The conservation policy network, 1890-1910: The development and implementation of "practical" forestry

Polity

Volumn 31, Issue 2, 1998, Pages 269-299

  Gonzalez, George A ^a  

^a KING'S COLLEGE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0032325022     PISSN: 00323497     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3235229     Document Type: Article

References (232)

1. 1. Stephen Krasner, Defending the National Interest: Raw Materials Investments and U.S. Foreign Policy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978); Eric A. Nordlinger, On the Autonomy of the Democratic State (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981); Stephen Skowronek, Building a New American State: The Expansion of National Administrative Capacities, 1877-1920 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982); and Theda Skocpol, "Bringing the State Back In: Strategies of Analysis in Current Research," in Bringing the State Back In, ed. Peter Evans, Dietrich Rueschemeyer, and Theda Skocpol (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985).
2. 1. Stephen Krasner, Defending the National Interest: Raw Materials Investments and U.S. Foreign Policy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978); Eric A. Nordlinger, On the Autonomy of the Democratic State (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981); Stephen Skowronek, Building a New American State: The Expansion of National Administrative Capacities, 1877-1920 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982); and Theda Skocpol, "Bringing the State Back In: Strategies of Analysis in Current Research," in Bringing the State Back In, ed. Peter Evans, Dietrich Rueschemeyer, and Theda Skocpol (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985).
3. 1. Stephen Krasner, Defending the National Interest: Raw Materials Investments and U.S. Foreign Policy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978); Eric A. Nordlinger, On the Autonomy of the Democratic State (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981); Stephen Skowronek, Building a New American State: The Expansion of National Administrative Capacities, 1877-1920 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982); and Theda Skocpol, "Bringing the State Back In: Strategies of Analysis in Current Research," in Bringing the State Back In, ed. Peter Evans, Dietrich Rueschemeyer, and Theda Skocpol (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985).
4. 1. Stephen Krasner, Defending the National Interest: Raw Materials Investments and U.S. Foreign Policy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978); Eric A. Nordlinger, On the Autonomy of the Democratic State (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981); Stephen Skowronek, Building a New American State: The Expansion of National Administrative Capacities, 1877-1920 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982); and Theda Skocpol, "Bringing the State Back In: Strategies of Analysis in Current Research," in Bringing the State Back In, ed. Peter Evans, Dietrich Rueschemeyer, and Theda Skocpol (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985).
5. 2. Clyde Barrow, Critical Theories of the State (Madison, WI: Wisconsin University Press, 1993), 134.
6. 3. Theda Skocpol and Kenneth Finegold, "State Capacity and Economic Intervention in the Early New Deal," Political Science Quarterly 97 (summer 1982): 271; Skocpol, "Bringing the State Back In," 13-14.
7. 3. Theda Skocpol and Kenneth Finegold, "State Capacity and Economic Intervention in the Early New Deal," Political Science Quarterly 97 (summer 1982): 271; Skocpol, "Bringing the State Back In," 13-14.
8. 4. Christopher McGrory Klyza, "A Window of Autonomy: State Autonomy & the Forest Service in the Early 1900s," Polity 25 (winter 1992): 173-96; Samuel P. Hays, Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency: The Progressive Conservation Movement, 1890-1920 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1959), chap. 3.
9. 4. Christopher McGrory Klyza, "A Window of Autonomy: State Autonomy & the Forest Service in the Early 1900s," Polity 25 (winter 1992): 173-96; Samuel P. Hays, Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency: The Progressive Conservation Movement, 1890-1920 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1959), chap. 3.
10. 5. Christopher McGrory Klyza, Who Controls the Public Lands? Mining, Forestry, and Grazing Policy, 1870-1990 (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1996).
11. 6. Klyza, "Window of Autonomy," 176-177.
12. 7. Skocpol, "Bringing the State Back In," 12; Klyza, "Window of Autonomy," 196.
13. 7. Skocpol, "Bringing the State Back In," 12; Klyza, "Window of Autonomy," 196.
14. 8. Klyza, "Window of Autonomy," 195.
15. 9. Klyza, "Window of Autonomy," 195.
16. 10. Ralph Miliband, The State in Capitalist Society (New York: Basic Books, 1969); G. William Domhoff, The Bohemian Grove and Other Retreats: A Study in Ruling-Class Cohesiveness (New York: Harper and Row, 1974), and Who Rules America? Power and Politics in the Year 2000, 3rd edition (Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publishing Co., 1998); Michael Useem, The Inner Circle: Large Corporations and the Rise of Business Political Activity in the U.S. and U.K. (Oxford. Oxford University Press, 1984); Clyde Barrow, Universities and the Capitalist State: Corporate Liberalism and the Reconstruction of American Higher Education, 1894-1928 (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990), chap. 1, and Critical Theories of the State, chap. 1.
17. 10. Ralph Miliband, The State in Capitalist Society (New York: Basic Books, 1969); G. William Domhoff, The Bohemian Grove and Other Retreats: A Study in Ruling-Class Cohesiveness (New York: Harper and Row, 1974), and Who Rules America? Power and Politics in the Year 2000, 3rd edition (Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publishing Co., 1998); Michael Useem, The Inner Circle: Large Corporations and the Rise of Business Political Activity in the U.S. and U.K. (Oxford. Oxford University Press, 1984); Clyde Barrow, Universities and the Capitalist State: Corporate Liberalism and the Reconstruction of American Higher Education, 1894-1928 (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990), chap. 1, and Critical Theories of the State, chap. 1.
18. 10. Ralph Miliband, The State in Capitalist Society (New York: Basic Books, 1969); G. William Domhoff, The Bohemian Grove and Other Retreats: A Study in Ruling-Class Cohesiveness (New York: Harper and Row, 1974), and Who Rules America? Power and Politics in the Year 2000, 3rd edition (Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publishing Co., 1998); Michael Useem, The Inner Circle: Large Corporations and the Rise of Business Political Activity in the U.S. and U.K. (Oxford. Oxford University Press, 1984); Clyde Barrow, Universities and the Capitalist State: Corporate Liberalism and the Reconstruction of American Higher Education, 1894-1928 (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990), chap. 1, and Critical Theories of the State, chap. 1.
19. 10. Ralph Miliband, The State in Capitalist Society (New York: Basic Books, 1969); G. William Domhoff, The Bohemian Grove and Other Retreats: A Study in Ruling-Class Cohesiveness (New York: Harper and Row, 1974), and Who Rules America? Power and Politics in the Year 2000, 3rd edition (Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publishing Co., 1998); Michael Useem, The Inner Circle: Large Corporations and the Rise of Business Political Activity in the U.S. and U.K. (Oxford. Oxford University Press, 1984); Clyde Barrow, Universities and the Capitalist State: Corporate Liberalism and the Reconstruction of American Higher Education, 1894-1928 (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990), chap. 1, and Critical Theories of the State, chap. 1.
20. 10. Ralph Miliband, The State in Capitalist Society (New York: Basic Books, 1969); G. William Domhoff, The Bohemian Grove and Other Retreats: A Study in Ruling-Class Cohesiveness (New York: Harper and Row, 1974), and Who Rules America? Power and Politics in the Year 2000, 3rd edition (Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publishing Co., 1998); Michael Useem, The Inner Circle: Large Corporations and the Rise of Business Political Activity in the U.S. and U.K. (Oxford. Oxford University Press, 1984); Clyde Barrow, Universities and the Capitalist State: Corporate Liberalism and the Reconstruction of American Higher Education, 1894-1928 (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990), chap. 1, and Critical Theories of the State, chap. 1.
21. 10. Ralph Miliband, The State in Capitalist Society (New York: Basic Books, 1969); G. William Domhoff, The Bohemian Grove and Other Retreats: A Study in Ruling-Class Cohesiveness (New York: Harper and Row, 1974), and Who Rules America? Power and Politics in the Year 2000, 3rd edition (Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publishing Co., 1998); Michael Useem, The Inner Circle: Large Corporations and the Rise of Business Political Activity in the U.S. and U.K. (Oxford. Oxford University Press, 1984); Clyde Barrow, Universities and the Capitalist State: Corporate Liberalism and the Reconstruction of American Higher Education, 1894-1928 (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990), chap. 1, and Critical Theories of the State, chap. 1.
22. 11. Barrow, Critical Theories of the State, 17.
23. 12. Barrow, Critical Theories of the State, 16.
24. 13. Murray Edelman, The Symbolic Uses of Politics (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1964); Domhoff, The Powers that Be, chap. 5, and Who Rules America?, chap. 5.
25. 13. Murray Edelman, The Symbolic Uses of Politics (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1964); Domhoff, The Powers that Be, chap. 5, and Who Rules America?, chap. 5.
26. 13. Murray Edelman, The Symbolic Uses of Politics (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1964); Domhoff, The Powers that Be, chap. 5, and Who Rules America?, chap. 5.
27. 14. G. William Domhoff, The Powers that Be (New York: Random House, 1978) ; The Power Elite and the State (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1990); State Autonomy or Class Dominance? case studies on policy making in America (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1996), and Who Rules America?; Barrow, Critical Theories of the State, chap. 1.
28. 14. G. William Domhoff, The Powers that Be (New York: Random House, 1978) ; The Power Elite and the State (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1990); State Autonomy or Class Dominance? case studies on policy making in America (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1996), and Who Rules America?; Barrow, Critical Theories of the State, chap. 1.
29. 14. G. William Domhoff, The Powers that Be (New York: Random House, 1978) ; The Power Elite and the State (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1990); State Autonomy or Class Dominance? case studies on policy making in America (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1996), and Who Rules America?; Barrow, Critical Theories of the State, chap. 1.
30. 14. G. William Domhoff, The Powers that Be (New York: Random House, 1978) ; The Power Elite and the State (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1990); State Autonomy or Class Dominance? case studies on policy making in America (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1996), and Who Rules America?; Barrow, Critical Theories of the State, chap. 1.
31. 15. Theda Skocpol, "A Brief Response [to G. William Domhoff]," Politics and Society 15 (1986/7): 332.
32. 16. Theda Skocpol, "Political Response to Capital Crisis: Neo-Marxist Theories of the State and the Case of the New Deal," Politics and Society 10 (1980): 155-201, and Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992); Theda Skocpol and John Ikenberry, "The Political Formation of the American Welfare State in Historical and Comparative Perspective," Comparative Social Research 6 (1983): 87-148.
33. 16. Theda Skocpol, "Political Response to Capital Crisis: Neo-Marxist Theories of the State and the Case of the New Deal," Politics and Society 10 (1980): 155-201, and Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992); Theda Skocpol and John Ikenberry, "The Political Formation of the American Welfare State in Historical and Comparative Perspective," Comparative Social Research 6 (1983): 87-148.
34. 16. Theda Skocpol, "Political Response to Capital Crisis: Neo-Marxist Theories of the State and the Case of the New Deal," Politics and Society 10 (1980): 155-201, and Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992); Theda Skocpol and John Ikenberry, "The Political Formation of the American Welfare State in Historical and Comparative Perspective," Comparative Social Research 6 (1983): 87-148.
35. 17. Andrew D. Rodgers, III, Bernhard Edward Fernow: A Story of North American Forestry (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991).
36. 18. E. A. Sherman, "Thirty-Five Years of National Forest Growth," Journal of Forestry 24 (1926): 130.
37. 19. James Penick, Jr., Progressive Politics and Conservation: The Ballinger-Pinchot Affair (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1968), 3.
38. 20. Paul Hirt, A Conspiracy of Optimism: Management of the National Forests since World War Two (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1994), xviii-xix.
39. 21. William G. Robbins, Lumberjacks and Legislators: Political Economy of U.S. Lumber Industry, 1890-1941 (College Station, TX: Texas A&M University Press, 1982), 4-5.
40. 22. Hays, Conservation, 28; Nelson McGeary, Gifford Pinchot: Forester and Politician (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1960), 37; Harold T. Pinkett, Gifford Pinchot: Private and Public Forester (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1970), 11.
41. 22. Hays, Conservation, 28; Nelson McGeary, Gifford Pinchot: Forester and Politician (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1960), 37; Harold T. Pinkett, Gifford Pinchot: Private and Public Forester (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1970), 11.
42. 22. Hays, Conservation, 28; Nelson McGeary, Gifford Pinchot: Forester and Politician (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1960), 37; Harold T. Pinkett, Gifford Pinchot: Private and Public Forester (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1970), 11.
43. 23. Herbert A. Smith, "The Early Forestry Movement in the United States," Agricultural History 12 (1938): 326-346.
44. 24. McGeary, Gifford Pinchot, 3; Pinkett, Gifford Pinchot, 15 and 17.
45. 24. McGeary, Gifford Pinchot, 3; Pinkett, Gifford Pinchot, 15 and 17.
46. 25. McGeary, Gifford Pinchot, 4.
47. 26. Robbins, Lumberjacks, 19; Hirt, Conspiracy, 119.
48. 26. Robbins, Lumberjacks, 19; Hirt, Conspiracy, 119.
49. 27. McGeary, Pinchot Gifford, 4.
50. 28. McGeary, Gifford Pinchot, chap. 3; Pinkett, Gifford Pinchot, chap. 3.
51. 28. McGeary, Gifford Pinchot, chap. 3; Pinkett, Gifford Pinchot, chap. 3.
52. 29. Pinkett, Gifford Pinchot, 19, 21-22.
53. 30. Overton W. Price, "George W. Vanderbilt, Pioneer in Forestry," American Forestry 20 (1914): 421.
54. 31. Gifford Pinchot, Breaking New Ground (Washington, DC: Island Press, [1947] 1987), chap. 7.
55. 32. Josephine Laxton, "Pioneer in Forestry at Biltmore," American Forests 37 (May 1931): 270; Pinchot, Breaking New Ground, 49. Prior to Gifford Pinchot's work for Vanderbilt, James Pinchot and Olmstead had discussed the need for the application of forestry principles in the U.S. Rodgers, Bernhard Edward Fernow, 170.
56. 32. Josephine Laxton, "Pioneer in Forestry at Biltmore," American Forests 37 (May 1931): 270; Pinchot, Breaking New Ground, 49. Prior to Gifford Pinchot's work for Vanderbilt, James Pinchot and Olmstead had discussed the need for the application of forestry principles in the U.S. Rodgers, Bernhard Edward Fernow, 170.
57. 32. Josephine Laxton, "Pioneer in Forestry at Biltmore," American Forests 37 (May 1931): 270; Pinchot, Breaking New Ground, 49. Prior to Gifford Pinchot's work for Vanderbilt, James Pinchot and Olmstead had discussed the need for the application of forestry principles in the U.S. Rodgers, Bernhard Edward Fernow, 170.
58. 33. E. H. Frothingham, "Biltmore - Fountain-Head of Forestry in America," American Forests 47 (May 1941): 215; Pinchot, Breaking New Ground, 48.
59. 33. E. H. Frothingham, "Biltmore - Fountain-Head of Forestry in America," American Forests 47 (May 1941): 215; Pinchot, Breaking New Ground, 48.
60. 34. Pinchot, Breaking New Ground, 49.
61. 35. McGeary, Gifford Pinchot, 31.
62. 36. Harold T. Pinkelt, "Gifford Pinchot, Consulting Forester, 1893-1898," New York Historical Review 34 (July 1957): 346-57, and Gifford Pinchot, chap. 5; McGeary, Gifford Pinchot, chap. 2; Pinchot, Breaking New Ground, chap. 11.
63. 36. Harold T. Pinkelt, "Gifford Pinchot, Consulting Forester, 1893-1898," New York Historical Review 34 (July 1957): 346-57, and Gifford Pinchot, chap. 5; McGeary, Gifford Pinchot, chap. 2; Pinchot, Breaking New Ground, chap. 11.
64. 36. Harold T. Pinkelt, "Gifford Pinchot, Consulting Forester, 1893-1898," New York Historical Review 34 (July 1957): 346-57, and Gifford Pinchot, chap. 5; McGeary, Gifford Pinchot, chap. 2; Pinchot, Breaking New Ground, chap. 11.
65. 36. Harold T. Pinkelt, "Gifford Pinchot, Consulting Forester, 1893-1898," New York Historical Review 34 (July 1957): 346-57, and Gifford Pinchot, chap. 5; McGeary, Gifford Pinchot, chap. 2; Pinchot, Breaking New Ground, chap. 11.
66. 37. Philip H. Burch, Jr., Elites in American History, vol. 2 (New York: Holmes & Meir Publishers, Inc., 1980/1981), 89.
67. 38. Pinkett, "Gifford Pinchot," and Gifford Pinchot, chap. 5; McGeary, Gifford Pinchot, chap. 2; Pinchot, Breaking New Ground, 78.
68. 38. Pinkett, "Gifford Pinchot," and Gifford Pinchot, chap. 5; McGeary, Gifford Pinchot, chap. 2; Pinchot, Breaking New Ground, 78.
69. 38. Pinkett, "Gifford Pinchot," and Gifford Pinchot, chap. 5; McGeary, Gifford Pinchot, chap. 2; Pinchot, Breaking New Ground, 78.
70. 39. Burch, Elites in American History, 189 and 272-73.
71. 40. Samuel Mather was a longtime high official in the Ohio iron ore concern of Picklands, Mather & Co., and he was a director of Morgan-dominated U.S. Steel. Samuel was also an active board member on almost all major Cleveland banks, and a director of the large Lackawanna Steel Co. Additionally, Samuel Mather served on the executive committee of the National Civic Federation, which Burch describes as "a heavily business-weighted body [that] represented something approaching a politico-economic establishment in the first part of the [twentieth] century." Burch, Elites in American History, 149-150.
72. 41. Pinchot, Breaking New Ground, 72.
73. 42. Gifford Pinchot and Henry S. Graves, The While Pine: A Study (New York: The Century Co., 1896), vii.
74. 43. McGeary, Gifford Pinchot, 48-49.
75. 44. Ralph W. Hidy, Frank E. Hill, and Alan Nevins, Timber and Men: The Weyerhaeuser Story (New York: Macmillian Co., 1963), 300.
76. 45. Frederick Weyerhaeuser would be elected vice-president of the American Forestry Association in 1907. "Twenty-Fifth Annual Meeting was Held at Washington, DC January 9, 1907: Account of the Meeting and Resolutions," Forestry and Irrigation 13 (January 1907): 13.
77. 46. "Lumberman and Lumber Journals," American Forestry 16 (June 1910): 381.
78. 47. Quoted in Piakett, Gifford Pinchot, 38.
79. 48. Pinchot, Breaking New Ground, 87.
80. 49. Quoted in Piakett, Gifford Pinchot, 39.
81. 50. Rodgers, Bernhard Edward Fernow, 220.
82. 51. For a complete list of the commission members see Pinchot, Breaking New Ground, 91-92.
83. 52. McGeary, Gifford Pinchot, 40-41; Pinchot, Breaking New Ground, chap. 16.
84. 52. McGeary, Gifford Pinchot, 40-41; Pinchot, Breaking New Ground, chap. 16.
85. 53. Quoted in McGeary, Gifford Pinchot, 41.
86. 54. Pinchot, Breaking New Ground, 123, emphasis added.
87. 55. McGeary, Gifford Pinchot, 42.
88. 56. Pinchot, Breaking New Ground, 131.
89. 57. McGeary, Gifford Pinchot; Pinkett, Gifford Pinchot.
90. 57. McGeary, Gifford Pinchot; Pinkett, Gifford Pinchot.
91. 58. Pinchot, Breaking New Ground, 72.
92. 59. Pinchot, Breaking New Ground, 32.
93. 60. Dietrich Brandis to Gifford Pinchot, 9 August 1897, The Gifford Pinchot Papers. Library of Congress, Washington, DC.
94. 61. Rodgers, Bernhard Edward Fernow, chaps. 2 and 3.
95. 62. Rodgers, Bernhard Edward Fernow, 58 and chap. 3.
96. 63. Rodgers, Bernhard Edward Fernow, 145.
97. 64. Rodgers, Bernhard Edward Fernow, chaps. 3, 4, and 5.
98. 65. Pinchot, Breaking New Ground, 141.
99. 66. Pinchot, Breaking New Ground, 141.
100. 67. Pinkett, Gifford Pinchot, 47, and "Gifford Pinchot," 48-49; Hays, Conservation, 19; Robbins, Lumberjacks, 30.
101. 67. Pinkett, Gifford Pinchot, 47, and "Gifford Pinchot," 48-49; Hays, Conservation, 19; Robbins, Lumberjacks, 30.
102. 67. Pinkett, Gifford Pinchot, 47, and "Gifford Pinchot," 48-49; Hays, Conservation, 19; Robbins, Lumberjacks, 30.
103. 67. Pinkett, Gifford Pinchot, 47, and "Gifford Pinchot," 48-49; Hays, Conservation, 19; Robbins, Lumberjacks, 30.
104. 68. Ralph S. Hosmer, "Some Recollections of Gifford Pinchot, 1898-1904," Journal of Forestry 43 (1945): 559.
105. 69. McGeary, Gifford Pinchot, 52.
106. 70. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Annual Reports of the Department of Agriculture: 1904 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1904), 307 and 316.
107. 71. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Annual Reports of the Department of Agriculture: 1908 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1909), 78.
108. 72. Skowronek, New American State; Klyza, "Window of Autonomy," 186.
109. 72. Skowronek, New American State; Klyza, "Window of Autonomy," 186.
110. 73. Hirt, Conspiracy.
111. 74. For example, Pinchot's mentor, Brandis, criticized much of Pincnot's early forestry work, and the Division\Bureau's work implemented under its management assistance program. He felt Bureau's work, in particular, lacked detail and was applied in a largely wholesale manner. Pinkett, "Gifford Pinchot," 48, and Gifford Pinchot, 49. Fernow also criticized Pinchot's early forestry work. Pinchot, Breaking New Ground, 73.
112. 74. For example, Pinchot's mentor, Brandis, criticized much of Pincnot's early forestry work, and the Division\Bureau's work implemented under its management assistance program. He felt Bureau's work, in particular, lacked detail and was applied in a largely wholesale manner. Pinkett, "Gifford Pinchot," 48, and Gifford Pinchot, 49. Fernow also criticized Pinchot's early forestry work. Pinchot, Breaking New Ground, 73.
113. 74. For example, Pinchot's mentor, Brandis, criticized much of Pincnot's early forestry work, and the Division\Bureau's work implemented under its management assistance program. He felt Bureau's work, in particular, lacked detail and was applied in a largely wholesale manner. Pinkett, "Gifford Pinchot," 48, and Gifford Pinchot, 49. Fernow also criticized Pinchot's early forestry work. Pinchot, Breaking New Ground, 73.
114. 75. Pinchot, Breaking New Ground, 147.
115. 76. Pinchot, Breaking New Ground, 152.
116. 77. Gifford Pinchot, "The Profession of Forestry," Forester 5 (1899): 157.
117. 78. Samuel T. Dana and Sally K. Fairfax, Forest and Range Policy (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1980), 52-55.
118. 79. Quoted in Hidy, Timber, 137.
119. 80. Rodgers, Bernhard Edward Fernow, 231.
120. 81. Rodgers, Bernhard Edward Fernow, 537.
121. 82. Henry S. Graves, "The Study and Practice of Silviculture," The Forester 7 (May 1901).
122. 83. American Forestry Association, Proceedings of the American Forest Congress: Held at Washington, DC, January 2 to 6, 1905, Under the Auspices of the American Forestry Association (Washington, DC: H.M. Suter Publishing Co., 1905), 137.
123. 84. Dana, Forest and Range Policy, 52.
124. 85. Dana, Forest and Range Policy, 52.
125. 86. Graves became head of the U.S. Forest Service in 1910.
126. 87. Graves, "Silviculture," 108.
127. 88. Graves, "Silviculture," 109.
128. 89. Graves, "Silviculture," 109.
129. 90. Graves, "Silviculture," 109.
130. 91. Ben W. Twight and Fremont J. Lyden, "Measuring Forest Service Bias," Journal of Forestry 87 (May 1989): 35-41; Ben W. Twight, Fremont J. Lyden, and E. Thomas Tuchman, "Constituency Bias in a Federal Career System? A Study of District Rangers of the U.S. Forest Service," Administration and Society 22 (Nov. 1990): 358-359; Hirt, Conspiracy.
131. 91. Ben W. Twight and Fremont J. Lyden, "Measuring Forest Service Bias," Journal of Forestry 87 (May 1989): 35-41; Ben W. Twight, Fremont J. Lyden, and E. Thomas Tuchman, "Constituency Bias in a Federal Career System? A Study of District Rangers of the U.S. Forest Service," Administration and Society 22 (Nov. 1990): 358-359; Hirt, Conspiracy.
132. 91. Ben W. Twight and Fremont J. Lyden, "Measuring Forest Service Bias," Journal of Forestry 87 (May 1989): 35-41; Ben W. Twight, Fremont J. Lyden, and E. Thomas Tuchman, "Constituency Bias in a Federal Career System? A Study of District Rangers of the U.S. Forest Service," Administration and Society 22 (Nov. 1990): 358-359; Hirt, Conspiracy.
133. 92. Pinchot, Breaking New Ground, 147.
134. 93. Pinkett, Gifford Pinchot, 51.
135. 94. Pinkett, Gifford Pinchot, 87.
136. 95. Pinkett, Gifford Pinchot, 87.
137. 96. Ralph S. Hosmer, "The Society of American Foresters: an Historical Summary," Journal of Forestry 38 (1940): 854.
138. 97. Pinchot, Breaking New Ground, 149.
139. 98. Pinchot, Breaking New Ground, 149.
140. 99. Laxton, "Pioneers in Forestry at Biltmore," 269.
141. 100. J. E. Defebaugh, "The Changed Attitude of Lumbermen Toward Forestry," in American Forest Congress: 1905, 115.
142. 101. American Forestry Association, American Forest Congress: 1905, 452-472.
143. 102. N. W. McLeod, "The Lumberman's Interest in Forestry," in American Forest Congress: 1905, 99, emphasis added.
144. 103. N. W. McLeod, "The Lumberman's Interest in Forestry," in American Forest Congress: 1905, 99.
145. 104. Hays, Conservation, 39; McGeary, Gifford Pinchot, 53; Robbins, Lumberjacks, 31.
146. 104. Hays, Conservation, 39; McGeary, Gifford Pinchot, 53; Robbins, Lumberjacks, 31.
147. 104. Hays, Conservation, 39; McGeary, Gifford Pinchot, 53; Robbins, Lumberjacks, 31.
148. 105. McGeary, Gifford Pinchot; Pinkett, Gifford Pinchot.
149. 105. McGeary, Gifford Pinchot; Pinkett, Gifford Pinchot.
150. 106. Hays, Conservation, 29; McGeary, Gifford Pinchot, 54; Pinchot, Breaking New Ground, chap. 33.
151. 106. Hays, Conservation, 29; McGeary, Gifford Pinchot, 54; Pinchot, Breaking New Ground, chap. 33.
152. 106. Hays, Conservation, 29; McGeary, Gifford Pinchot, 54; Pinchot, Breaking New Ground, chap. 33.
153. 107. McGeary, Gifford Pinchot, 59.
154. 108. Hays, Conservation, 41-42; Penick, Progressive Politics, 4-5.
155. 108. Hays, Conservation, 41-42; Penick, Progressive Politics, 4-5.
156. 109. American Forestry Association, American Forest Congress: 1905, v-vi.
157. 110. Pinchot, Breaking New Ground, 254.
158. 111. McGeary, Gifford Pinchot, 60.
159. 112. American Forestry Association, American Forest Congress: 1905, 452-72.
160. 113. American Forestry Association, American Forest Congress: 1905, 452-72.
161. 114. By the early 1910s, timber prices reached a peak. Hidy, Timber, 308.
162. 115. William L. Graf, Wilderness Preservation and the Sagebrush Rebellion (Savage, MD: Roman and Liltleman, 1990), 114.
163. 116. Sherman, "National Forest Growth," 130 and 132.
164. 117. Robbins, Lumberjacks, 70-71; Hirt, Conspiracy, 54.
165. 117. Robbins, Lumberjacks, 70-71; Hirt, Conspiracy, 54.
166. 118. Hirt, Conspiracy.
167. 119. Randal O'Toole, Reforming the Forest Service (Washington, DC: Island Press, 1988): Hirt, Conspiracy , John Baden and Tim O'Brien, "Bringing Private Management to the Public Lands: Environmental and Economic Advantages," in Flash Points in Environmental Policy-making: Controversies in Achieving Sustainability, ed. Sheldon Kamieniecki, George A. Gonzalez, and Robert O. Vos (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1997).
168. 119. Randal O'Toole, Reforming the Forest Service (Washington, DC: Island Press, 1988): Hirt, Conspiracy , John Baden and Tim O'Brien, "Bringing Private Management to the Public Lands: Environmental and Economic Advantages," in Flash Points in Environmental Policy-making: Controversies in Achieving Sustainability, ed. Sheldon Kamieniecki, George A. Gonzalez, and Robert O. Vos (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1997).
169. 119. Randal O'Toole, Reforming the Forest Service (Washington, DC: Island Press, 1988): Hirt, Conspiracy , John Baden and Tim O'Brien, "Bringing Private Management to the Public Lands: Environmental and Economic Advantages," in Flash Points in Environmental Policy-making: Controversies in Achieving Sustainability, ed. Sheldon Kamieniecki, George A. Gonzalez, and Robert O. Vos (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1997).
170. 120. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Annual Reports: 1908, 410 and 775.
171. 121. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Annual Reports: 1908, 409.
172. 122. Hays, Conservation, 32-33; McGeary, Gifford Pinchot, 85; Penick, Progressive Politics, 35-39; Robbins, Lumberjacks; Graf, Wilderness Preservation, 114.
173. 122. Hays, Conservation, 32-33; McGeary, Gifford Pinchot, 85; Penick, Progressive Politics, 35-39; Robbins, Lumberjacks; Graf, Wilderness Preservation, 114.
174. 122. Hays, Conservation, 32-33; McGeary, Gifford Pinchot, 85; Penick, Progressive Politics, 35-39; Robbins, Lumberjacks; Graf, Wilderness Preservation, 114.
175. 122. Hays, Conservation, 32-33; McGeary, Gifford Pinchot, 85; Penick, Progressive Politics, 35-39; Robbins, Lumberjacks; Graf, Wilderness Preservation, 114.
176. 122. Hays, Conservation, 32-33; McGeary, Gifford Pinchot, 85; Penick, Progressive Politics, 35-39; Robbins, Lumberjacks; Graf, Wilderness Preservation, 114.
177. 123. Elmo R. Richardson, The Politics of Conservation: Crusades and Controversies, 1897-1913 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1962).
178. 124. Richardson, Conservation, 91.
179. 125. Graf, Wilderness Preservation, 130-131.
180. 126. Pinchot, Breaking New Ground, 254.
181. 127. Pinkett, Gifford Pinchot, 81.
182. 128. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Annual Reports: 1908, 409.
183. 129. Stephen Ponder, "Gifford Pinchot: Press Agent for Forestry," Journal of Forest History 31 (January 1987): 35.
184. 130. Pinchot, Breaking New Ground, chap. 62.
185. 131. Pinchot, Breaking New Ground, chap. 64.
186. 132. Burch (195-196) points out that John Hayes "Hammond was . . . president of the Esperanza Mining Co., vice-president of the Guanajuato Power & Electric Co., and a director of the big Utah Copper Co. and the Guggenheim Exploration Co., a family-controlled firm that had a substantial interest in a number of noteworthy enterprises, including the Yukon Gold Co." Hammond was also a member of the National Civic Federation.
187. 133. Later in 1908 James J. Hill, John Hayes Hammond, and Andrew Carnegie would all serve on the National Conservation Commission. This Commission's purpose was to take full inventory of the nation's natural resources. Pinchot, Breaking New Ground, 356.
188. 134. Pinchot, Breaking New Ground, chap. 65.
189. 135. Barrow in Universities and the Capitalist State provides an excellent study of how business power was used to shape the American university. Much of his discussion focuses on how this power was used to shape the academic disciplines of economics, psychology, and political science during the Progressive Era.
190. 136. James O'Connor, The Fiscal Crisis of the State (New York: St. Martin's, 1973); Nico Poulantzas, Political Power and Social Classes (London: New Left Books, 1973).
191. 136. James O'Connor, The Fiscal Crisis of the State (New York: St. Martin's, 1973); Nico Poulantzas, Political Power and Social Classes (London: New Left Books, 1973).
192. 137. Domhoff, Power Elite, 51.
193. 138. Domhoff, Power Elite, 51.
194. 139. Skocpol, "A Brief Response."
195. 140. Timothy Mitchell, "The Limits of the State: Beyond Statist Approaches and Their Critics," American Political Science Review 85 (March 1985): 77-96.
196. 141. Mitchell, "Limits," 89.
197. 142. For example Gabriel Kolko, The Triumph of Conservatism: A Reinterpretation of American History, 1900-1916 (New York: Free Press, 1977); Domhoff, Power Elite, and State Autonomy or Class Dominance?; Clyde Barrow, "Corporate Liberalism, Finance Hegemony, and Central State Intervention in the Reconstruction of American Higher Education," Studies in American Development 6 (fall 1992): 420-444; George A. Gonzalez, "Capitalism and the Environment: An Analysis of U.S. Environmental Policy via Competing Theories of the State" (Ph.D. diss., University of Southern California, 1997).
198. 142. For example Gabriel Kolko, The Triumph of Conservatism: A Reinterpretation of American History, 1900-1916 (New York: Free Press, 1977); Domhoff, Power Elite, and State Autonomy or Class Dominance?; Clyde Barrow, "Corporate Liberalism, Finance Hegemony, and Central State Intervention in the Reconstruction of American Higher Education," Studies in American Development 6 (fall 1992): 420-444; George A. Gonzalez, "Capitalism and the Environment: An Analysis of U.S. Environmental Policy via Competing Theories of the State" (Ph.D. diss., University of Southern California, 1997).
199. 142. For example Gabriel Kolko, The Triumph of Conservatism: A Reinterpretation of American History, 1900-1916 (New York: Free Press, 1977); Domhoff, Power Elite, and State Autonomy or Class Dominance?; Clyde Barrow, "Corporate Liberalism, Finance Hegemony, and Central State Intervention in the Reconstruction of American Higher Education," Studies in American Development 6 (fall 1992): 420-444; George A. Gonzalez, "Capitalism and the Environment: An Analysis of U.S. Environmental Policy via Competing Theories of the State" (Ph.D. diss., University of Southern California, 1997).
200. 142. For example Gabriel Kolko, The Triumph of Conservatism: A Reinterpretation of American History, 1900-1916 (New York: Free Press, 1977); Domhoff, Power Elite, and State Autonomy or Class Dominance?; Clyde Barrow, "Corporate Liberalism, Finance Hegemony, and Central State Intervention in the Reconstruction of American Higher Education," Studies in American Development 6 (fall 1992): 420-444; George A. Gonzalez, "Capitalism and the Environment: An Analysis of U.S. Environmental Policy via Competing Theories of the State" (Ph.D. diss., University of Southern California, 1997).
201. 143. Mitchell, "Limits," 88.
202. 144. Klyza, "Window of Autonomy," 185.
203. 145. Mitchell, "Limits," 89.
204. 146. Klyza, "Window of Autonomy," 179.
205. 147. Robbins, Lumberjacks; Hirt, Conspiracy.
206. 147. Robbins, Lumberjacks; Hirt, Conspiracy.
207. 148. Mitchell, "Limits," 87.
208. 149. Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison (New York: Pantheon, 1977).
209. 150. Mitchell, "Limits," 93.
210. 151. Mitchell, "Limits," 93.
211. 152. Mitchell, "Limits," 93.
212. 153. Mitchell, "Limits," 95.
213. 154. Klyza, "Window of Autonomy," 185-186, emphasis added.
214. 155. Skowronek, New American State.
215. 156. Herbert Kaufman, The Forest Ranger (Biltmore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1960); Jeanne N. Clark and Daniel McCool, Staking Out the Terrain (Albany, NY: The State University of New York Press, 1985).
216. 156. Herbert Kaufman, The Forest Ranger (Biltmore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1960); Jeanne N. Clark and Daniel McCool, Staking Out the Terrain (Albany, NY: The State University of New York Press, 1985).
217. 157. David Eakins, "Business Planners and America's Postwar Expansion," in Corporations and the Cold War, ed. David Horowitz (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1969); Domhoff, Power Elite, chap. 5.
218. 157. David Eakins, "Business Planners and America's Postwar Expansion," in Corporations and the Cold War, ed. David Horowitz (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1969); Domhoff, Power Elite, chap. 5.
219. 158. James Weinstein, The Corporate Ideal in the Liberal State: 1900-1918 (Boston: Beacon Press, 1968); Domhoff, Power Elite, chap. 3, and State Autonomy or Class Dominance?, chap. 5.
220. 158. James Weinstein, The Corporate Ideal in the Liberal State: 1900-1918 (Boston: Beacon Press, 1968); Domhoff, Power Elite, chap. 3, and State Autonomy or Class Dominance?, chap. 5.
221. 158. James Weinstein, The Corporate Ideal in the Liberal State: 1900-1918 (Boston: Beacon Press, 1968); Domhoff, Power Elite, chap. 3, and State Autonomy or Class Dominance?, chap. 5.
222. 159. David B. Tyack, The One Best System: A History of American Urban Education (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1974).
223. 160. Barrow, Universities and the Capitalist State, and "Corporate Liberalism."
224. 161. Domhoff, Power Elite, chap. 8.
225. 162. Domhoff, Power Elite, chap. 4.
226. 163. Kolko, Triumph.
227. 164. Phillip O. Foss, Politics and Grass (Seattle: University of Washington, 1960).
228. 165. Gonzalez, "Capitalism," chap. 2.
229. 166. Gonzalez, "Capitalism," chap. 3.
230. 167. Gonzalez, "Capitalism," chap. 4.
231. 168. The economic elite perspective is often referred to as power elite theory, power structure analysis, and/or corporate liberalism.
232. 169. As for the other case of putative state autonomy noted in this discussion, see Domhoff's State Autonomy or Class Dominance?, chap. 3, for a critique of Skocpol and Finegold's work on the Department of Agriculture ("State Capacity and Economic Intervention") and an economic elite analysis of this agency during the inter-war years.