Following suit or falling behind? A comparative analysis of think tanks in Canada and the United States

Canadian Journal of Political Science

Volumn 31, Issue 3, 1998, Pages 525-555

  Abelson, Donald E ^a   Carberry, Christine M ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WESTERN ONTARIO   (Canada)

^b SOUTHERN METHODIST UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0032338972     PISSN: 00084239     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/s0008423900009112     Document Type: Article

References (141)

1. James G. McGann, "Academics to Ideologues: A Brief History of the Public Policy Research Industry," PS: Political Science and Politics 25 (1992), 733.
2. A comprehensive directory of Canadian think tanks has yet to be produced, although some have speculated that there are approximately 100 private and university-based policy institutes in Canada.
3. Less than 4 per cent of the estimated 1,200 think tanks in the United States have budgets in excess of $10 million, a select pool which includes the Brookings Institution, the American Enterprise Institute, the Hoover Institution and the Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS). In fact, less than 16 per cent of all American think tanks have budgets exceeding $1 million. See Lynn Hellebust, ed., Think Tank Directory: A Guide to Nonprofit Public Policy Research Organizations (Topeka, Kan.: Government Research Service, 1996). For comparative data on the institutional resources available to think tanks in the United States and the United Kingdom, see Diane Stone, Capturing the Political Imagmation (London: Frank Cass, 1996); and Diane Stone, Andrew Denham and Mark Garnett, Think Tanks across Nations: A Comparative Approach (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1998). On Australian think tanks see Ian Marsh, Globalisation and Australian Think Tanks: An Evaluation of Their Role and Contribution to Governance, CEDA Information Paper No. 34 (Melbourne and Sydney: CEDA, 1991); and Ian Marsh, An Australian Think Tank?: Lessons Australia Can Learn from Independent Policy Research (Kesington: University of New South Wales Press, 1980).
4. Less than 4 per cent of the estimated 1,200 think tanks in the United States have budgets in excess of $10 million, a select pool which includes the Brookings Institution, the American Enterprise Institute, the Hoover Institution and the Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS). In fact, less than 16 per cent of all American think tanks have budgets exceeding $1 million. See Lynn Hellebust, ed., Think Tank Directory: A Guide to Nonprofit Public Policy Research Organizations (Topeka, Kan.: Government Research Service, 1996). For comparative data on the institutional resources available to think tanks in the United States and the United Kingdom, see Diane Stone, Capturing the Political Imagmation (London: Frank Cass, 1996); and Diane Stone, Andrew Denham and Mark Garnett, Think Tanks across Nations: A Comparative Approach (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1998). On Australian think tanks see Ian Marsh, Globalisation and Australian Think Tanks: An Evaluation of Their Role and Contribution to Governance, CEDA Information Paper No. 34 (Melbourne and Sydney: CEDA, 1991); and Ian Marsh, An Australian Think Tank?: Lessons Australia Can Learn from Independent Policy Research (Kesington: University of New South Wales Press, 1980).
5. Less than 4 per cent of the estimated 1,200 think tanks in the United States have budgets in excess of $10 million, a select pool which includes the Brookings Institution, the American Enterprise Institute, the Hoover Institution and the Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS). In fact, less than 16 per cent of all American think tanks have budgets exceeding $1 million. See Lynn Hellebust, ed., Think Tank Directory: A Guide to Nonprofit Public Policy Research Organizations (Topeka, Kan.: Government Research Service, 1996). For comparative data on the institutional resources available to think tanks in the United States and the United Kingdom, see Diane Stone, Capturing the Political Imagmation (London: Frank Cass, 1996); and Diane Stone, Andrew Denham and Mark Garnett, Think Tanks across Nations: A Comparative Approach (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1998). On Australian think tanks see Ian Marsh, Globalisation and Australian Think Tanks: An Evaluation of Their Role and Contribution to Governance, CEDA Information Paper No. 34 (Melbourne and Sydney: CEDA, 1991); and Ian Marsh, An Australian Think Tank?: Lessons Australia Can Learn from Independent Policy Research (Kesington: University of New South Wales Press, 1980).
6. Less than 4 per cent of the estimated 1,200 think tanks in the United States have budgets in excess of $10 million, a select pool which includes the Brookings Institution, the American Enterprise Institute, the Hoover Institution and the Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS). In fact, less than 16 per cent of all American think tanks have budgets exceeding $1 million. See Lynn Hellebust, ed., Think Tank Directory: A Guide to Nonprofit Public Policy Research Organizations (Topeka, Kan.: Government Research Service, 1996). For comparative data on the institutional resources available to think tanks in the United States and the United Kingdom, see Diane Stone, Capturing the Political Imagmation (London: Frank Cass, 1996); and Diane Stone, Andrew Denham and Mark Garnett, Think Tanks across Nations: A Comparative Approach (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1998). On Australian think tanks see Ian Marsh, Globalisation and Australian Think Tanks: An Evaluation of Their Role and Contribution to Governance, CEDA Information Paper No. 34 (Melbourne and Sydney: CEDA, 1991); and Ian Marsh, An Australian Think Tank?: Lessons Australia Can Learn from Independent Policy Research (Kesington: University of New South Wales Press, 1980).
7. Less than 4 per cent of the estimated 1,200 think tanks in the United States have budgets in excess of $10 million, a select pool which includes the Brookings Institution, the American Enterprise Institute, the Hoover Institution and the Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS). In fact, less than 16 per cent of all American think tanks have budgets exceeding $1 million. See Lynn Hellebust, ed., Think Tank Directory: A Guide to Nonprofit Public Policy Research Organizations (Topeka, Kan.: Government Research Service, 1996). For comparative data on the institutional resources available to think tanks in the United States and the United Kingdom, see Diane Stone, Capturing the Political Imagmation (London: Frank Cass, 1996); and Diane Stone, Andrew Denham and Mark Garnett, Think Tanks across Nations: A Comparative Approach (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1998). On Australian think tanks see Ian Marsh, Globalisation and Australian Think Tanks: An Evaluation of Their Role and Contribution to Governance, CEDA Information Paper No. 34 (Melbourne and Sydney: CEDA, 1991); and Ian Marsh, An Australian Think Tank?: Lessons Australia Can Learn from Independent Policy Research (Kesington: University of New South Wales Press, 1980).
8. See Stone, Capturing the Political Imagination; William Wallace, ""Between Two Worlds: Think-Tanks and Foreign Policy," in Christopher Hill and Pamela Beshoff, eds., Two Worlds of International Relations: Academics, Practitioners and the Trade in Ideas (London: Routledge, 1994); James A. Smith, The Idea Brokers: Thinks Tanks and the Rise of the New Policy Elite (New York: Free Press, 1991); and David M. Ricci, The Transformation of American Politics: The New Washington and the Rise of Think Tanks (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993).
9. See Stone, Capturing the Political Imagination; William Wallace, ""Between Two Worlds: Think-Tanks and Foreign Policy," in Christopher Hill and Pamela Beshoff, eds., Two Worlds of International Relations: Academics, Practitioners and the Trade in Ideas (London: Routledge, 1994); James A. Smith, The Idea Brokers: Thinks Tanks and the Rise of the New Policy Elite (New York: Free Press, 1991); and David M. Ricci, The Transformation of American Politics: The New Washington and the Rise of Think Tanks (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993).
10. See Stone, Capturing the Political Imagination; William Wallace, ""Between Two Worlds: Think-Tanks and Foreign Policy," in Christopher Hill and Pamela Beshoff, eds., Two Worlds of International Relations: Academics, Practitioners and the Trade in Ideas (London: Routledge, 1994); James A. Smith, The Idea Brokers: Thinks Tanks and the Rise of the New Policy Elite (New York: Free Press, 1991); and David M. Ricci, The Transformation of American Politics: The New Washington and the Rise of Think Tanks (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993).
11. See Stone, Capturing the Political Imagination; William Wallace, ""Between Two Worlds: Think-Tanks and Foreign Policy," in Christopher Hill and Pamela Beshoff, eds., Two Worlds of International Relations: Academics, Practitioners and the Trade in Ideas (London: Routledge, 1994); James A. Smith, The Idea Brokers: Thinks Tanks and the Rise of the New Policy Elite (New York: Free Press, 1991); and David M. Ricci, The Transformation of American Politics: The New Washington and the Rise of Think Tanks (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993).
12. See Stone, Capturing the Political Imagination; William Wallace, ""Between Two Worlds: Think-Tanks and Foreign Policy," in Christopher Hill and Pamela Beshoff, eds., Two Worlds of International Relations: Academics, Practitioners and the Trade in Ideas (London: Routledge, 1994); James A. Smith, The Idea Brokers: Thinks Tanks and the Rise of the New Policy Elite (New York: Free Press, 1991); and David M. Ricci, The Transformation of American Politics: The New Washington and the Rise of Think Tanks (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993).
13. See Donald E. Abelson, American Think-Tanks and Their Role in U.S. Foreign Policy (London and New York: Macmillan and St. Martin's Press, 1996): and Smith, The Idea Brokers.
14. See Donald E. Abelson, American Think-Tanks and Their Role in U.S. Foreign Policy (London and New York: Macmillan and St. Martin's Press, 1996): and Smith, The Idea Brokers.
15. Assessing the influence of think tanks on policy debates remains a formidable methodological obstacle. While it is difficult, if not impossible, to determine the extent to which think tanks have been responsible for influencing public policy, it is possible to assess their relative degree of visibility in the political arena. By relying on specific indicators such as media citations, parliamentary testimony, size of membership and distribution of publications, some preliminary observations about their degree of involvement in, or detachment from, the political process could be made. See Donald E. Abelson, "Surveying the Think Tank Landscape in Canada," in Martin Westmacott and Hugh Mellon, eds., Public Administration and Policy: Governing in Challenging Times (Toronto: Prentice-Hall, forthcoming); and Donald E. Abelson and Evert Lindquist, "Think Tanks in North America," in James G. McGann and R. Kent Weaver, eds., Think Tanks: Catalysts for Ideas and Action (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution and the World Bank, forthcoming).
16. Assessing the influence of think tanks on policy debates remains a formidable methodological obstacle. While it is difficult, if not impossible, to determine the extent to which think tanks have been responsible for influencing public policy, it is possible to assess their relative degree of visibility in the political arena. By relying on specific indicators such as media citations, parliamentary testimony, size of membership and distribution of publications, some preliminary observations about their degree of involvement in, or detachment from, the political process could be made. See Donald E. Abelson, "Surveying the Think Tank Landscape in Canada," in Martin Westmacott and Hugh Mellon, eds., Public Administration and Policy: Governing in Challenging Times (Toronto: Prentice-Hall, forthcoming); and Donald E. Abelson and Evert Lindquist, "Think Tanks in North America," in James G. McGann and R. Kent Weaver, eds., Think Tanks: Catalysts for Ideas and Action (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution and the World Bank, forthcoming).
17. Assessing the influence of think tanks on policy debates remains a formidable methodological obstacle. While it is difficult, if not impossible, to determine the extent to which think tanks have been responsible for influencing public policy, it is possible to assess their relative degree of visibility in the political arena. By relying on specific indicators such as media citations, parliamentary testimony, size of membership and distribution of publications, some preliminary observations about their degree of involvement in, or detachment from, the political process could be made. See Donald E. Abelson, "Surveying the Think Tank Landscape in Canada," in Martin Westmacott and Hugh Mellon, eds., Public Administration and Policy: Governing in Challenging Times (Toronto: Prentice-Hall, forthcoming); and Donald E. Abelson and Evert Lindquist, "Think Tanks in North America," in James G. McGann and R. Kent Weaver, eds., Think Tanks: Catalysts for Ideas and Action (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution and the World Bank, forthcoming).
18. An important example of Canadian think tanks playing a decisive role in the policy-making process is the work of the Ottawa-based Caledon Institute and its president, Ken Battle (formerly of the National Council on Welfare), on developing social policy affecting child and seniors benefits. According to Kent Weaver of the Brookings Institution, these two major policy innovations have earned the Caledon Institute the nickname, "the godfather of Canadian social policy" (remark made by Weaver at a session on think tanks, annual meeting of the Canadian Political Science Association, 1997). Although a detailed case study on how the Caledon Institute influenced social policy has yet to be written, Lindquist has written a detailed examination of how and to what extent Canadian policy institutes sought to influence three key domestic policy debates: energy policy, pension policy and tax policy. See Evert Lindquist, "Behind the Myth of Think-Tanks: The Organization and Relevance of Canadian Policy Institutes" (doctoral dissertation, University of California at Berkeley, 1989).
19. See Murray Campbell, "Wonks," The Globe and Mail (Toronto), December 2, 1995, D1-2.
20. To receive tax-exempt status under the Income Tax Act in Canada and under the IRS Code in the US, think tanks must remain nonpartisan. While think tanks in both countries publicly claim that they do not endorse the political positions of any party and therefore are nonpartisan, many have openly acknowledged and indeed promoted their own political mandate. See Laura Brown Chisolm, "Sinking the Think-Tanks Upstream: The Use and Misuse of Tax Exemption Law to Address the Use and Misuse of Tax-Exempt Organizations," University of Pittsburgh Law Review 51(1990), 577-640.
21. For more on think tanks and the media, see Donald E. Abelson, "A New Channel of Influence: American Think Tanks and the News Media," Queen's Quarterly 99 (1992), 849-72; and Donald E. Abelson, "Public Visibility and Policy Relevance: Measuring the Impact and Influence of Canadian Policy Institutes," paper presented at the annual meeting of the Canadian Political Science Association, 1998.
22. For more on think tanks and the media, see Donald E. Abelson, "A New Channel of Influence: American Think Tanks and the News Media," Queen's Quarterly 99 (1992), 849-72; and Donald E. Abelson, "Public Visibility and Policy Relevance: Measuring the Impact and Influence of Canadian Policy Institutes," paper presented at the annual meeting of the Canadian Political Science Association, 1998.
23. For a discussion on how US and Canadian think tanks exercise public and private influence, see Donald E. Abelson, "Think Tanks in the United States," in Stone et al., eds., Think Tanks Across Nations; and Abelson, "Surveying the Think Tank Landscape in Canada."
24. For a discussion on how US and Canadian think tanks exercise public and private influence, see Donald E. Abelson, "Think Tanks in the United States," in Stone et al., eds., Think Tanks Across Nations; and Abelson, "Surveying the Think Tank Landscape in Canada."
25. Smith, The Idea Brokers. Hellebust provides a brief history of hundreds of think tanks (Think Tank Directory),
26. R. Kent Weaver, "The Changing World of Think Tanks," PSV Political Science and Politics 22 (1989), 563-78. Several other classifications or typologies of think tanks have been constructed. See James G. McGann, The Competition for Dollars, Scholars and Influence in the Public Policy Research Industry (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 1995). For a classification of the functions of think tanks, see Wallace, "Between Two Worlds."
27. R. Kent Weaver, "The Changing World of Think Tanks," PSV Political Science and Politics 22 (1989), 563-78. Several other classifications or typologies of think tanks have been constructed. See James G. McGann, The Competition for Dollars, Scholars and Influence in the Public Policy Research Industry (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 1995). For a classification of the functions of think tanks, see Wallace, "Between Two Worlds."
28. R. Kent Weaver, "The Changing World of Think Tanks," PSV Political Science and Politics 22 (1989), 563-78. Several other classifications or typologies of think tanks have been constructed. See James G. McGann, The Competition for Dollars, Scholars and Influence in the Public Policy Research Industry (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 1995). For a classification of the functions of think tanks, see Wallace, "Between Two Worlds."
29. Lindquist uses the term "club" to describe the goals and functions of many Canadian policy institutes (Evert Lindquist, "Think Tanks or Clubs? Assessing the Influence and Roles of Canadian Policy Institutes," Canadian Public Administration 36 [1993], 547-79).
30. For more on the CIIA see Carter Manny, "The CIIA, 1928-1939" (B.A. Thesis, Harvard University, 1971); J. E. Osendarp, A Decade of Transition: The CIIA, 1928-1939 (M.A. Thesis, York University, 1983); John Holmes, "The CIIA: A Canadian Institution," Bout de Papier 7, 4 (1990), 9-10; "A Brief History of the CIIA" (CIIA publication, 1995); and E. D. Greathead, "The Antecedents and Origins of the CIIA," in Harvey L. Dyck and Peter Krosby, eds., Empire and Nations: Essays in Honour of Frederic H. Soward (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1969).
31. For more on the CIIA see Carter Manny, "The CIIA, 1928-1939" (B.A. Thesis, Harvard University, 1971); J. E. Osendarp, A Decade of Transition: The CIIA, 1928-1939 (M.A. Thesis, York University, 1983); John Holmes, "The CIIA: A Canadian Institution," Bout de Papier 7, 4 (1990), 9-10; "A Brief History of the CIIA" (CIIA publication, 1995); and E. D. Greathead, "The Antecedents and Origins of the CIIA," in Harvey L. Dyck and Peter Krosby, eds., Empire and Nations: Essays in Honour of Frederic H. Soward (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1969).
32. For more on the CIIA see Carter Manny, "The CIIA, 1928-1939" (B.A. Thesis, Harvard University, 1971); J. E. Osendarp, A Decade of Transition: The CIIA, 1928-1939 (M.A. Thesis, York University, 1983); John Holmes, "The CIIA: A Canadian Institution," Bout de Papier 7, 4 (1990), 9-10; "A Brief History of the CIIA" (CIIA publication, 1995); and E. D. Greathead, "The Antecedents and Origins of the CIIA," in Harvey L. Dyck and Peter Krosby, eds., Empire and Nations: Essays in Honour of Frederic H. Soward (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1969).
33. For more on the CIIA see Carter Manny, "The CIIA, 1928-1939" (B.A. Thesis, Harvard University, 1971); J. E. Osendarp, A Decade of Transition: The CIIA, 1928-1939 (M.A. Thesis, York University, 1983); John Holmes, "The CIIA: A Canadian Institution," Bout de Papier 7, 4 (1990), 9-10; "A Brief History of the CIIA" (CIIA publication, 1995); and E. D. Greathead, "The Antecedents and Origins of the CIIA," in Harvey L. Dyck and Peter Krosby, eds., Empire and Nations: Essays in Honour of Frederic H. Soward (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1969).
34. For more on the CIIA see Carter Manny, "The CIIA, 1928-1939" (B.A. Thesis, Harvard University, 1971); J. E. Osendarp, A Decade of Transition: The CIIA, 1928-1939 (M.A. Thesis, York University, 1983); John Holmes, "The CIIA: A Canadian Institution," Bout de Papier 7, 4 (1990), 9-10; "A Brief History of the CIIA" (CIIA publication, 1995); and E. D. Greathead, "The Antecedents and Origins of the CIIA," in Harvey L. Dyck and Peter Krosby, eds., Empire and Nations: Essays in Honour of Frederic H. Soward (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1969).
35. Several other institutes, including the Center for Naval Analyses and the Institute for Defense Analyses, advise the US government on defence issues. In recent years, RAND has expanded its research to include health care reform. RAND also offers a joint graduate programme with the University of California at Los Angeles. For a detailed analysis of RAND, see Fred Kaplan, The Wizards of Armageddon (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1985).
36. The Hudson Institute was founded by Herman Kahn and some of his former colleagues at RAND in 1961. Originally based in Westchester County, N. Y., Hudson moved to Indianapolis following Kahn's death in 1984. It also maintains an office in Washington, D.C. The Hudson Institute's major clients include the departments of Defense, Labor, State and Commerce. Dan Quayle, former vice president, and Elliot Abrams, former assistant secretary of state for human rights, took up residence at Hudson after leaving public office. The Urban Institute, created in 1968 at the request of President Lyndon Johnson and his domestic policy advisers, was originally conceived as the domestic policy equivalent of RAND. The Urban Institute has relied extensively on government contracts from the departments of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) and Transportation and several other state and federal departments and agencies. It also receives financial support from various private donors and philanthropic foundations.
37. The Economic Council and the Science Council were disbanded by the 1992 federal budget. Others cut included the Canadian Institute for International Peace and Security and the Law Reform Commission. See J. De La Mothe, "A Dollar Short and a Day Late: A Note on the Demise of the Science Council of Canada," Queen's Quarterly 99 (1992), 873-86.
38. Lindquist, "Think Tanks or Clubs?" 564.
39. Some have argued that the decision of Brian Mulroney's government to close CIIPS had less to do with economics than with the nature of its policy recommendations, at times at odds with the policy of the Conservative government. Others have suggested that consulting firms and nonprofit organizations were in a position to offer advice on international affairs, and CIIPS was not necessary. See Geoffrey Pearson and Nancy Gordon, "Shooting Oneself in the Head: The Demise of CIIPS," in Fen Osier Hampson and Christopher J. Maule, eds., Canada among Nations, 1993-1994: Global Jeopardy (Ottawa: Carleton University Press, 1993), 57-81. For more on the creation of CIIPS see, Gilles Grondin, "The Origins of the COPS," Background Paper 6, CIIPS, August 1986; M. V. Naidu, "From an Idea to an Institution: The CIIPS," Peace Research 16, 3 (1984), 2-27; and Canada, House of Commons, Debates, April 17, 1984, 3117-61; April 18, 1984, 3189-210; May 11, 1984, 3643-57; and June 28, 1984, 5223-29.
40. Some have argued that the decision of Brian Mulroney's government to close CIIPS had less to do with economics than with the nature of its policy recommendations, at times at odds with the policy of the Conservative government. Others have suggested that consulting firms and nonprofit organizations were in a position to offer advice on international affairs, and CIIPS was not necessary. See Geoffrey Pearson and Nancy Gordon, "Shooting Oneself in the Head: The Demise of CIIPS," in Fen Osier Hampson and Christopher J. Maule, eds., Canada among Nations, 1993-1994: Global Jeopardy (Ottawa: Carleton University Press, 1993), 57-81. For more on the creation of CIIPS see, Gilles Grondin, "The Origins of the COPS," Background Paper 6, CIIPS, August 1986; M. V. Naidu, "From an Idea to an Institution: The CIIPS," Peace Research 16, 3 (1984), 2-27; and Canada, House of Commons, Debates, April 17, 1984, 3117-61; April 18, 1984, 3189-210; May 11, 1984, 3643-57; and June 28, 1984, 5223-29.
41. Some have argued that the decision of Brian Mulroney's government to close CIIPS had less to do with economics than with the nature of its policy recommendations, at times at odds with the policy of the Conservative government. Others have suggested that consulting firms and nonprofit organizations were in a position to offer advice on international affairs, and CIIPS was not necessary. See Geoffrey Pearson and Nancy Gordon, "Shooting Oneself in the Head: The Demise of CIIPS," in Fen Osier Hampson and Christopher J. Maule, eds., Canada among Nations, 1993-1994: Global Jeopardy (Ottawa: Carleton University Press, 1993), 57-81. For more on the creation of CIIPS see, Gilles Grondin, "The Origins of the COPS," Background Paper 6, CIIPS, August 1986; M. V. Naidu, "From an Idea to an Institution: The CIIPS," Peace Research 16, 3 (1984), 2-27; and Canada, House of Commons, Debates, April 17, 1984, 3117-61; April 18, 1984, 3189-210; May 11, 1984, 3643-57; and June 28, 1984, 5223-29.
42. Some have argued that the decision of Brian Mulroney's government to close CIIPS had less to do with economics than with the nature of its policy recommendations, at times at odds with the policy of the Conservative government. Others have suggested that consulting firms and nonprofit organizations were in a position to offer advice on international affairs, and CIIPS was not necessary. See Geoffrey Pearson and Nancy Gordon, "Shooting Oneself in the Head: The Demise of CIIPS," in Fen Osier Hampson and Christopher J. Maule, eds., Canada among Nations, 1993-1994: Global Jeopardy (Ottawa: Carleton University Press, 1993), 57-81. For more on the creation of CIIPS see, Gilles Grondin, "The Origins of the COPS," Background Paper 6, CIIPS, August 1986; M. V. Naidu, "From an Idea to an Institution: The CIIPS," Peace Research 16, 3 (1984), 2-27; and Canada, House of Commons, Debates, April 17, 1984, 3117-61; April 18, 1984, 3189-210; May 11, 1984, 3643-57; and June 28, 1984, 5223-29.
43. Some have argued that the decision of Brian Mulroney's government to close CIIPS had less to do with economics than with the nature of its policy recommendations, at times at odds with the policy of the Conservative government. Others have suggested that consulting firms and nonprofit organizations were in a position to offer advice on international affairs, and CIIPS was not necessary. See Geoffrey Pearson and Nancy Gordon, "Shooting Oneself in the Head: The Demise of CIIPS," in Fen Osier Hampson and Christopher J. Maule, eds., Canada among Nations, 1993-1994: Global Jeopardy (Ottawa: Carleton University Press, 1993), 57-81. For more on the creation of CIIPS see, Gilles Grondin, "The Origins of the COPS," Background Paper 6, CIIPS, August 1986; M. V. Naidu, "From an Idea to an Institution: The CIIPS," Peace Research 16, 3 (1984), 2-27; and Canada, House of Commons, Debates, April 17, 1984, 3117-61; April 18, 1984, 3189-210; May 11, 1984, 3643-57; and June 28, 1984, 5223-29.
44. Some have argued that the decision of Brian Mulroney's government to close CIIPS had less to do with economics than with the nature of its policy recommendations, at times at odds with the policy of the Conservative government. Others have suggested that consulting firms and nonprofit organizations were in a position to offer advice on international affairs, and CIIPS was not necessary. See Geoffrey Pearson and Nancy Gordon, "Shooting Oneself in the Head: The Demise of CIIPS," in Fen Osier Hampson and Christopher J. Maule, eds., Canada among Nations, 1993-1994: Global Jeopardy (Ottawa: Carleton University Press, 1993), 57-81. For more on the creation of CIIPS see, Gilles Grondin, "The Origins of the COPS," Background Paper 6, CIIPS, August 1986; M. V. Naidu, "From an Idea to an Institution: The CIIPS," Peace Research 16, 3 (1984), 2-27; and Canada, House of Commons, Debates, April 17, 1984, 3117-61; April 18, 1984, 3189-210; May 11, 1984, 3643-57; and June 28, 1984, 5223-29.
45. Some have argued that the decision of Brian Mulroney's government to close CIIPS had less to do with economics than with the nature of its policy recommendations, at times at odds with the policy of the Conservative government. Others have suggested that consulting firms and nonprofit organizations were in a position to offer advice on international affairs, and CIIPS was not necessary. See Geoffrey Pearson and Nancy Gordon, "Shooting Oneself in the Head: The Demise of CIIPS," in Fen Osier Hampson and Christopher J. Maule, eds., Canada among Nations, 1993-1994: Global Jeopardy (Ottawa: Carleton University Press, 1993), 57-81. For more on the creation of CIIPS see, Gilles Grondin, "The Origins of the COPS," Background Paper 6, CIIPS, August 1986; M. V. Naidu, "From an Idea to an Institution: The CIIPS," Peace Research 16, 3 (1984), 2-27; and Canada, House of Commons, Debates, April 17, 1984, 3117-61; April 18, 1984, 3189-210; May 11, 1984, 3643-57; and June 28, 1984, 5223-29.
46. Ibid., April 18, 1984, 3192. Approximately 12 institutes receive between $50,000-100,000 per year to conduct their operations. The Military and Strategic Studies Program, created by the federal cabinet in September 1967, has been renewed approximately every five years.
47. See Donald E. Abelson, "From Policy Research to Political Advocacy: The Changing Role of Think Tanks in American Politics," Canadian Review of American Studies 25 (1995), 93-126.
48. Phil McCombs, "Building a Heritage in the War of Ideas," The Washington Post, October 3, 1983.
49. Patricia Linden, "Powerhouses of Policy," Town and Country, January 1987, 103.
50. See Abelson, "Public Visibility and Policy Relevance."
51. The IRPP was inspired by the Ritchie Report of 1969. Ronald Ritchie was commissioned by the federal government to determine if it was feasible for the federal government to create "an institute where long-term research and thinking can be carried out into governmental matters of all kinds" (see Ronald Ritchie, An Institute for Research on Public Policy [Ottawa: Information Canada, 1969]). For more on the report's impact on the development of IRPP and other think tanks, see Lindquist, "Behind the Myth of Think Tanks," esp. 363-69.
52. The IRPP was inspired by the Ritchie Report of 1969. Ronald Ritchie was commissioned by the federal government to determine if it was feasible for the federal government to create "an institute where long-term research and thinking can be carried out into governmental matters of all kinds" (see Ronald Ritchie, An Institute for Research on Public Policy [Ottawa: Information Canada, 1969]). For more on the report's impact on the development of IRPP and other think tanks, see Lindquist, "Behind the Myth of Think Tanks," esp. 363-69.
53. The C. D. Howe Institute, not unlike the American Enterprise Institute, is an example of a think tank that could be characterized both as a policy research institute and as an advocacy tank. It maintains an extensive research programme and takes advantage of various channels to market its ideas. For a discussion of C. D. Howe as an advocacy organization, see Alan Ernst, "From Liberal Continentalism to Neoconservatism: North American Free Trade and the Politics of the C. D. Howe Institute," Studies in Political Economy 39 (1992), 109-40.
54. The term vanity think tank was coined by Robert K. Landers in, "Think-Tanks: The New Partisans?" Editorial Research Reports, Congressional Quarterly, June 20, 1986, 455-72.
55. For information on Jimmy Carter and the Carter Center, see Rod Troester, Jimmy Carter as Peacemaker: A Post-Presidential Biography (New York: Praeger, 1996); and Douglas Brinkley, "Jimmy Carter's Modest Quest for Global Peace," Foreign Affairs 74:6 (1995), 90-100.
56. For information on Jimmy Carter and the Carter Center, see Rod Troester, Jimmy Carter as Peacemaker: A Post-Presidential Biography (New York: Praeger, 1996); and Douglas Brinkley, "Jimmy Carter's Modest Quest for Global Peace," Foreign Affairs 74:6 (1995), 90-100.
57. See Winand Gellner, "Political Think-Tanks and Their Markets in the U.S. -Institutional Setting," Presidential Studies Quarterly 25 (1995), 497-510.
58. See Chisolm, "Sinking the Think Tanks Upstream."
59. Dole pulled the plug as a result of a controversy over the legality of creating an organization which allegedly could be used to circumvent campaign finance laws. For more see R. H. Melton, "Closing of Dole's Think Tank Raises Questions about Fund-Raising," The Washington Post, June 18, 1995.
60. Ian Marsh considers a related theme in An Australian Think Tank? His goal is to determine what lessons Australian think tanks may learn from the experiences of think tanks in the US, Canada and Britain. He concludes that Australian think tanks will attain success only if the policy process itself undergoes changes, particularly with regard to the acceptance of "external influence."
61. David Truman, The Governmental Process (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1951); Jeremy Richardson, ed., Pressure Groups (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993); and A. P. Pross, "Pressure Groups: Talking Chameleons" in M. S. Whittington and G. Williams, eds., Canadian Politics in the 1990s (Scarborough: Nelson, 1990), 285-309.
62. David Truman, The Governmental Process (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1951); Jeremy Richardson, ed., Pressure Groups (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993); and A. P. Pross, "Pressure Groups: Talking Chameleons" in M. S. Whittington and G. Williams, eds., Canadian Politics in the 1990s (Scarborough: Nelson, 1990), 285-309.
63. David Truman, The Governmental Process (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1951); Jeremy Richardson, ed., Pressure Groups (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993); and A. P. Pross, "Pressure Groups: Talking Chameleons" in M. S. Whittington and G. Williams, eds., Canadian Politics in the 1990s (Scarborough: Nelson, 1990), 285-309.
64. James G. March and Johan P. Olsen, "The New Institutionalism: Organizational Factors in Political Life," American Political Science Review 78 (1984), 734-49; and Theda Skocpol, "Bringing the State Back In: Strategies of Analysis in Current Research," in Peter B. Evans, Dietrich Rueschemeyer and Theda Skocpol, eds., Bringing the State Back In (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 3-37.
65. James G. March and Johan P. Olsen, "The New Institutionalism: Organizational Factors in Political Life," American Political Science Review 78 (1984), 734-49; and Theda Skocpol, "Bringing the State Back In: Strategies of Analysis in Current Research," in Peter B. Evans, Dietrich Rueschemeyer and Theda Skocpol, eds., Bringing the State Back In (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 3-37.
66. For instance, the Heritage Foundation maintains a liaison office with both houses of Congress and the executive branch to monitor closely political developments. Heritage also holds seminars to educate newly elected members of Congress. In addition, the Center for Strategic and International Studies has organized transition projects to assist new administrations in their transition. For more on how the decentralized, fragmented nature of the US political system facilitates the access of think tanks, see Weaver, "The Changing World of Think Tanks"; Carol H. Weiss, Organizations for Policy Advice: Helping Government Think (Newbury Park: Sage, 1992); and Stone, Capturing the Political Imagination, chap. 3.
67. For instance, the Heritage Foundation maintains a liaison office with both houses of Congress and the executive branch to monitor closely political developments. Heritage also holds seminars to educate newly elected members of Congress. In addition, the Center for Strategic and International Studies has organized transition projects to assist new administrations in their transition. For more on how the decentralized, fragmented nature of the US political system facilitates the access of think tanks, see Weaver, "The Changing World of Think Tanks"; Carol H. Weiss, Organizations for Policy Advice: Helping Government Think (Newbury Park: Sage, 1992); and Stone, Capturing the Political Imagination, chap. 3.
68. For instance, the Heritage Foundation maintains a liaison office with both houses of Congress and the executive branch to monitor closely political developments. Heritage also holds seminars to educate newly elected members of Congress. In addition, the Center for Strategic and International Studies has organized transition projects to assist new administrations in their transition. For more on how the decentralized, fragmented nature of the US political system facilitates the access of think tanks, see Weaver, "The Changing World of Think Tanks"; Carol H. Weiss, Organizations for Policy Advice: Helping Government Think (Newbury Park: Sage, 1992); and Stone, Capturing the Political Imagination, chap. 3.
69. Weaver, "The Changing World of Think Tanks," 570.
70. However, this formal arrangement does not preclude the existence of "access points" outside cabinet. For example, public servants develop policy for ministry use. This point is explored below.
71. Strong party unity is not a feature of all parliamentary systems. However, most, including those in Canada, Australia and Great Britain, tend to have parties that are more centralized than those in presidential systems. On the determinants of party organization and centralization see Robert Harmel and Kenneth Janda, Parties and Their Environments: Limits to Reform? (New York: Longman, 1982), esp. chap. 5.
72. Little research has been conducted on the activities of official, party-based research institutes. For some information, see Réjean Pelletier, François Bundock and Michel Sarra-Bournet, "The Structure of Canadian Political Parties: How They Operate," in Herman Bakvis, ed., Canadian Political Parties: Leaders, Candidates and Organization (Toronto: Dundurn Press, 1991), 265-311, esp. 285-90.
73. Diane Stone, "Old Guards Versus New Partisans," Australian Journal of Political Science 26 (1991), 197-215.
74. H. G. Thorburn, Interest Groups in the Canadian Federal System (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1985), 3-15; and A. P. Pross, Croup Politics and Public Policy (Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1992).
75. H. G. Thorburn, Interest Groups in the Canadian Federal System (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1985), 3-15; and A. P. Pross, Croup Politics and Public Policy (Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1992).
76. This point is also made by Marsh, An Australian Think Tank?
77. We would like to thank a JOURNAL reviewer for drawing our attention to this point,
78. J. E. Hodgetts provides early insight into this research topic ("The Civil Service and Policy Formation," Canadian Journal of Economics and Political Science 24 [1957], 467-79). For more contemporary work, see B. Guy Peters and Donald Savoie, eds., Governance in a Changing Environment (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1995); and James A. Deveaux, Evert Lindquist and Glen Toner, "Organizing for Policy Innovation in Public Bureaucracy: AIDS, Energy and Environmental Policy in Canada," this JOURNAL 27 (1994), 493-528.
79. J. E. Hodgetts provides early insight into this research topic ("The Civil Service and Policy Formation," Canadian Journal of Economics and Political Science 24 [1957], 467-79). For more contemporary work, see B. Guy Peters and Donald Savoie, eds., Governance in a Changing Environment (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1995); and James A. Deveaux, Evert Lindquist and Glen Toner, "Organizing for Policy Innovation in Public Bureaucracy: AIDS, Energy and Environmental Policy in Canada," this JOURNAL 27 (1994), 493-528.
80. J. E. Hodgetts provides early insight into this research topic ("The Civil Service and Policy Formation," Canadian Journal of Economics and Political Science 24 [1957], 467-79). For more contemporary work, see B. Guy Peters and Donald Savoie, eds., Governance in a Changing Environment (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1995); and James A. Deveaux, Evert Lindquist and Glen Toner, "Organizing for Policy Innovation in Public Bureaucracy: AIDS, Energy and Environmental Policy in Canada," this JOURNAL 27 (1994), 493-528.
81. For case studies on the Canadian bureaucracy and recent policy development, see Deveaux et al., "Organizing for Policy Innovation in Public Bureaucracy."
82. Evert Lindquist, "Public Managers and Policy Communities: Learning to Meet New Challenges," Canadian Public Administration 35 (1992), 127-59.
83. Stone, Capturing the Political Imagination, 44.
84. For more on Thatcher and the CPS, see Simon James, "The Idea Brokers: The Impact of Think Tanks on British Government," Public Administration 71 (1993), 491-506; Radhika Desai, "Second Hand Dealers in Ideas: Think Tanks and Thatcherite Hegemony," The New Left Review 203 (1994), 27-64; and Andrew Denham, Think-Tanks of the New Right (Aldershot: Dartmouth, 1996), esp. 39-60. On think tanks in Britain generally, see Daniel Butler, "Radicals without Reins," Accountancy 116, 1224 (1995), 36-38; Richard Cockett, Thinking the Unthinkable: Think Tanks and the Economic Counter-revolution, 1931-1983 (London: HarperCollins, 1994); and Diane Stone, "From the Margins of Politics: The Influence of Think-Tanks in Britain," West European Politics 19 (1996), 675-92.
85. For more on Thatcher and the CPS, see Simon James, "The Idea Brokers: The Impact of Think Tanks on British Government," Public Administration 71 (1993), 491-506; Radhika Desai, "Second Hand Dealers in Ideas: Think Tanks and Thatcherite Hegemony," The New Left Review 203 (1994), 27-64; and Andrew Denham, Think-Tanks of the New Right (Aldershot: Dartmouth, 1996), esp. 39-60. On think tanks in Britain generally, see Daniel Butler, "Radicals without Reins," Accountancy 116, 1224 (1995), 36-38; Richard Cockett, Thinking the Unthinkable: Think Tanks and the Economic Counter-revolution, 1931-1983 (London: HarperCollins, 1994); and Diane Stone, "From the Margins of Politics: The Influence of Think-Tanks in Britain," West European Politics 19 (1996), 675-92.
86. For more on Thatcher and the CPS, see Simon James, "The Idea Brokers: The Impact of Think Tanks on British Government," Public Administration 71 (1993), 491-506; Radhika Desai, "Second Hand Dealers in Ideas: Think Tanks and Thatcherite Hegemony," The New Left Review 203 (1994), 27-64; and Andrew Denham, Think-Tanks of the New Right (Aldershot: Dartmouth, 1996), esp. 39-60. On think tanks in Britain generally, see Daniel Butler, "Radicals without Reins," Accountancy 116, 1224 (1995), 36-38; Richard Cockett, Thinking the Unthinkable: Think Tanks and the Economic Counter-revolution, 1931-1983 (London: HarperCollins, 1994); and Diane Stone, "From the Margins of Politics: The Influence of Think-Tanks in Britain," West European Politics 19 (1996), 675-92.
87. For more on Thatcher and the CPS, see Simon James, "The Idea Brokers: The Impact of Think Tanks on British Government," Public Administration 71 (1993), 491-506; Radhika Desai, "Second Hand Dealers in Ideas: Think Tanks and Thatcherite Hegemony," The New Left Review 203 (1994), 27-64; and Andrew Denham, Think-Tanks of the New Right (Aldershot: Dartmouth, 1996), esp. 39-60. On think tanks in Britain generally, see Daniel Butler, "Radicals without Reins," Accountancy 116, 1224 (1995), 36-38; Richard Cockett, Thinking the Unthinkable: Think Tanks and the Economic Counter-revolution, 1931-1983 (London: HarperCollins, 1994); and Diane Stone, "From the Margins of Politics: The Influence of Think-Tanks in Britain," West European Politics 19 (1996), 675-92.
88. For more on Thatcher and the CPS, see Simon James, "The Idea Brokers: The Impact of Think Tanks on British Government," Public Administration 71 (1993), 491-506; Radhika Desai, "Second Hand Dealers in Ideas: Think Tanks and Thatcherite Hegemony," The New Left Review 203 (1994), 27-64; and Andrew Denham, Think-Tanks of the New Right (Aldershot: Dartmouth, 1996), esp. 39-60. On think tanks in Britain generally, see Daniel Butler, "Radicals without Reins," Accountancy 116, 1224 (1995), 36-38; Richard Cockett, Thinking the Unthinkable: Think Tanks and the Economic Counter-revolution, 1931-1983 (London: HarperCollins, 1994); and Diane Stone, "From the Margins of Politics: The Influence of Think-Tanks in Britain," West European Politics 19 (1996), 675-92.
89. For more on Thatcher and the CPS, see Simon James, "The Idea Brokers: The Impact of Think Tanks on British Government," Public Administration 71 (1993), 491-506; Radhika Desai, "Second Hand Dealers in Ideas: Think Tanks and Thatcherite Hegemony," The New Left Review 203 (1994), 27-64; and Andrew Denham, Think-Tanks of the New Right (Aldershot: Dartmouth, 1996), esp. 39-60. On think tanks in Britain generally, see Daniel Butler, "Radicals without Reins," Accountancy 116, 1224 (1995), 36-38; Richard Cockett, Thinking the Unthinkable: Think Tanks and the Economic Counter-revolution, 1931-1983 (London: HarperCollins, 1994); and Diane Stone, "From the Margins of Politics: The Influence of Think-Tanks in Britain," West European Politics 19 (1996), 675-92.
90. "The Apostles of Modernity," The Economist, October 25, 1997, 62-63. On think tanks and the Labour government, see Kirsty Milne, "Shedding New Light on Labour," New Statesman and Society, July 29, 1994, 23-24; and Caroline Daniel, "Thinker's Corner," New Statesman, December 20, 1996, 28. On Demos and its founding, see Gareth Smyth, "Marxism Yesterday," New Statesman and Society, August 5, 1994, 24-25; and Laurie Taylor, "Spring Chickens," New Statesman and Society, April 2, 1993, 13.
91. "The Apostles of Modernity," The Economist, October 25, 1997, 62-63. On think tanks and the Labour government, see Kirsty Milne, "Shedding New Light on Labour," New Statesman and Society, July 29, 1994, 23-24; and Caroline Daniel, "Thinker's Corner," New Statesman, December 20, 1996, 28. On Demos and its founding, see Gareth Smyth, "Marxism Yesterday," New Statesman and Society, August 5, 1994, 24-25; and Laurie Taylor, "Spring Chickens," New Statesman and Society, April 2, 1993, 13.
92. "The Apostles of Modernity," The Economist, October 25, 1997, 62-63. On think tanks and the Labour government, see Kirsty Milne, "Shedding New Light on Labour," New Statesman and Society, July 29, 1994, 23-24; and Caroline Daniel, "Thinker's Corner," New Statesman, December 20, 1996, 28. On Demos and its founding, see Gareth Smyth, "Marxism Yesterday," New Statesman and Society, August 5, 1994, 24-25; and Laurie Taylor, "Spring Chickens," New Statesman and Society, April 2, 1993, 13.
93. "The Apostles of Modernity," The Economist, October 25, 1997, 62-63. On think tanks and the Labour government, see Kirsty Milne, "Shedding New Light on Labour," New Statesman and Society, July 29, 1994, 23-24; and Caroline Daniel, "Thinker's Corner," New Statesman, December 20, 1996, 28. On Demos and its founding, see Gareth Smyth, "Marxism Yesterday," New Statesman and Society, August 5, 1994, 24-25; and Laurie Taylor, "Spring Chickens," New Statesman and Society, April 2, 1993, 13.
94. "The Apostles of Modernity," The Economist, October 25, 1997, 62-63. On think tanks and the Labour government, see Kirsty Milne, "Shedding New Light on Labour," New Statesman and Society, July 29, 1994, 23-24; and Caroline Daniel, "Thinker's Corner," New Statesman, December 20, 1996, 28. On Demos and its founding, see Gareth Smyth, "Marxism Yesterday," New Statesman and Society, August 5, 1994, 24-25; and Laurie Taylor, "Spring Chickens," New Statesman and Society, April 2, 1993, 13.
95. Herman Bakvis, "Advising the Executive: Think Tanks, Consultants, Political Staff and Kitchen Cabinets," in Patrick Weller, Heman Bakvis and R. A. W. Rhodes, eds, The Hollow Crown: Countervailing Trends in Core Executives (London: Macmillan, 1997), 84-125,
96. Canadian political parties may make alliances with particular think tanks. For example, it has been widely suggested that the Vancouver-based Fraser Institute has indirectly provided some ideological reinforcement for many policy issues of the Reform party (John Lorinc, "Hold the Fries and the Social Programmes," Saturday Night 109, 2 [1994], 11-12, 15-16 and 61). At the provincial level, the Ontario government under Premier Bob Rae maintained a close association with the CCPA, a left-of-centre think tank in Ottawa (Donald E. Abelson, "Environmental Lobbying and Political Posturing: The Role of Environmental Groups in Ontario's Debate over NAFTA," Canadian Public Administration 38 [1995], 352-81).
97. Canadian political parties may make alliances with particular think tanks. For example, it has been widely suggested that the Vancouver-based Fraser Institute has indirectly provided some ideological reinforcement for many policy issues of the Reform party (John Lorinc, "Hold the Fries and the Social Programmes," Saturday Night 109, 2 [1994], 11-12, 15-16 and 61). At the provincial level, the Ontario government under Premier Bob Rae maintained a close association with the CCPA, a left-of-centre think tank in Ottawa (Donald E. Abelson, "Environmental Lobbying and Political Posturing: The Role of Environmental Groups in Ontario's Debate over NAFTA," Canadian Public Administration 38 [1995], 352-81).
98. John W. Kingdon, Agendas, Alternatives and Public Policies (New York: Harper Collins, 1984), 129.
99. Ibid., 130.
100. Kathryn Harrison and George Hoberg, "Setting the Environmental Agenda in Canada and the United States: The Cases of Dioxin and Radon," this JOURNAL 24(1991), 3-27.
101. For more on theories of entrepreneurship, see Mark Schneider and Paul Teske, "Toward a Theory of the Political Entrepreneur: Evidence from Local Government," American Political Science Review 86 (1992), 737-47. On the role of institutional structures in influencing policy entrepreneurship, see Jeffrey T. Checkel, Ideas and International Political Change (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997).
102. For more on theories of entrepreneurship, see Mark Schneider and Paul Teske, "Toward a Theory of the Political Entrepreneur: Evidence from Local Government," American Political Science Review 86 (1992), 737-47. On the role of institutional structures in influencing policy entrepreneurship, see Jeffrey T. Checkel, Ideas and International Political Change (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997).
103. For more on the origins of the Fraser Institute, see Lindquist, Behind the Myth of Think Tanks, esp. 377-80.
104. Drawing on their extensive service in the public sector, Kirby and Pitfield played an important role in recognizing the need for policy makers to draw on policy expertise both inside and outside government. After many years of government service, Pitfield served as deputy secretary (Plans) to the cabinet and deputy clerk, in the Privy Council Office (1969-1973). He also served as clerk of the Privy Council and secretary to cabinet (1975-1979), Kirby was assistant secretary to the prime minister in the Prime Minister's Office (1974-1976), secretary to the cabinet for federal-provincial relations (1980-1982) and deputy clerk of the Privy Council Office (1981-1982). On the contribution of senior civil servants to think-tank development, see Lindquist, "Behind the Myth of Think Tanks."
105. Colin S. Gray, "Think Tanks and Public Policy," International Journal 33 (1978), 177-94.
106. Seymour Martin Lipset, "Canada and the US: The Cultural Dimension," in Charles F. Doran and John H. Sigler, eds., Canada and the United States (Englewood Cliff's: Prentice-Hall, 1985), 110. For other treatments of US and Canadian comparisons, see Robert Presthus, ed., Cross-National Perspectives (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1977); and R. M. Merelman,
107. Seymour Martin Lipset, "Canada and the US: The Cultural Dimension," in Charles F. Doran and John H. Sigler, eds., Canada and the United States (Englewood Cliff's: Prentice-Hall, 1985), 110. For other treatments of US and Canadian comparisons, see Robert Presthus, ed., Cross-National Perspectives (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1977); and R. M. Merelman, Partial Visions (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1991).
108. Seymour Martin Lipset, "Canada and the US: The Cultural Dimension," in Charles F. Doran and John H. Sigler, eds., Canada and the United States (Englewood Cliff's: Prentice-Hall, 1985), 110. For other treatments of US and Canadian comparisons, see Robert Presthus, ed., Cross-National Perspectives (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1977); and R. M. Merelman, Partial Visions (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1991).
109. Seymour Martin Lipset, Continental Divide (New York: Routledge, 1990), 136.
110. For more, see Robert H. Bremner, American Philanthropy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988); Ben Whitaker, The Foundations: An Anatomy of Philanthropy and Society (London: Eyre Methuen, 1974); and Brian O'Connell, ed., America's Voluntary Spirit (New York: The Foundation Center, 1983).
111. For more, see Robert H. Bremner, American Philanthropy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988); Ben Whitaker, The Foundations: An Anatomy of Philanthropy and Society (London: Eyre Methuen, 1974); and Brian O'Connell, ed., America's Voluntary Spirit (New York: The Foundation Center, 1983).
112. For more, see Robert H. Bremner, American Philanthropy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988); Ben Whitaker, The Foundations: An Anatomy of Philanthropy and Society (London: Eyre Methuen, 1974); and Brian O'Connell, ed., America's Voluntary Spirit (New York: The Foundation Center, 1983).
113. Lipset, Continental Divide, 142-49.
114. For more comparison of the sources of funding for Canadian and American think tanks, see Abelson and Lindquist, "Think Tanks in North America."
115. Hellebust, Think Tank Directory. Several studies have documented the relationship between philanthropic foundations and various American policy institutes. For example, see Edward H. Berman, The Influence of the Carnegie, Ford and Rockefeller Foundations on American Foreign Policy: The Ideology of Philanthropy (New York: State University of New York Press, 1983); Waldemar A. Nielsen, The Golden Donors: A New Anatomy of the Great Foundations (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1989). On the stormy relationship between the American Enterprise Institute and several philanthropic foundations, see Sidney Blumenthal, "Think Tank Adrift in the Center," The Washington Post, June 26, 1986; and Ralph Z, Hallow, "Baroody Removed as Chief of Financially Strained AEI," The Washington Times, June 27, 1986.
116. Hellebust, Think Tank Directory. Several studies have documented the relationship between philanthropic foundations and various American policy institutes. For example, see Edward H. Berman, The Influence of the Carnegie, Ford and Rockefeller Foundations on American Foreign Policy: The Ideology of Philanthropy (New York: State University of New York Press, 1983); Waldemar A. Nielsen, The Golden Donors: A New Anatomy of the Great Foundations (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1989). On the stormy relationship between the American Enterprise Institute and several philanthropic foundations, see Sidney Blumenthal, "Think Tank Adrift in the Center," The Washington Post, June 26, 1986; and Ralph Z, Hallow, "Baroody Removed as Chief of Financially Strained AEI," The Washington Times, June 27, 1986.
117. Hellebust, Think Tank Directory. Several studies have documented the relationship between philanthropic foundations and various American policy institutes. For example, see Edward H. Berman, The Influence of the Carnegie, Ford and Rockefeller Foundations on American Foreign Policy: The Ideology of Philanthropy (New York: State University of New York Press, 1983); Waldemar A. Nielsen, The Golden Donors: A New Anatomy of the Great Foundations (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1989). On the stormy relationship between the American Enterprise Institute and several philanthropic foundations, see Sidney Blumenthal, "Think Tank Adrift in the Center," The Washington Post, June 26, 1986; and Ralph Z, Hallow, "Baroody Removed as Chief of Financially Strained AEI," The Washington Times, June 27, 1986.
118. Hellebust, Think Tank Directory. Several studies have documented the relationship between philanthropic foundations and various American policy institutes. For example, see Edward H. Berman, The Influence of the Carnegie, Ford and Rockefeller Foundations on American Foreign Policy: The Ideology of Philanthropy (New York: State University of New York Press, 1983); Waldemar A. Nielsen, The Golden Donors: A New Anatomy of the Great Foundations (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1989). On the stormy relationship between the American Enterprise Institute and several philanthropic foundations, see Sidney Blumenthal, "Think Tank Adrift in the Center," The Washington Post, June 26, 1986; and Ralph Z, Hallow, "Baroody Removed as Chief of Financially Strained AEI," The Washington Times, June 27, 1986.
119. Hellebust, Think Tank Directory. Several studies have documented the relationship between philanthropic foundations and various American policy institutes. For example, see Edward H. Berman, The Influence of the Carnegie, Ford and Rockefeller Foundations on American Foreign Policy: The Ideology of Philanthropy (New York: State University of New York Press, 1983); Waldemar A. Nielsen, The Golden Donors: A New Anatomy of the Great Foundations (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1989). On the stormy relationship between the American Enterprise Institute and several philanthropic foundations, see Sidney Blumenthal, "Think Tank Adrift in the Center," The Washington Post, June 26, 1986; and Ralph Z, Hallow, "Baroody Removed as Chief of Financially Strained AEI," The Washington Times, June 27, 1986.
120. On the extent of philanthropic funding for Canadian think tanks, see Krishna Rau, "A Million for Your Thoughts," Canadian Forum, July/August 1996, 11-17. For more general information on funding sources for social science research centres in Canada, see The Directory of Social Science Research Centres and Institutes at Canadian Universities (Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press, 1987).
121. On the extent of philanthropic funding for Canadian think tanks, see Krishna Rau, "A Million for Your Thoughts," Canadian Forum, July/August 1996, 11-17. For more general information on funding sources for social science research centres in Canada, see The Directory of Social Science Research Centres and Institutes at Canadian Universities (Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press, 1987).
122. Associations Canada (Toronto: Canadian Almanac & Directory, 1996); and Nicoline van der Woerd, World Survey of Strategic Studies Centres (London: International Institute for Strategic Studies, 1992).
123. Associations Canada (Toronto: Canadian Almanac & Directory, 1996); and Nicoline van der Woerd, World Survey of Strategic Studies Centres (London: International Institute for Strategic Studies, 1992).
124. Evert Lindquist, "Confronting Globalization and Governance Challenges: Canadian Think Tanks and the Asia-Pacific Region," in J. W. Langford and K. L. Brownsey, eds., Think Tanks and Governance in the Asia-Pacific Region (Halifax: Institute for Research on Public Policy, 1991), 190.
125. Registering a Charity for Income Tax Purposes (Ottawa: Revenue Canada, 1995), 8. Some Canadian think tanks, including the CCPA, have been refused tax-exempt status by Revenue Canada. For more on this, see Lindquist, "Behind the Myth of Think Tanks," 62-63.
126. Registering a Charity for Income Tax Purposes (Ottawa: Revenue Canada, 1995), 8. Some Canadian think tanks, including the CCPA, have been refused tax-exempt status by Revenue Canada. For more on this, see Lindquist, "Behind the Myth of Think Tanks," 62-63.
127. "Congress Plans to Investigate Audits of Tax-Exempt Groups," New York Times, March 25, 1997, A11.
128. For instance, the Heritage Foundation has frequently relied on high-profile politicians such as Speaker Gingrich to sponsor its fund-raising activities (Abelson, American Think Tanks and Their Role in U.S. Foreign Policy, chap. 1).
129. As a result of controversy surrounding Gingrich's use of tax-exempt organizations to sponsor his re-election bid, the IRS is looking more closely at the political activities of several Washington-based think tanks. For more on this, see "Politics and the IRS," Wall Street Journal, January 9, 1997, A10; Stevenson, "Congress Plans to Investigate Audits"; and Albert Hunt, "The Gingrich Cloud Hangs over the House," Wall Street Journal, January 9, 1997, A11. On the extent to which think tanks have violated the spirit and letter of the law, see Chisolm, "Sinking the Think Tanks Upstream." On charities in Canada, see Rosemary Speirs, "Who Defines Charity?" The Guardian (Manchester), January 27, 1996, A6.
130. As a result of controversy surrounding Gingrich's use of tax-exempt organizations to sponsor his re-election bid, the IRS is looking more closely at the political activities of several Washington-based think tanks. For more on this, see "Politics and the IRS," Wall Street Journal, January 9, 1997, A10; Stevenson, "Congress Plans to Investigate Audits"; and Albert Hunt, "The Gingrich Cloud Hangs over the House," Wall Street Journal, January 9, 1997, A11. On the extent to which think tanks have violated the spirit and letter of the law, see Chisolm, "Sinking the Think Tanks Upstream." On charities in Canada, see Rosemary Speirs, "Who Defines Charity?" The Guardian (Manchester), January 27, 1996, A6.
131. As a result of controversy surrounding Gingrich's use of tax-exempt organizations to sponsor his re-election bid, the IRS is looking more closely at the political activities of several Washington-based think tanks. For more on this, see "Politics and the IRS," Wall Street Journal, January 9, 1997, A10; Stevenson, "Congress Plans to Investigate Audits"; and Albert Hunt, "The Gingrich Cloud Hangs over the House," Wall Street Journal, January 9, 1997, A11. On the extent to which think tanks have violated the spirit and letter of the law, see Chisolm, "Sinking the Think Tanks Upstream." On charities in Canada, see Rosemary Speirs, "Who Defines Charity?" The Guardian (Manchester), January 27, 1996, A6.
132. As a result of controversy surrounding Gingrich's use of tax-exempt organizations to sponsor his re-election bid, the IRS is looking more closely at the political activities of several Washington-based think tanks. For more on this, see "Politics and the IRS," Wall Street Journal, January 9, 1997, A10; Stevenson, "Congress Plans to Investigate Audits"; and Albert Hunt, "The Gingrich Cloud Hangs over the House," Wall Street Journal, January 9, 1997, A11. On the extent to which think tanks have violated the spirit and letter of the law, see Chisolm, "Sinking the Think Tanks Upstream." On charities in Canada, see Rosemary Speirs, "Who Defines Charity?" The Guardian (Manchester), January 27, 1996, A6.
133. As a result of controversy surrounding Gingrich's use of tax-exempt organizations to sponsor his re-election bid, the IRS is looking more closely at the political activities of several Washington-based think tanks. For more on this, see "Politics and the IRS," Wall Street Journal, January 9, 1997, A10; Stevenson, "Congress Plans to Investigate Audits"; and Albert Hunt, "The Gingrich Cloud Hangs over the House," Wall Street Journal, January 9, 1997, A11. On the extent to which think tanks have violated the spirit and letter of the law, see Chisolm, "Sinking the Think Tanks Upstream." On charities in Canada, see Rosemary Speirs, "Who Defines Charity?" The Guardian (Manchester), January 27, 1996, A6.
134. The Task Force on Strengthening the Policy Capacity of the Federal Government dealt with this topic. See its report, "Strengthening Our Policy Capacity," April 3, 1995, For a review of the task force's work, see George Anderson, "The New Focus on the Policy Capacity of the Federal Government," Canadian Public Administration 39 (1996), 469-88. For suggestions for improvement of policy capacity in public service, see Evert Lindquist and James Deveaux, Recruitment and Policy Capacity in Government (Ottawa: Public Management Research Centre/Public Policy Forum, forthcoming).
135. The Task Force on Strengthening the Policy Capacity of the Federal Government dealt with this topic. See its report, "Strengthening Our Policy Capacity," April 3, 1995, For a review of the task force's work, see George Anderson, "The New Focus on the Policy Capacity of the Federal Government," Canadian Public Administration 39 (1996), 469-88. For suggestions for improvement of policy capacity in public service, see Evert Lindquist and James Deveaux, Recruitment and Policy Capacity in Government (Ottawa: Public Management Research Centre/Public Policy Forum, forthcoming).
136. The Task Force on Strengthening the Policy Capacity of the Federal Government dealt with this topic. See its report, "Strengthening Our Policy Capacity," April 3, 1995, For a review of the task force's work, see George Anderson, "The New Focus on the Policy Capacity of the Federal Government," Canadian Public Administration 39 (1996), 469-88. For suggestions for improvement of policy capacity in public service, see Evert Lindquist and James Deveaux, Recruitment and Policy Capacity in Government (Ottawa: Public Management Research Centre/Public Policy Forum, forthcoming).
137. On links between federal departments and think tanks, see Umbrella Group on Policy Management, Sub-Group on Relations with the External Policy Research Community (Ottawa: Department of Finance, 1997).
138. This has included questions about the legitimacy of the research conducted by these institutes. For more, see Allan Tupper, "Think Tanks, Public Debt and the Politics of Expertise in Canada," Canadian Public Administration 36 (1993), 530-46.
139. Anderson, "The New Focus."
140. Lindquist, "Behind the Myth of Think Tanks."
141. This observation is made by Lindquist throughout his study, "Behind the Myth of Think Tanks."