Balancing, networking and the causes of emigration: Early German transatlantic migration in a local perspective, 1700-1754

Continuity and Change

Volumn 13, Issue 3, 1998, Pages 419-442

  Fertig, Georg ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MÜNSTER   (Germany)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EIGHTEENTH CENTURY; INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION; MIGRATION DETERMINANT;

UNITED STATES;

EID: 0032321439     PISSN: 02684160     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0268416098003233     Document Type: Article

References (82)

1. Marianne Wokeck, 'Harnessing the lure of the "Best Poor Man's Country": the dynamics of German-speaking immigration to British North America, 1683-1783', in Ida Altman and James Horn eds., 'To make America': European emigration in the early modern period (Berkeley, 1992), 204-43; Farley Grubb, 'Redemptioner immigration to Pennsylvania: evidence on contract choice and profitability', Journal of Economic History 44 (1986), 407-18, and 'Colonial immigrant literacy: an economic analysis of Pennsylvania-German evidence, 1727-1775', Explorations in Economic History 24 (1987), 63-76; A. G. Roeber, Palatines, liberty, and property: German Lutherans in colonial British America (Baltimore, 1993); Mark Häberlein, 'German migrants in colonial Pennsylvania: resources, opportunities, and experience', William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser. 50 (1993), 555-74; Aaron Fogleman, Hopeful journeys: German immigration, settlement, and political culture in Colonial America, 1717-1775 (Philadelphia, 1996); Wolfgang von Hippel, Auswanderung aus Südwestdeutschland (Stuttgart, 1984). For a notable exception to the overpopulation approach see Hermann Wellenreuther, 'Forschungen zur Geschichte der Arbeiter in Deutschland, England und Nordamerika im 18. Jahrhundert: der Arbeitsmarkt', in Klaus Tenfelde ed., Arbeiter und Arbeiterbewegung im Vergleich: Berichte zur internationalen historischen Forschung (Munich, 1986), 63-99.
2. Marianne Wokeck, 'Harnessing the lure of the "Best Poor Man's Country": the dynamics of German-speaking immigration to British North America, 1683-1783', in Ida Altman and James Horn eds., 'To make America': European emigration in the early modern period (Berkeley, 1992), 204-43; Farley Grubb, 'Redemptioner immigration to Pennsylvania: evidence on contract choice and profitability', Journal of Economic History 44 (1986), 407-18, and 'Colonial immigrant literacy: an economic analysis of Pennsylvania-German evidence, 1727-1775', Explorations in Economic History 24 (1987), 63-76; A. G. Roeber, Palatines, liberty, and property: German Lutherans in colonial British America (Baltimore, 1993); Mark Häberlein, 'German migrants in colonial Pennsylvania: resources, opportunities, and experience', William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser. 50 (1993), 555-74; Aaron Fogleman, Hopeful journeys: German immigration, settlement, and political culture in Colonial America, 1717-1775 (Philadelphia, 1996); Wolfgang von Hippel, Auswanderung aus Südwestdeutschland (Stuttgart, 1984). For a notable exception to the overpopulation approach see Hermann Wellenreuther, 'Forschungen zur Geschichte der Arbeiter in Deutschland, England und Nordamerika im 18. Jahrhundert: der Arbeitsmarkt', in Klaus Tenfelde ed., Arbeiter und Arbeiterbewegung im Vergleich: Berichte zur internationalen historischen Forschung (Munich, 1986), 63-99.
3. Marianne Wokeck, 'Harnessing the lure of the "Best Poor Man's Country": the dynamics of German-speaking immigration to British North America, 1683-1783', in Ida Altman and James Horn eds., 'To make America': European emigration in the early modern period (Berkeley, 1992), 204-43; Farley Grubb, 'Redemptioner immigration to Pennsylvania: evidence on contract choice and profitability', Journal of Economic History 44 (1986), 407-18, and 'Colonial immigrant literacy: an economic analysis of Pennsylvania-German evidence, 1727-1775', Explorations in Economic History 24 (1987), 63-76; A. G. Roeber, Palatines, liberty, and property: German Lutherans in colonial British America (Baltimore, 1993); Mark Häberlein, 'German migrants in colonial Pennsylvania: resources, opportunities, and experience', William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser. 50 (1993), 555-74; Aaron Fogleman, Hopeful journeys: German immigration, settlement, and political culture in Colonial America, 1717-1775 (Philadelphia, 1996); Wolfgang von Hippel, Auswanderung aus Südwestdeutschland (Stuttgart, 1984). For a notable exception to the overpopulation approach see Hermann Wellenreuther, 'Forschungen zur Geschichte der Arbeiter in Deutschland, England und Nordamerika im 18. Jahrhundert: der Arbeitsmarkt', in Klaus Tenfelde ed., Arbeiter und Arbeiterbewegung im Vergleich: Berichte zur internationalen historischen Forschung (Munich, 1986), 63-99.
4. Marianne Wokeck, 'Harnessing the lure of the "Best Poor Man's Country": the dynamics of German-speaking immigration to British North America, 1683-1783', in Ida Altman and James Horn eds., 'To make America': European emigration in the early modern period (Berkeley, 1992), 204-43; Farley Grubb, 'Redemptioner immigration to Pennsylvania: evidence on contract choice and profitability', Journal of Economic History 44 (1986), 407-18, and 'Colonial immigrant literacy: an economic analysis of Pennsylvania-German evidence, 1727-1775', Explorations in Economic History 24 (1987), 63-76; A. G. Roeber, Palatines, liberty, and property: German Lutherans in colonial British America (Baltimore, 1993); Mark Häberlein, 'German migrants in colonial Pennsylvania: resources, opportunities, and experience', William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser. 50 (1993), 555-74; Aaron Fogleman, Hopeful journeys: German immigration, settlement, and political culture in Colonial America, 1717-1775 (Philadelphia, 1996); Wolfgang von Hippel, Auswanderung aus Südwestdeutschland (Stuttgart, 1984). For a notable exception to the overpopulation approach see Hermann Wellenreuther, 'Forschungen zur Geschichte der Arbeiter in Deutschland, England und Nordamerika im 18. Jahrhundert: der Arbeitsmarkt', in Klaus Tenfelde ed., Arbeiter und Arbeiterbewegung im Vergleich: Berichte zur internationalen historischen Forschung (Munich, 1986), 63-99.
5. Marianne Wokeck, 'Harnessing the lure of the "Best Poor Man's Country": the dynamics of German-speaking immigration to British North America, 1683-1783', in Ida Altman and James Horn eds., 'To make America': European emigration in the early modern period (Berkeley, 1992), 204-43; Farley Grubb, 'Redemptioner immigration to Pennsylvania: evidence on contract choice and profitability', Journal of Economic History 44 (1986), 407-18, and 'Colonial immigrant literacy: an economic analysis of Pennsylvania-German evidence, 1727-1775', Explorations in Economic History 24 (1987), 63-76; A. G. Roeber, Palatines, liberty, and property: German Lutherans in colonial British America (Baltimore, 1993); Mark Häberlein, 'German migrants in colonial Pennsylvania: resources, opportunities, and experience', William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser. 50 (1993), 555-74; Aaron Fogleman, Hopeful journeys: German immigration, settlement, and political culture in Colonial America, 1717-1775 (Philadelphia, 1996); Wolfgang von Hippel, Auswanderung aus Südwestdeutschland (Stuttgart, 1984). For a notable exception to the overpopulation approach see Hermann Wellenreuther, 'Forschungen zur Geschichte der Arbeiter in Deutschland, England und Nordamerika im 18. Jahrhundert: der Arbeitsmarkt', in Klaus Tenfelde ed., Arbeiter und Arbeiterbewegung im Vergleich: Berichte zur internationalen historischen Forschung (Munich, 1986), 63-99.
6. Marianne Wokeck, 'Harnessing the lure of the "Best Poor Man's Country": the dynamics of German-speaking immigration to British North America, 1683-1783', in Ida Altman and James Horn eds., 'To make America': European emigration in the early modern period (Berkeley, 1992), 204-43; Farley Grubb, 'Redemptioner immigration to Pennsylvania: evidence on contract choice and profitability', Journal of Economic History 44 (1986), 407-18, and 'Colonial immigrant literacy: an economic analysis of Pennsylvania-German evidence, 1727-1775', Explorations in Economic History 24 (1987), 63-76; A. G. Roeber, Palatines, liberty, and property: German Lutherans in colonial British America (Baltimore, 1993); Mark Häberlein, 'German migrants in colonial Pennsylvania: resources, opportunities, and experience', William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser. 50 (1993), 555-74; Aaron Fogleman, Hopeful journeys: German immigration, settlement, and political culture in Colonial America, 1717-1775 (Philadelphia, 1996); Wolfgang von Hippel, Auswanderung aus Südwestdeutschland (Stuttgart, 1984). For a notable exception to the overpopulation approach see Hermann Wellenreuther, 'Forschungen zur Geschichte der Arbeiter in Deutschland, England und Nordamerika im 18. Jahrhundert: der Arbeitsmarkt', in Klaus Tenfelde ed., Arbeiter und Arbeiterbewegung im Vergleich: Berichte zur internationalen historischen Forschung (Munich, 1986), 63-99.
7. Marianne Wokeck, 'Harnessing the lure of the "Best Poor Man's Country": the dynamics of German-speaking immigration to British North America, 1683-1783', in Ida Altman and James Horn eds., 'To make America': European emigration in the early modern period (Berkeley, 1992), 204-43; Farley Grubb, 'Redemptioner immigration to Pennsylvania: evidence on contract choice and profitability', Journal of Economic History 44 (1986), 407-18, and 'Colonial immigrant literacy: an economic analysis of Pennsylvania-German evidence, 1727-1775', Explorations in Economic History 24 (1987), 63-76; A. G. Roeber, Palatines, liberty, and property: German Lutherans in colonial British America (Baltimore, 1993); Mark Häberlein, 'German migrants in colonial Pennsylvania: resources, opportunities, and experience', William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser. 50 (1993), 555-74; Aaron Fogleman, Hopeful journeys: German immigration, settlement, and political culture in Colonial America, 1717-1775 (Philadelphia, 1996); Wolfgang von Hippel, Auswanderung aus Südwestdeutschland (Stuttgart, 1984). For a notable exception to the overpopulation approach see Hermann Wellenreuther, 'Forschungen zur Geschichte der Arbeiter in Deutschland, England und Nordamerika im 18. Jahrhundert: der Arbeitsmarkt', in Klaus Tenfelde ed., Arbeiter und Arbeiterbewegung im Vergleich: Berichte zur internationalen historischen Forschung (Munich, 1986), 63-99.
8. Marianne Wokeck, 'Harnessing the lure of the "Best Poor Man's Country": the dynamics of German-speaking immigration to British North America, 1683-1783', in Ida Altman and James Horn eds., 'To make America': European emigration in the early modern period (Berkeley, 1992), 204-43; Farley Grubb, 'Redemptioner immigration to Pennsylvania: evidence on contract choice and profitability', Journal of Economic History 44 (1986), 407-18, and 'Colonial immigrant literacy: an economic analysis of Pennsylvania-German evidence, 1727-1775', Explorations in Economic History 24 (1987), 63-76; A. G. Roeber, Palatines, liberty, and property: German Lutherans in colonial British America (Baltimore, 1993); Mark Häberlein, 'German migrants in colonial Pennsylvania: resources, opportunities, and experience', William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser. 50 (1993), 555-74; Aaron Fogleman, Hopeful journeys: German immigration, settlement, and political culture in Colonial America, 1717-1775 (Philadelphia, 1996); Wolfgang von Hippel, Auswanderung aus Südwestdeutschland (Stuttgart, 1984). For a notable exception to the overpopulation approach see Hermann Wellenreuther, 'Forschungen zur Geschichte der Arbeiter in Deutschland, England und Nordamerika im 18. Jahrhundert: der Arbeitsmarkt', in Klaus Tenfelde ed., Arbeiter und Arbeiterbewegung im Vergleich: Berichte zur internationalen historischen Forschung (Munich, 1986), 63-99.
9. Ernst Schubert, 'Daily life, consumption, and material culture', in Sheilagh Ogilvie ed., Germany: a new social and economic history, Vol. II. 1630-1800 (London, 1996), 350-76 (at p. 350).
10. Wolfgang Köllmann, 'Versuch des Entwurfs einer historisch-soziologischen Wanderungstheorie', in Ulrich Engelhardt et al., Soziale Bewegung und politische Verfassung (Stuttgart, 1976), 260-9.
11. Charles Tilly, 'Transplanted networks', in Virginia Yans-McLaughlin ed., Immigration reconsidered: history, sociology, and politics (New York, 1990), 79-95.
12. Walter Kamphoefner, The Westfalians: from Germany to Missouri (Princeton, 1987); Jan Lucassen, Migrant labour in Europe 1600-1900: the drift to the North Sea (London, 1987); Charles Tilly, 'Migration in modern European history', in William McNeill and Ruth Adams eds., Human migration: patterns and policies (Bloomington, 1978), 48-74.
13. Walter Kamphoefner, The Westfalians: from Germany to Missouri (Princeton, 1987); Jan Lucassen, Migrant labour in Europe 1600-1900: the drift to the North Sea (London, 1987); Charles Tilly, 'Migration in modern European history', in William McNeill and Ruth Adams eds., Human migration: patterns and policies (Bloomington, 1978), 48-74.
14. Walter Kamphoefner, The Westfalians: from Germany to Missouri (Princeton, 1987); Jan Lucassen, Migrant labour in Europe 1600-1900: the drift to the North Sea (London, 1987); Charles Tilly, 'Migration in modern European history', in William McNeill and Ruth Adams eds., Human migration: patterns and policies (Bloomington, 1978), 48-74.
15. Häberlein, 'German migrants'; Fogelman, Hopeful journeys.
16. Häberlein, 'German migrants'; Fogelman, Hopeful journeys.
17. See the valuable discussion by Andrejs Plakans in Kinship in the past: an anthropology of European family life, 1500-1900 (Oxford, 1984), 217-40.
18. George M. Foster, 'Peasant society and the image of limited good', American Anthropologist 67 (1965), 293-315.
19. See David B. Grigg, Population growth and agrarian change: an historical perspective (Cambridge, 1980), 11-19.
20. See Dieter Groh, 'Strategien, Zeit und Ressourcen: Risikominimierung, Unterproduktivität und Mußepräferenz - die zentralen Kategorien von Subsistenzökonomien', in Dieter Groh, Anthropologische Dimensionen der Geschichte (Frankfurt, 1992), 54-113, on subsistence orientation. The classic paper on migration in an investment context is Larry A. Sjaastad, 'The cost and return of human migration', Journal of Political Economy 70, Supplement (1962), 80-93.
21. See Dieter Groh, 'Strategien, Zeit und Ressourcen: Risikominimierung, Unterproduktivität und Mußepräferenz - die zentralen Kategorien von Subsistenzökonomien', in Dieter Groh, Anthropologische Dimensionen der Geschichte (Frankfurt, 1992), 54-113, on subsistence orientation. The classic paper on migration in an investment context is Larry A. Sjaastad, 'The cost and return of human migration', Journal of Political Economy 70, Supplement (1962), 80-93.
22. Probably the most radical statement of this territorialist view from a member of the late-eighteenth-century German elites was Johann Gottlieb Fichte's Der geschloßene Handelsstaat: ein philosophischer Entwurf als Anhang zur Rechtslehre, und Probe einer künftig zu liefernden Politik (Tübingen, 1800).
23. Ester Boserup, The conditions of agricultural growth: the economics of agrarian change under population pressure (Chicago, 1965).
24. James T. Lemon, The best poor man's country: a geographical study of early Southeastern Pennsylvania (Baltimore, 1972). In terms of labour time needed for growing grain, income differences between Colonial America and Germany could be as great as 100%: see Alfred Eßer, 'Die Lohn-Preis-Entwicklung für landwirtschaftliche Arbeiter in Deutschland, England und Nordamerika im 18. Jahrhundert', in Tenfelde ed., Arbeiter, 101-36. There were also massive differences in land prices and yields.
25. James T. Lemon, The best poor man's country: a geographical study of early Southeastern Pennsylvania (Baltimore, 1972). In terms of labour time needed for growing grain, income differences between Colonial America and Germany could be as great as 100%: see Alfred Eßer, 'Die Lohn-Preis-Entwicklung für landwirtschaftliche Arbeiter in Deutschland, England und Nordamerika im 18. Jahrhundert', in Tenfelde ed., Arbeiter, 101-36. There were also massive differences in land prices and yields.
26. As the overpopulation and migration theorist Wolfgang Köllmann wrote, 'the perceived danger of relative overpopulation should be interpreted as the one phenomenon that triggers off the dialectic processes of economy and demography' (Köllmann, 'Wanderungstheorie', 263-4 (my translation)).
27. For the political context see the important critique by Hermann Rebel, Peasant classes: the bureaucratization of property and family relations under early Habsburg absolutism 1511-1636 (Princeton, N.J., 1983).
28. Bernard Derouet, 'Pratiques successorales et rapport à la terre: les sociétés paysannes d'ancien régime', Annales ESC (1989), 173-206. The data shortcomings include systematic biases in the sources (such as applications for emigration that typically understated wealth and men from impartible inheritance regions typically emigrating as bachelors, escaping the notice of the authorities).
29. Grubb, 'Immigrant literacy'. See also the time series analysis presented in Georg Fertig, 'Transatlantic migration from the German-speaking parts of Central Europe, 1600-1800: proportions, structures, and explanations', in Nicholas Canny ed., Europeans on the move: studies on European migration, 1500-1800 (Oxford, 1994), 192-235.
30. Grubb, 'Immigrant literacy'. See also the time series analysis presented in Georg Fertig, 'Transatlantic migration from the German-speaking parts of Central Europe, 1600-1800: proportions, structures, and explanations', in Nicholas Canny ed., Europeans on the move: studies on European migration, 1500-1800 (Oxford, 1994), 192-235.
31. At least 34 persons from 12 households; Göbrichen had around 50 households when emigration commenced in 1742.
32. Sources: manorial tax lists in the Generallandesarchiv Karlsruhe (hereafter GLA), 66/2906-2909; Ernst Hahner, Ortssippenbuch Göbrichen (Göbrichen, 1985).
33. Von Hippel, Auswanderung, 56, 59.
34. Most southwest Germans were serfs, who had to apply for permission to leave the jurisdiction of their lords and also to get out of serfdom. The best discussion of southwest German serfdom is Werner Trossbach's 'Südwestdeutsche Leibeigenschaft in der Frühen Neuzeit: eine Bagatelle?', Geschichte und Gesellschaft 7 (1981), 69-90.
35. Rho = 0.75*, N = 11 between number of surviving children and proportion of outmigrating children.
36. Rho = 0.35†, N = 31.
37. Christian Vogel, 'Populationsdichte-Regulation und individuelle Reproduktions-strategien in evolutionsbiologischer Sicht', in Otto Kraus ed., Regulation, Manipulation und Explosion der Bevölkerungsdichte (Göttingen, 1986), 11-30, 17; Markus Mattmüller, Bevölkerungsgeschichte der Schweiz, Vol. 1. Die frühe Neuzeit, 1500-1700 (Basel, 1987), 425-7.
38. Christian Vogel, 'Populationsdichte-Regulation und individuelle Reproduktions-strategien in evolutionsbiologischer Sicht', in Otto Kraus ed., Regulation, Manipulation und Explosion der Bevölkerungsdichte (Göttingen, 1986), 11-30, 17; Markus Mattmüller, Bevölkerungsgeschichte der Schweiz, Vol. 1. Die frühe Neuzeit, 1500-1700 (Basel, 1987), 425-7.
39. Source: machine-readable dataset base on Hahner, Ortssippenbuch Göbrichen, including all couples married prior to 1750. There is sometimes no information in the dataset about the beginning of a marriage (the wedding) and its end (the death of the first spouse); these couples have been omitted. In the case of other couples, the date of the wedding was been estimated as the latest possible or the end of the marriage has been estimated as the earliest possible, or the original marriage entry was not included. These marriages have been termed 'inexact'. For the remaining couples, information about the beginning and end of the marriage is known exactly. All the machine-readable family reconstitution forms were examined, and the couples known to have been childless and the no-information couples were deleted. Then for each year between the beginning and the end of the marriage a new form was drawn up recording the year and whether the marriage was 'exact' or 'inexact'. These new forms were then counted by type ('exact' or 'inexact'), and the resulting annual totals were plotted on the figure.
40. 1699: 34 couples according to GLA 171/1512 (36 in dataset); 1738: 55 according to GLA 180/232 (55 in dataset); 1743: about 50 according to GLA 180/165 (56 in dataset).
41. Sources: Göbrichen burial register; Hahner, Ortssippenbuch Göbrichen; Heinrich Tölke et al., Kennzeichen PF: Heimatkunde für Pforzheim und den Enzkreis (Bad Liebenzell, 1986), 96-7; GLA 229/32175.
42. Sources: Göbrichen burial register; Hahner, Ortssippenbuch Göbrichen; Heinrich Tölke et al., Kennzeichen PF: Heimatkunde für Pforzheim und den Enzkreis (Bad Liebenzell, 1986), 96-7; GLA 229/32175.
43. This is what Christian Pfister calls 'Malthusian carrying capacity' (Christian Pfister and Andreas Kellerhals, 'Verwaltung und Versorgung im Landgericht Sternenberg', Berner Zeitschrift für Geschichte und Heimatkunde 51 (1989), 151-215).
44. This is what Christian Pfister calls 'Malthusian carrying capacity' (Christian Pfister and Andreas Kellerhals, 'Verwaltung und Versorgung im Landgericht Sternenberg', Berner Zeitschrift für Geschichte und Heimatkunde 51 (1989), 151-215).
45. What Pfister and Kellerhals call the 'social carrying capacity' (ibid.).
46. Estimates between 180 and 250 kg are given in Pfister and Kellerhals, ibid., 180; see also Friedrich-Wilhelm Henning, Handbuch der Wirtschafts- und Sozialgeschichte Deutschlands (Paderborn, 1991), 400, and Rainer Beck, Naturale Ökonomie, Unterfinning: Bäuerliche Wirtschaft in einem oberbayerischen Dorf des frühen 18. Jahrhunderts (Munich, 1986), 176-85. The grain, in a three-field system, was mostly spelt wheat (Dinkel) in the winter field and mostly oats but also some barley in the summer field, with yields of about half the weight of the winter field.
47. Estimates between 180 and 250 kg are given in Pfister and Kellerhals, ibid., 180; see also Friedrich-Wilhelm Henning, Handbuch der Wirtschafts- und Sozialgeschichte Deutschlands (Paderborn, 1991), 400, and Rainer Beck, Naturale Ökonomie, Unterfinning: Bäuerliche Wirtschaft in einem oberbayerischen Dorf des frühen 18. Jahrhunderts (Munich, 1986), 176-85. The grain, in a three-field system, was mostly spelt wheat (Dinkel) in the winter field and mostly oats but also some barley in the summer field, with yields of about half the weight of the winter field.
48. Estimates between 180 and 250 kg are given in Pfister and Kellerhals, ibid., 180; see also Friedrich-Wilhelm Henning, Handbuch der Wirtschafts- und Sozialgeschichte Deutschlands (Paderborn, 1991), 400, and Rainer Beck, Naturale Ökonomie, Unterfinning: Bäuerliche Wirtschaft in einem oberbayerischen Dorf des frühen 18. Jahrhunderts (Munich, 1986), 176-85. The grain, in a three-field system, was mostly spelt wheat (Dinkel) in the winter field and mostly oats but also some barley in the summer field, with yields of about half the weight of the winter field.
49. They are based on the pastor's tithe records for 1731-1732 (1,073 kg/ha), an account for a Göbrichen demesne for 1740-1757 (1,624 kg/ha) and the tithe records for 1792-1797 (969 kg/ha). See Heinrich Tölke, Göbrichen, Neulingen: Monographie eines Dorfes und einer Landschaft in Norden Pforzheims (Bad Liebenzell, 1995), Vol. 1, 114-18; the demesne account is in GLA 229/51819. The last figure, however, underestimates the real yields because the grain was auctioned off to the inhabitants, who were of course concerned to pay as little as possible. When the tithe was directly collected by the village authorities after 1838, its returns immediately increased by more than 50%. This has been taken into account: (1,073+1,624+(969* 1.5))/3 = 1,383.5.
50. Pastor's tithe records 1731-1732, tithe prognoses 1738-1751, demesne balances.
51. Henning, Handbuch, 807; Andreas Maisch, Notdürftiger Unterhalt und gehörige Schranken: Lebensbedingungen und Lebensstile in württembergischen Dörfern der frühen Neuzeit (Stuttgart, 1992), 111; Beck, Naturale Ökonomie, 158; Pfister and Kellerhals, 'Verwaltung und Versorgung', 178.
52. Henning, Handbuch, 807; Andreas Maisch, Notdürftiger Unterhalt und gehörige Schranken: Lebensbedingungen und Lebensstile in württembergischen Dörfern der frühen Neuzeit (Stuttgart, 1992), 111; Beck, Naturale Ökonomie, 158; Pfister and Kellerhals, 'Verwaltung und Versorgung', 178.
53. Henning, Handbuch, 807; Andreas Maisch, Notdürftiger Unterhalt und gehörige Schranken: Lebensbedingungen und Lebensstile in württembergischen Dörfern der frühen Neuzeit (Stuttgart, 1992), 111; Beck, Naturale Ökonomie, 158; Pfister and Kellerhals, 'Verwaltung und Versorgung', 178.
54. Henning, Handbuch, 807; Andreas Maisch, Notdürftiger Unterhalt und gehörige Schranken: Lebensbedingungen und Lebensstile in württembergischen Dörfern der frühen Neuzeit (Stuttgart, 1992), 111; Beck, Naturale Ökonomie, 158; Pfister and Kellerhals, 'Verwaltung und Versorgung', 178.
55. Clemens Zimmermann, Reformen in der bäuerlichen Gesellschaft: Studien zum aufgeklärten Absolutismus in Baden, 1750-1790 (Ostfildern, 1983), 30, and sources from Göbrichen.
56. Pfister and Kellerhals, 'Verwaltung und Versorgung', 179.
57. GLA 171/1512 (visitation protocol, 1699).
58. GLA 180/165 (visitation protocol, 1743).
59. For a critique of this concept, see Josef Ehmer, Heiratsverhalten, Sozialstruktur, ökonomischer Wandel: England und Mitteleuropa in der Formationsperiode des Kapitalismus (Göttingen, 1991).
60. Land-Recht der Fürstenthummer und Landen der Marggraffschafften Baaden und Hachberg (Durlach, 1710), section 6.
61. David W. Sabean, Property, production and family in Neckarhausen, 1700-1870 (Cambridge, 1990), 256-8.
62. For the purposes of these calculations, I have followed the instructions given by Ulrich Pfister, Die Anfänge von Geburtenbeschränkung: eine Fallstudie (ausgewählte Zürcher Familien im 17. und 18. Jahrhundert) (Berne, 1985), 83-7. I have made use of those marriages that existed for the entire period of five years for which the age-specific fertility rate was calculated. In the case of 15- to 19-year-old women, all marriages have been used. Marriages were excluded if the birth year of at least one child was not known. 102 marriages were included. Of these, 41 were contracted between 1604 and 1698, and 61 between 1701 and 1748. For the age group 30-34 years, the differene between the ASF of the women married between the ages of 20 and 24 years and the ASF of those married between 25 and 29 years is significant (Wilcoxon rank test Z = 2.05, Prob = 0.04).
63. Ibid., 58.
64. Hahner, Ortssippenbuch Göbrichen, numbers 3728, 1455; GLA 171/1512 (visitation protocol, 1698); GLA 171/1512 (visitation protocol, 1699).
65. Sabean, Property, 424-5. See also Sabean's Kinship in Neckarhausen, 1700-1870 (Cambridge, 1997), passim.
66. Sabean, Property, 424-5. See also Sabean's Kinship in Neckarhausen, 1700-1870 (Cambridge, 1997), passim.
67. Tölke, Göbrichen, Vol. 1, 222, 282-7.
68. Sabean, Kinship; on insider/outsider-conflicts see also Sheilagh Ogilvie, State corporatism and proto-industry: the Württemberg Black Forest, 1580-1797 (Cambridge, 1997).
69. Sabean, Kinship; on insider/outsider-conflicts see also Sheilagh Ogilvie, State corporatism and proto-industry: the Württemberg Black Forest, 1580-1797 (Cambridge, 1997).
70. Rho = -0.05 for wealth in all 496 combinations of two related households in 1736. One exception is the households of siblings, Rho = 0.07 in 1701 but Rho = 0.34 in 1736. These correlations cannot be tested statistically since the observations are not independent.
71. In land transfers involving relatives, the wealth of buyers and sellers was negatively correlated (Rho = -0.34). Among non-relatives, there was a small correlation, Rho = 0.16; godparents: Rho = 0.07. All correlations are not testable.
72. I would like to thank Ulrich Pfister for bringing this point to my attention.
73. Robert C. Ostergren, A community transplanted: the trans-atlantic experience of a Swedish immigrant settlement in the upper middle west, 1835-1915 (Uppsala, 1988).
74. Compare Aaron Fogleman's remarkable findings on more clustered settlement patterns among emigrants from the Kraichgau area north of Göbrichen; see Fogleman, Hopeful journeys, 74. However, it should be noted that these emigrants possibly could be identified precisely because they clustered.
75. If we combine the 52 households of Göbrichen into pairs and look at all the 1,326 resulting combinations, in only 20 cases were two households related (cousins or closer) and sent out members to America, while in 58 cases families were not related but both included emigrants to America, and 248 were related and produced no emigrants. In terms of correlations, Phi = 0.03.
76. No census-type material is available for Göbrichen. However, contemporary statements about the number of households dovetail perfectly with the number of reconstitutable families; see note 26, above.
77. Political offices were those of Schultheiß (mayor), Anwalt (vice-mayor), and Gerichtsmann (council member). The godparentship index measures how frequently per year a household member was called on as a godparent between 1720 and 1759 (source: parish registers, Evangelische Kirchengemeinde Göbrichen). The kinship index counts the households in the village with which a close kinship relation existed in 1736, i.e. husband or wife being first cousins or equally close kin with either the husband or the wife in the other household.
78. An alternative explanation might be that male immigrants into Göbrichen were more likely to be social outsiders. However, this hypothesis is not confirmed by a differential analysis of immigrant and non-immigrant households.
79. Bernard Bailyn, The peopling of British North America: an introduction (London, 1987), 20.
80. Werner Hacker, Auswanderungen aus Baden und dem Breisgau: obere und mittlere rechtsseitige Oberrheinlande im 18. Jahrhundert archivalisch dokumentiert (Stuttgart, 1980), 204, 207 and no. 9290.
81. Ironically, even recently historians have echoed such unsupported rumours. For a more elaborate discussion, see my article '"Die mit dem Juden-Spieß so offt aus- und einfahren": transatlantische Kommunikation, territoriale Bürokratie und pietistische Moral im 18. Jahrhundert', Tel Aviver Jahrbuch für deutsche Geschichte 27 (1998), 31-46.
82. For sources, see my contribution to Tölke, Göbrichen, Vol. II, 694-6.