurement, 54, 2 (1994), 516-529.
88. _ and D. Kelly, "Relationships Between Self-Efficacy, Self-Esteem, and Behavior in Organizations," in R. Kilmann, I. Kilmann, and Associates (Eds.), Managing Ego Energy: The Transformation of Personal Meaning into Organizational Success, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA, 1994.
89. Murphy, C. A., D. Coover, and S. V. Owen, "Development and validation of the computer self-efficacy scale," Educational and Psychological Measurement, 49 (1989), 893-899.
90. Nichols, J. G., "Achievement Motivation: Conceptions of Ability, Subjective Experience, Task Choice, and Performance," Psychological Review, 91 (1984), 328-346.
91. Oliver, T. A. and F. Shapiro, "Self-Efficacy and Computers," J. Computer-Based Instruction, 20, 3 (1993), 81-85.
92. Ogletree, S. M. and S. W. Williams, "Sex and Sex-Typing Effects on Computer Attitudes and Aptitude," Sex Roles, 23, 11-12 (1990), 703-712.
93. Peake, P. K. and D. Cervone, "Sequence Anchoring and Self-Efficacy: Primacy Effects in the Considerations of Possibilities" Social Cognition, 7 (1989), 31-50.
94. Rosen, L. D., D. C. Sears, and M. M. Weil, "Computerphobia," Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 19, 2 (1987), 167-179.
95. Russell, J. S., K. N. Wexley, and J. E. Hunter, "Questioning the Effectiveness of Behavior Modeling Training in an Industrial Setting," Personnel Psychology, 37 (1984), 465-481.
96. Russon, A. E., N. Josefowitz, and C. V. Edmonds, "Making Computer Instruction Accessible: Familiar Analogies for Female Novices," Computers in Human Behavior, 10, 2 (1994), 175-187.
97. Salomon, G., "Television is 'Easy' and Print is 'Tough': The Differential Investment of Mental Effort in Learning as a Function of Perceptions and Attributions," J. Educational Psychology, 76, 4 (1984), 647-658.
98. Sarason, I. G., "Anxiety and Preoccupation," in I. G. Sarason and C. D. Speilberger (Eds.), Stress and Anxiety, Vol. 2, Washington, DC, Hemisphere, 1975.
99. Schaie, K. W., "Translations in Gerontology-From Lab to Life: Intellectual Functioning." American Psychologist, 1974, 802-807.
100. Schunk, D. H., How to Encourage Girls in Math and Science, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1983.
101. _, "Self-Efficacy Perspective on Achievement Behavior," Educational Psychologist, 19 (1984), 48-58.
102. _, "Self-Efficacy and Academic Motivation," Educational Psychologist, 26, 314 (1991), 207-231.
103. _ and R. P. Gunn, "Self-Efficacy and Skill Development: Influence of Task Strategies and Attributions," J. Educational Res., 79 (1986), 238-244.
104. Sherer, M., J. E. Maddux, B. Mercadante, S. Prentice-Dunn, B. Jacobs, and R. W. Rogers, "The Self-Efficacy Scale: Construction and Validation," Psychological Reports, 51, (1982), 663-671.
105. Silver, W. S., T. R. Mitchell, and M. E. Gist, "Responses to Successful and Unsuccessful Performance: The Moderating Effect of Self-Efficacy on the Relationship Between Performance and Attribution," Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 62, 3 (1995), 286-299.
106. Simon, S. J., "An Analysis and Evaluation of Computer-Related Training Techniques," Proc. First Americas Conf. on Information Systems, 1995, 127-129.
107. Smith, J. M., "The Effects of Education on Computer Self-Efficacy," J. Industrial Teacher Education, 31, 3 (1994), 51-65.
108. Stone, D. N., "Overconfidence in Initial Self-Efficacy Judgments: Effects on Decision Processes and Performance," Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 59 (1994), 452-474.
109. Storms, M. D., and K. D. McCaul, "Attribution Processes and Emotional Exacerbation of Dysfunctional Behavior," in J. Harvey, W. Ickes, and R. F. Kidd (Eds.), New Directions in Attribution Research, Vol. 1, Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ, 1976, 143-164.
110. Straub, D. W., "Validating Instruments in MIS Research," MIS Quarterly, 12 (1989), 147-167.
111. Stumpf, S. A., A. P. Brief, and K. Hartman, "Self-Efficacy Expectations and Coping with Career-Related Events," J. Vocational Behavior, 31 (1987), 91-108.
112. Suis, J. and B. Mullen, "From the Cradle to the Grave: Comparison and Self-Evaluation Across the Life-Span." in J. Suls (Ed.), Psychological Perspectives on the Self, Vol. 1, Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ, 97-125.
113. Taylor, M. S., E. A. Locke, C. Lee, and M. E. Gist, "Type A Behavior and Faculty Research Productivity: What are the Mechanisms?" Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 34 (1984), 402-418.
114. Taylor, S. and P. A. Todd "Understanding Information Technology Usage: A Test of Competing Models," Information Systems Research, 6, 2 (1995), 144-176.
115. Torkzadeh, G. and X. Koufteros, "Factorial Validity of a Computer Self-Efficacy Scale and the Impact of Computer Training," Educational and Psychological Measurement, 54 3 (1994), 813-821.
116. _ and K. Pflughoeft, "Structural Equation Modeling for Confirming the Self-Efficacy Instrument," in R. Ebert and L. Franz (Eds.), 1996 Proc. of the Decision Sciences Institute Annual Meeting, Vol. 2, 1996, 601-603.
117. _ and K. Pflughoeft, "Computer Self-Efficacy and Training Effectiveness: An Empirical Study," in R. Ebert and L. Franz (Eds.), 1996 Proc. of the Decision Sciences Institute Annual Meeting, Vol. 2, 1996, 790-792.
118. Tversky, A., and D. Kahneman, "Availability: A Heuristic for Judging Frequency and Probability," Cognitive Psychology, 5 (1973), 207-232.
119. _, "Judgments Under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases," Science, 185 (1974), 1124-1131.
120. Venkatesh, V. and F. D. Davis, "A Model of the Antecedents of Perceived Ease of Use: Development and Test," Decision Sciences, 27, 3 (1996), 451-482.
121. Vessey, I. and D. Galletta, "Cognitive Fit: An Empirical Study of Information Acquisition," Information Systems Research, 2, 1 (1991), 63-84.
122. Webster, J. and J. J. Martocchio, "Microcomputer Playfulness: Development of a Measure with Workplace Implications," MIS Quarterly, 16, 2 (1992), 201-226.
123. _, "Turning Work into Play: Implications for Microcomputer Software Training," J. Management, 19, 1 (1993), 127-146.
124. _, "The Differential Effects of Software Training Previews on Training Outcomes," J. Management, 21, 4 (1995), 757-787.
125. Weil, M. M., L. D. Rosen, and D. C. Sears, "The Computerphobia Reduction Program: Year 1. Program Development and Preliminary Results," Behavioral Research Methods, Instruments & Computers, 19, 2 (1987), 180-184.
126. _ and S. E. Wugalter, "The Etiology of Computerphobia," Computers in Human Behavior, 6 (1990), 361-379.
127. Wood, R. E., "Task Complexity: Definition of the Construct," Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 37 (1986), 60-82.
128. _ and A. Bandura, "Impact of Conceptions of Ability on Self-Regulatory Mechanisms and Complex Decision-Making," J. Personality and Social Psychology, 56 (1989a), 407-415.
129. _ and _, "Social Cognitive Theory of Organizational Management," Acad. Management Rev., 14 (1989b), 361-384.
130. Zmud, R. W., and A. C. Boynton, "Survey Measures and Instruments in MIS: Inventory and Appraisal," in K. L. Kraemer, J. I. Cash, Jr., and J. F. Nunamaker, Jr., (Eds.), "The Information Systems Challenge: Survey Research Methods," 3 (1991), 149-180.