Religion, violence and radical environmentalism: From earth first! to the unabomber to the earth liberation front

Terrorism and Political Violence

Volumn 10, Issue 4, 1998, Pages 1-42

  Taylor, Bron ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN OSHKOSH   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0032285422     PISSN: 09546553     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/09546559808427480     Document Type: Article

References (148)

1. I wish to acknowledge collegial assistance and helpful comments from Jeffrey Kaplan, David C. Rapoport, Ron Arnold and Jean Rosenfeld.
2. Bricolage refers to the process of amalgamating bits and pieces of ideas and practices originating among diverse cultures into new cultural forms. This is an apt description for much contemporary religious production.
3. See Bron Taylor (ed.), Ecological Resistance Movements: The Global Emergence of Radical and Popular Environmentalism (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press 1995) and B. Taylor, 'Resacralizing Earth: Pagan Environmentalism and the Restoration of Turtle Island', in D. Chidester and E. T. Linenthal (eds), American Sacred Space (Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press 1995) pp.97-151.
4. See Bron Taylor (ed.), Ecological Resistance Movements: The Global Emergence of Radical and Popular Environmentalism (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press 1995) and B. Taylor, 'Resacralizing Earth: Pagan Environmentalism and the Restoration of Turtle Island', in D. Chidester and E. T. Linenthal (eds), American Sacred Space (Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press 1995) pp.97-151.
5. Since 1995 such campaigns have led to thousands of arrests in northern California over the so-called Headwaters forest complex, producing significant concessions from the government and landowners. Sustained road blockades in Oregon have produced two major victories for environmentalists defending old growth forests. B. Taylor, 'Earth First! Fights Back', Terra Nova 2/2 (Spring 1997) pp.29-43.
6. On 22 January 1998 Kaczynski pleaded guilty to being the anti-technology serial bomber who between 1978 and 1995 killed three people and injured 23 others.
7. See Appendix A for more about the alleged Unabomber-Earth First! link.
8. Brent L. Smith, Terrorism in America (Albany: State University of New York Press 1994) p.129.
9. Martha F. Lee, 'Violence and the Environment: The Case of "Earth First!"', Terrorism and Political Violence (hereafter TPV) 7/3 (Autumn 1995) p.124; See also Martha Lee, Earth First!: Environmental Apocalypse (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press 1995). Lee's alarm has intensified: 'Individuals who hold such beliefs are capable of wreaking significant havoc on ... human civilization.' See 'Environmental Apocalypse: The Millennial Ideology of "Earth First!"', in T. Robbins and S. Palmer (eds), Millennium, Messiahs, and Mayhem (New York and London: Routledge 1997) p.133. See Appendix A for more discussion of efforts, including by Martha Lee, to link the Unabomber and Earth First!
10. Martha F. Lee, 'Violence and the Environment: The Case of "Earth First!"', Terrorism and Political Violence (hereafter TPV) 7/3 (Autumn 1995) p.124; See also Martha Lee, Earth First!: Environmental Apocalypse (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press 1995). Lee's alarm has intensified: 'Individuals who hold such beliefs are capable of wreaking significant havoc on ... human civilization.' See 'Environmental Apocalypse: The Millennial Ideology of "Earth First!"', in T. Robbins and S. Palmer (eds), Millennium, Messiahs, and Mayhem (New York and London: Routledge 1997) p.133. See Appendix A for more discussion of efforts, including by Martha Lee, to link the Unabomber and Earth First!
11. Martha F. Lee, 'Violence and the Environment: The Case of "Earth First!"', Terrorism and Political Violence (hereafter TPV) 7/3 (Autumn 1995) p.124; See also Martha Lee, Earth First!: Environmental Apocalypse (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press 1995). Lee's alarm has intensified: 'Individuals who hold such beliefs are capable of wreaking significant havoc on ... human civilization.' See 'Environmental Apocalypse: The Millennial Ideology of "Earth First!"', in T. Robbins and S. Palmer (eds), Millennium, Messiahs, and Mayhem (New York and London: Routledge 1997) p.133. See Appendix A for more discussion of efforts, including by Martha Lee, to link the Unabomber and Earth First!
12. Ron Arnold, Ecoterror: The Violent Agenda to Save Nature - the World of the Unabomber (Bellview, Washington: Free Enterprise 1997).
13. Luc Ferry, The New Ecological Order (Paris: Bernard Graset 1992; reprint Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press 1995). In various works animal rights theorist Tom Regan has leveled a related attack on the environmental fascism of all 'holistic' environmental ethics. See John Clark's telling critique of Ferry's work which, he claims, provides 'absolutely no support to his thesis that authoritarianism is implicit in the ecology movement'. Ferry's central failure, Clark says, was failing to observe that the Nazi view of nature was thoroughly anthropocentric and instrumental, never suggesting that nature and non-human creatures have interests or rights deserving respect. J. Clark, 'The French Take on Environmentalism', Terra Nova 1/1 (1996) pp.112-19.
14. Luc Ferry, The New Ecological Order (Paris: Bernard Graset 1992; reprint Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press 1995). In various works animal rights theorist Tom Regan has leveled a related attack on the environmental fascism of all 'holistic' environmental ethics. See John Clark's telling critique of Ferry's work which, he claims, provides 'absolutely no support to his thesis that authoritarianism is implicit in the ecology movement'. Ferry's central failure, Clark says, was failing to observe that the Nazi view of nature was thoroughly anthropocentric and instrumental, never suggesting that nature and non-human creatures have interests or rights deserving respect. J. Clark, 'The French Take on Environmentalism', Terra Nova 1/1 (1996) pp.112-19.
15. Michael W. Lewis, Green Delusions: An Environmentalist Critique of Radical Environmentalism (Durham: Duke University Press 1992);
16. George Bradford, How Deep Is Deep Ecology? With an Essay-Review on Women's Freedom (Ojai, California: Times Change Press 1989);
17. and J. Stark, 'Postmodern Environmentalism: A Critique of Deep Ecology', in B. Taylor (ed.), Ecological Resistance Movements (note 3) pp.259-81. Even Michael Zimmerman, an early and prominent proponent of 'deep ecology' and a scholar who had been drawing on the anti-modernist and anti-technological writings of Martin Heidegger for his constructive efforts, dramatically reversed field, embracing enlightenment liberalism, when confronted with Heidegger's Nazi past.
18. See Michael E. Zimmerman, Contesting Earth's Future: Radical Ecology and Postmodernity (Berkeley: University of California Press 1994),
19. and M. Zimmerman, 'Ecofascism: Threat to American Environmentalism?', in Roger Gottlieb (ed.), The Ecological Community (New York and London: Routledge 1996) pp.229-54. For a critique of Zimmerman's effort as a reactionary form of deep ecology that legitimates an environmentally destructive, market capitalism, see
20. Val Plumwood, 'Free Market Deep Ecology', The Ecologist 26/5 (Sept./Oct. 1996) pp.234-5. Deep ecology is a philosophy developed by the Norwegian Arne Naess, positing that nature has value apart from its usefulness to humans.
21. Few know about the Manson Family's ecological concerns, provided as follows in a description on their Internet site of their notion of ATWA: 'ATWA - Air, Trees, Water, Animals. ATWA is your survival on earth. It's a revolution against pollution. ATWA is ATWAR with pollution - a holy war. You are either working for ATWA - life - or you're working for death. Fix it and live or run from it and die.'
22. Jeffrey Kaplan, 'The Postwar Paths of Occult National Socialism: From Rockwell and Madole to Manson', in J. Kaplan and Heléne Lööw (eds), Cult, Anti-Cult and the Cultic Milieu: A Re-Examination (2 volumes) (Stockholm: Stockholm University & the Swedish National Council for Crime Prevention 1998). Since 1996, Kaplan and I have been comparing notes about the respective groups we study. He has found a number of quotations in Nazi tabloids that he rightly concludes could have appeared, at least were their genesis unknown, in radical environmental publications. His work also highlights the occult and neopagan spiritualities animating much Far Right thought which he provocatively notes raises questions about possible affinities and cooperation between the Far Right and radical environmentalists. For a good overview of recent scholarship looking at Nature Religion in National Socialism, see also
23. Edvard Lind, 'Religion of Nature', in J. Kaplan, Encyclopedia of White Power (Santa Barbara, California: ABC Clio, forthcoming).
24. Colin Campbell, 'The Cult, the Cultic Milieu and Secularization', in A Sociological Yearbook of Religion in Britain 5 (1972) pp.122-4.
25. Bron Taylor, 'The Religion and Politics of Earth First!', The Ecologist 21/6 (Nov./Dec. 1991) pp.258-66; idem., 'Evoking the Ecological Self: Art As Resistance to the War on Nature', Peace Review 5/2 (1993) pp.225-30; idem, (ed.), Ecological Resistance Movements (note 3); idem., 'Earth First!'s Religious Radicalism', in C.K. Chapple (ed.), Ecological Prospects: Scientific, Religious, and Aesthetic Perspectives (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press 1994) pp.85-209. On the racist right, see Jeffrey Kaplan, Radical Religion in America (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press 1998); 'Right Wing Violence in North America', TPV 7/1 (Spring 1995) pp.44-95; and 'The Postwar Paths of Occult National Socialism' (note 13).
26. Bron Taylor, 'The Religion and Politics of Earth First!', The Ecologist 21/6 (Nov./Dec. 1991) pp.258-66; idem., 'Evoking the Ecological Self: Art As Resistance to the War on Nature', Peace Review 5/2 (1993) pp.225-30; idem, (ed.), Ecological Resistance Movements (note 3); idem., 'Earth First!'s Religious Radicalism', in C.K. Chapple (ed.), Ecological Prospects: Scientific, Religious, and Aesthetic Perspectives (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press 1994) pp.85-209. On the racist right, see Jeffrey Kaplan, Radical Religion in America (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press 1998); 'Right Wing Violence in North America', TPV 7/1 (Spring 1995) pp.44-95; and 'The Postwar Paths of Occult National Socialism' (note 13).
27. Bron Taylor, 'The Religion and Politics of Earth First!', The Ecologist 21/6 (Nov./Dec. 1991) pp.258-66; idem., 'Evoking the Ecological Self: Art As Resistance to the War on Nature', Peace Review 5/2 (1993) pp.225-30; idem, (ed.), Ecological Resistance Movements (note 3); idem., 'Earth First!'s Religious Radicalism', in C.K. Chapple (ed.), Ecological Prospects: Scientific, Religious, and Aesthetic Perspectives (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press 1994) pp.85-209. On the racist right, see Jeffrey Kaplan, Radical Religion in America (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press 1998); 'Right Wing Violence in North America', TPV 7/1 (Spring 1995) pp.44-95; and 'The Postwar Paths of Occult National Socialism' (note 13).
28. Bron Taylor, 'The Religion and Politics of Earth First!', The Ecologist 21/6 (Nov./Dec. 1991) pp.258-66; idem., 'Evoking the Ecological Self: Art As Resistance to the War on Nature', Peace Review 5/2 (1993) pp.225-30; idem, (ed.), Ecological Resistance Movements (note 3); idem., 'Earth First!'s Religious Radicalism', in C.K. Chapple (ed.), Ecological Prospects: Scientific, Religious, and Aesthetic Perspectives (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press 1994) pp.85-209. On the racist right, see Jeffrey Kaplan, Radical Religion in America (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press 1998); 'Right Wing Violence in North America', TPV 7/1 (Spring 1995) pp.44-95; and 'The Postwar Paths of Occult National Socialism' (note 13).
29. Bron Taylor, 'The Religion and Politics of Earth First!', The Ecologist 21/6 (Nov./Dec. 1991) pp.258-66; idem., 'Evoking the Ecological Self: Art As Resistance to the War on Nature', Peace Review 5/2 (1993) pp.225-30; idem, (ed.), Ecological Resistance Movements (note 3); idem., 'Earth First!'s Religious Radicalism', in C.K. Chapple (ed.), Ecological Prospects: Scientific, Religious, and Aesthetic Perspectives (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press 1994) pp.85-209. On the racist right, see Jeffrey Kaplan, Radical Religion in America (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press 1998); 'Right Wing Violence in North America', TPV 7/1 (Spring 1995) pp.44-95; and 'The Postwar Paths of Occult National Socialism' (note 13).
30. Bron Taylor, 'The Religion and Politics of Earth First!', The Ecologist 21/6 (Nov./Dec. 1991) pp.258-66; idem., 'Evoking the Ecological Self: Art As Resistance to the War on Nature', Peace Review 5/2 (1993) pp.225-30; idem, (ed.), Ecological Resistance Movements (note 3); idem., 'Earth First!'s Religious Radicalism', in C.K. Chapple (ed.), Ecological Prospects: Scientific, Religious, and Aesthetic Perspectives (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press 1994) pp.85-209. On the racist right, see Jeffrey Kaplan, Radical Religion in America (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press 1998); 'Right Wing Violence in North America', TPV 7/1 (Spring 1995) pp.44-95; and 'The Postwar Paths of Occult National Socialism' (note 13).
31. Bron Taylor, 'The Religion and Politics of Earth First!', The Ecologist 21/6 (Nov./Dec. 1991) pp.258-66; idem., 'Evoking the Ecological Self: Art As Resistance to the War on Nature', Peace Review 5/2 (1993) pp.225-30; idem, (ed.), Ecological Resistance Movements (note 3); idem., 'Earth First!'s Religious Radicalism', in C.K. Chapple (ed.), Ecological Prospects: Scientific, Religious, and Aesthetic Perspectives (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press 1994) pp.85-209. On the racist right, see Jeffrey Kaplan, Radical Religion in America (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press 1998); 'Right Wing Violence in North America', TPV 7/1 (Spring 1995) pp.44-95; and 'The Postwar Paths of Occult National Socialism' (note 13).
32. Bron Taylor, 'Diggers, Wolfs, Ents, Elves and Expanding Universes: Global Bricolage and the Question of Violence Within the Subcultures of Radical Environmentalism', in Kaplan and Lööw (eds), Cult, Anti-Cult and the Cultic Milieu (note 13).
33. For example, many express support for the radical nature-focused MOVE movement, depict the Chaipas insurrection as a kindred movement and support many of the activities of the Animal Liberation Front, a clandestine complex of shadowy, autonomous cells that have been responsible for numerous arson and other attacks on animal industry and research facilities in North America and Europe.
34. Earth First! activist Judi Bari was one of two victims of a 1990 bombing probably perpetrated by one of her adversaries in the Northern California 'timber wars'. Afterward she became one of Earth First!'s strongest advocates of non-violent tactics, even strongly criticizing the practice of tree spiking for risking injuries to timber workers.
35. Most but not all such sympathetic statements inhere to the Unabomber's ideological affinity for 'wild nature' and hostility to technology rather than to his terrorist tactics.
36. For the latest series of debates about violence (and a related debate about whether the journal should print articles that seem to promote it), see Gary McFarlane and Darryl Echt, 'Cult of Nonviolence', Earth First! 18/1 (1 Nov. 1998) pp.3, 17; Rod Coronado, 'Every Tool in the Box', Earth First! 18/2 (21 Dec. 1998) pp.2,21; Lacey Phillabaum, 'Censoring the Journal', Earth First! 13/3 (1998) p.2; and the forum in Earth First! 18/4 (20 March 1998) pp.7-11. During this time the journal staff managed to overturn (during the February 1998 activist's Conference) a 1993 policy censoring articles 'that could reasonably be interpreted to advocate violence or physical harm to human beings'. Many activists thought that, especially in the global context, such a restriction was naïve - failing to recognize how environmental degradation is already a life and death struggle in many regions - and that sometimes violence might be justifiable.
37. For the latest series of debates about violence (and a related debate about whether the journal should print articles that seem to promote it), see Gary McFarlane and Darryl Echt, 'Cult of Nonviolence', Earth First! 18/1 (1 Nov. 1998) pp.3, 17; Rod Coronado, 'Every Tool in the Box', Earth First! 18/2 (21 Dec. 1998) pp.2,21; Lacey Phillabaum, 'Censoring the Journal', Earth First! 13/3 (1998) p.2; and the forum in Earth First! 18/4 (20 March 1998) pp.7-11. During this time the journal staff managed to overturn (during the February 1998 activist's Conference) a 1993 policy censoring articles 'that could reasonably be interpreted to advocate violence or physical harm to human beings'. Many activists thought that, especially in the global context, such a restriction was naïve - failing to recognize how environmental degradation is already a life and death struggle in many regions - and that sometimes violence might be justifiable.
38. For the latest series of debates about violence (and a related debate about whether the journal should print articles that seem to promote it), see Gary McFarlane and Darryl Echt, 'Cult of Nonviolence', Earth First! 18/1 (1 Nov. 1998) pp.3, 17; Rod Coronado, 'Every Tool in the Box', Earth First! 18/2 (21 Dec. 1998) pp.2,21; Lacey Phillabaum, 'Censoring the Journal', Earth First! 13/3 (1998) p.2; and the forum in Earth First! 18/4 (20 March 1998) pp.7-11. During this time the journal staff managed to overturn (during the February 1998 activist's Conference) a 1993 policy censoring articles 'that could reasonably be interpreted to advocate violence or physical harm to human beings'. Many activists thought that, especially in the global context, such a restriction was naïve - failing to recognize how environmental degradation is already a life and death struggle in many regions - and that sometimes violence might be justifiable.
39. For the latest series of debates about violence (and a related debate about whether the journal should print articles that seem to promote it), see Gary McFarlane and Darryl Echt, 'Cult of Nonviolence', Earth First! 18/1 (1 Nov. 1998) pp.3, 17; Rod Coronado, 'Every Tool in the Box', Earth First! 18/2 (21 Dec. 1998) pp.2,21; Lacey Phillabaum, 'Censoring the Journal', Earth First! 13/3 (1998) p.2; and the forum in Earth First! 18/4 (20 March 1998) pp.7-11. During this time the journal staff managed to overturn (during the February 1998 activist's Conference) a 1993 policy censoring articles 'that could reasonably be interpreted to advocate violence or physical harm to human beings'. Many activists thought that, especially in the global context, such a restriction was naïve - failing to recognize how environmental degradation is already a life and death struggle in many regions - and that sometimes violence might be justifiable.
40. As Kaplan states, no one can 'fully appreciate the millenarian worldview without considerable interaction with the group's leadership and with its adherents.... There is simply no substitute for fieldwork.' Jeffrey Kaplan, 'Interpreting the Interpretive Approach: A Friendly Reply to Thomas Robbins', Nova Religio 1/1 (1997) pp.30-49.
41. See B. Taylor, 'Diggers' (note 16).
42. It is important, but not the focus of this article, to recognize that most injurious violence in North America has been against environmentalists. See David Helvarg, The War Against the Greens: the 'Wise-Use' Movement, the New Right, and Anti-Environmental Violence (San Francisco: Sierra Club 1992); Andrew Rowell, Green Backlash (London: Routledge 1996).
43. It is important, but not the focus of this article, to recognize that most injurious violence in North America has been against environmentalists. See David Helvarg, The War Against the Greens: the 'Wise-Use' Movement, the New Right, and Anti-Environmental Violence (San Francisco: Sierra Club 1992); Andrew Rowell, Green Backlash (London: Routledge 1996).
44. This article reports on a bomb that exploded at a Hydro-Quebec transmission tower and states that dynamite that had failed to detonate was removed by authorities from two other towers. See Anonymous, 'Powerline Sabotage', Live Wild or Die 5 (1995) p.21.
45. For example, by Ron Arnold in Ecoterror (note 9) p.144, which refers to the 'multiple stabbings' without explaining that no blood was drawn, due to the bulky winter coats worn by the victims.
46. Quotes from 4 July 1997 interview with Lee Dessaux, Nicolet National Forest (Wisconsin).
47. The back side of this 'Free Ted Kaczynski' handout included this text: Joan of Arc and the 19th century abolitionist John Brown employed violence and gave their lives in struggle. These visionaries were considered demented by their contemporaries, but are now revered. It may be that the Unabomber will be looked upon similarly, as a kind of warrior-prophet who, as Arleen Davila wrote, 'tried to save us'. To un-learn our illusions is to begin to save ourselves ... Return to Wild Nature - Destroy the Worldwide Industrial System - FREE TED KACZYNSKI. Some movement activists viewed this flyer as a joke. Others attributed such statements to 'cointelpro' operations designed to discredit the movement and erode public support for it. This flyer, however, was distributed by a long-term movement participant, making implausible such a rejoinder in this particular case. It is worth noting, however, that the case of Earth First! activists Darryl Cherney and the late Judi Bari, who sued the FBI and other law enforcement authorities for violating their civil rights after a bomb exploded in their car in 1990, continues to work its way through the courts. Chemey and Bari believe the authorities' response to them was part of an FBI cointelpro operation. For a description of the lawsuit effort, see Judi Bari, 'FBI Files Reveal New Civil Rights Abuses in Earth First! Bombing Case', Mendocino Environmental Center Newsletter Issue 15 (Spring 1994) p.6. For background on cointelpro operations, see Brian Glick, The War at Home (Boston: South End Press 1989).
48. The back side of this 'Free Ted Kaczynski' handout included this text: Joan of Arc and the 19th century abolitionist John Brown employed violence and gave their lives in struggle. These visionaries were considered demented by their contemporaries, but are now revered. It may be that the Unabomber will be looked upon similarly, as a kind of warrior-prophet who, as Arleen Davila wrote, 'tried to save us'. To un-learn our illusions is to begin to save ourselves ... Return to Wild Nature - Destroy the Worldwide Industrial System - FREE TED KACZYNSKI. Some movement activists viewed this flyer as a joke. Others attributed such statements to 'cointelpro' operations designed to discredit the movement and erode public support for it. This flyer, however, was distributed by a long-term movement participant, making implausible such a rejoinder in this particular case. It is worth noting, however, that the case of Earth First! activists Darryl Cherney and the late Judi Bari, who sued the FBI and other law enforcement authorities for violating their civil rights after a bomb exploded in their car in 1990, continues to work its way through the courts. Chemey and Bari believe the authorities' response to them was part of an FBI cointelpro operation. For a description of the lawsuit effort, see Judi Bari, 'FBI Files Reveal New Civil Rights Abuses in Earth First! Bombing Case', Mendocino Environmental Center Newsletter Issue 15 (Spring 1994) p.6. For background on cointelpro operations, see Brian Glick, The War at Home (Boston: South End Press 1989).
49. Rik Scarce, Ecowarriors (Chicago: Nobel Press 1990) pp. 187-200.
50. Rod Coronado, 'Letter to Friends', Earth First! 12/8 (22 Sept. 1992) pp.17, 25.
51. United States of America v. Rodney Adam Coronado, US District Court for Western District of Michigan, No 1:93-CR-116.
52. Ecoterror (note 9) pp.267-9. Coronado was eventually convicted and sentenced to prison for this crime. To his credit, Arnold attempts to be factually accurate. He has even reported statements by a law enforcement officer that put some young monkeywrenchers in a sympathetic light (p.205). In my view, this lends some credibility to the descriptive efforts in his book. Unfortunately, Arnold tends to take many reports by movement enemies and law enforcement authorities at face value, and tends to ignore the context in which actions occur. He called a barricade erected by Earth First!ers to protest and halt temporarily the environmentally destructive Barstow to Las Vegas desert a 'death trap ... designed to cause a fatal accident' (pp.3 8-9). He made this charge, parroting uncritically the spin and outrage expressed by the racers and by the public officials who had authorized the race. Yet he ignored or failed to ask probing questions to learn that race rules precluded racers from riding their bikes, under power, through the tunnel. Riders had to dismount because even without the barricade, attempting to ride into this tunnel could be fatal. When I asked the designer of the barricade, Mike Roselle, about this incident he replied that the tunnel's 'measurements were 6' high by 8' wide and about 200' long. A rider sitting on his bike would be about five feet high, so the dangers of high speed racing in a dark tunnel are obvious.' Roselle stated that race rules, including information about the ban on riding through the tunnel, and requiring the entire route to be inspected the morning of the race before it was to begin, were leaked to him by a sympathetic wilderness society activist. (E-mail message from Mike Roselle, 11 May 1998. His recollections cohere with those of an activist I interviewed in July 1997 who wishes to remain anonymous.) Even more problematic is the way Arnold frames his interpretations and definitions. He calls many acts of civil disobedience and sabotage that do not risk injuries to anyone (other than the activists themselves) 'violence' and 'terror'. When I expressed to him during a 17 June 1997 telephone interview that I thought this was misleading, Arnold told me he used the word 'ecoterror' rather than 'ecoterrorism' to avoid the implication that physical violence is always involved. This was not, however, made clear in his book, and this claim is hard to sustain when considering the genre and tone of his book. Moreover, Arnold unconvincingly denies any distinction between terrorism and sabotage and uncritically adopts the FBI's definition of terrorism (p.12). Arnold also assumes that an intent to kill or maim exists whenever activists take part in actions where injuries could result. These criticisms suggest that Arnold's book requires careful scrutiny. Yet Arnold has tried harder to verify facts than some academic observers and newspaper columnists (such as Linda Chavez, 'What Motive for Unabomber?', USA Today 10 April 1996, A). Moreover, he has documented in more detail than any other source how widespread (and costly) direct action environmental resistance (including sabotage) has become. He also analyzed fairly the May 1990 incident when a bomb exploded under the car seat of Earth First! activist Judi Bari, concluding that neither she nor her companion Darryl Cherney were knowingly involved in transporting the bomb or in planning to use it (Ron Arnold, Ecoterror [note 9] pp.256-63).
53. Ecoterror (note 9) pp.267-9. Coronado was eventually convicted and sentenced to prison for this crime. To his credit, Arnold attempts to be factually accurate. He has even reported statements by a law enforcement officer that put some young monkeywrenchers in a sympathetic light (p.205). In my view, this lends some credibility to the descriptive efforts in his book. Unfortunately, Arnold tends to take many reports by movement enemies and law enforcement authorities at face value, and tends to ignore the context in which actions occur. He called a barricade erected by Earth First!ers to protest and halt temporarily the environmentally destructive Barstow to Las Vegas desert a 'death trap ... designed to cause a fatal accident' (pp.3 8-9). He made this charge, parroting uncritically the spin and outrage expressed by the racers and by the public officials who had authorized the race. Yet he ignored or failed to ask probing questions to learn that race rules precluded racers from riding their bikes, under power, through the tunnel. Riders had to dismount because even without the barricade, attempting to ride into this tunnel could be fatal. When I asked the designer of the barricade, Mike Roselle, about this incident he replied that the tunnel's 'measurements were 6' high by 8' wide and about 200' long. A rider sitting on his bike would be about five feet high, so the dangers of high speed racing in a dark tunnel are obvious.' Roselle stated that race rules, including information about the ban on riding through the tunnel, and requiring the entire route to be inspected the morning of the race before it was to begin, were leaked to him by a sympathetic wilderness society activist. (E-mail message from Mike Roselle, 11 May 1998. His recollections cohere with those of an activist I interviewed in July 1997 who wishes to remain anonymous.) Even more problematic is the way Arnold frames his interpretations and definitions. He calls many acts of civil disobedience and sabotage that do not risk injuries to anyone (other than the activists themselves) 'violence' and 'terror'. When I expressed to him during a 17 June 1997 telephone interview that I thought this was misleading, Arnold told me he used the word 'ecoterror' rather than 'ecoterrorism' to avoid the implication that physical violence is always involved. This was not, however, made clear in his book, and this claim is hard to sustain when considering the genre and tone of his book. Moreover, Arnold unconvincingly denies any distinction between terrorism and sabotage and uncritically adopts the FBI's definition of terrorism (p.12). Arnold also assumes that an intent to kill or maim exists whenever activists take part in actions where injuries could result. These criticisms suggest that Arnold's book requires careful scrutiny. Yet Arnold has tried harder to verify facts than some academic observers and newspaper columnists (such as Linda Chavez, 'What Motive for Unabomber?', USA Today 10 April 1996, A). Moreover, he has documented in more detail than any other source how widespread (and costly) direct action environmental resistance (including sabotage) has become. He also analyzed fairly the May 1990 incident when a bomb exploded under the car seat of Earth First! activist Judi Bari, concluding that neither she nor her companion Darryl Cherney were knowingly involved in transporting the bomb or in planning to use it (Ron Arnold, Ecoterror [note 9] pp.256-63).
54. Ecoterror (note 9) pp.267-9. Coronado was eventually convicted and sentenced to prison for this crime. To his credit, Arnold attempts to be factually accurate. He has even reported statements by a law enforcement officer that put some young monkeywrenchers in a sympathetic light (p.205). In my view, this lends some credibility to the descriptive efforts in his book. Unfortunately, Arnold tends to take many reports by movement enemies and law enforcement authorities at face value, and tends to ignore the context in which actions occur. He called a barricade erected by Earth First!ers to protest and halt temporarily the environmentally destructive Barstow to Las Vegas desert a 'death trap ... designed to cause a fatal accident' (pp.3 8-9). He made this charge, parroting uncritically the spin and outrage expressed by the racers and by the public officials who had authorized the race. Yet he ignored or failed to ask probing questions to learn that race rules precluded racers from riding their bikes, under power, through the tunnel. Riders had to dismount because even without the barricade, attempting to ride into this tunnel could be fatal. When I asked the designer of the barricade, Mike Roselle, about this incident he replied that the tunnel's 'measurements were 6' high by 8' wide and about 200' long. A rider sitting on his bike would be about five feet high, so the dangers of high speed racing in a dark tunnel are obvious.' Roselle stated that race rules, including information about the ban on riding through the tunnel, and requiring the entire route to be inspected the morning of the race before it was to begin, were leaked to him by a sympathetic wilderness society activist. (E-mail message from Mike Roselle, 11 May 1998. His recollections cohere with those of an activist I interviewed in July 1997 who wishes to remain anonymous.) Even more problematic is the way Arnold frames his interpretations and definitions. He calls many acts of civil disobedience and sabotage that do not risk injuries to anyone (other than the activists themselves) 'violence' and 'terror'. When I expressed to him during a 17 June 1997 telephone interview that I thought this was misleading, Arnold told me he used the word 'ecoterror' rather than 'ecoterrorism' to avoid the implication that physical violence is always involved. This was not, however, made clear in his book, and this claim is hard to sustain when considering the genre and tone of his book. Moreover, Arnold unconvincingly denies any distinction between terrorism and sabotage and uncritically adopts the FBI's definition of terrorism (p.12). Arnold also assumes that an intent to kill or maim exists whenever activists take part in actions where injuries could result. These criticisms suggest that Arnold's book requires careful scrutiny. Yet Arnold has tried harder to verify facts than some academic observers and newspaper columnists (such as Linda Chavez, 'What Motive for Unabomber?', USA Today 10 April 1996, A). Moreover, he has documented in more detail than any other source how widespread (and costly) direct action environmental resistance (including sabotage) has become. He also analyzed fairly the May 1990 incident when a bomb exploded under the car seat of Earth First! activist Judi Bari, concluding that neither she nor her companion Darryl Cherney were knowingly involved in transporting the bomb or in planning to use it (Ron Arnold, Ecoterror [note 9] pp.256-63).
55. 'Tara the Sea Elf explained in Earth First! that the elves had created 20 clandestine cells in England by 1993, subsequently coordinating numerous attacks (including arson) on corporations in Europe and North America. Tara the Sea Elf, 'The Earth Liberation Front', Earth First! 16/7 (Sept.-Oct. 1996) p. 18.
56. My thanks to James Bames who reviewed a draft of this article and in a 24 July 1998 e-mail message clarified that graffiti was found only at the Detroit site.
57. This was explained to me by logger (and 'wise use' partisan) Tom Hirons. He said that although no one had yet been injured by tree spiking, the real risks occur in the mill, for when saw blades hit spikes they can shatter and ricochet. He also expressed anger at another tactic employed by some Earth First!ers - the dumping of silicone in a crankcase - which, he said, can make an engine explode. He concluded, 'I consider Earth First! nothing more than a terrorist group.' Hirons also confirmed that the prevalence of monkeywrenching was costing him dearly for security ($1,000 a month), and that even hiring watchmen does not guarantee the protection of one's equipment (interview, 3 March 1992, Portland, Oregon).
58. In the Santa Cruz power line incident, authorities easily turned public opinion against the saboteurs by explaining how the lack of power put at risk infirm individuals dependent on electrically powered life support systems.
59. After information about the incident arrived at the Earth First! journal, and a subsequent internal debate, a report about it was published with this disclaimer, 'The Earth First! journal staff is not advocating any actions reported in Earth Night News. There were concerns about printing the shooting incident but we felt it would be deceitful to report the monkeywrenching while ignoring the gunfire.' Originally in Katuah Journal, reprinted as 'Arson, Monkeywrenching, and Gunfire in Katuah', Earth First! 13/3 (1993) p.31.
60. After information about the incident arrived at the Earth First! journal, and a subsequent internal debate, a report about it was published with this disclaimer, 'The Earth First! journal staff is not advocating any actions reported in Earth Night News. There were concerns about printing the shooting incident but we felt it would be deceitful to report the monkeywrenching while ignoring the gunfire.' Originally in Katuah Journal, reprinted as 'Arson, Monkeywrenching, and Gunfire in Katuah', Earth First! 13/3 (1993) p.31.
61. David C. Rapoport, 'Fear and Trembling: Terrorism in Three Religious Traditions', American Political Science Review 78 (Sept. 1984) p.671.
62. For this see Bron Taylor, 'Diggers' (note 16).
63. For one extreme example, a letter from someone claiming responsibility for the May 1990 bombing of Earth First! activist Judy Bari's car stated (after accurately describing the type of bomb used), 'I built with these hands the bomb that I placed in the car of Judi Bari.... This possessed demon Judy Bari ... [told] the multitude that trees were not God's gift to man but that trees were themselves gods and it was a sin to cut them. My Spirit ached as her Paganism festered before mine Eyes, I felt the Power of the Lord stir within my heart and I knew I had been Chosen to strike down this demon.... The wicked shall know no Refuge.... I AM THE LORDS (sic) AVENGER.'
64. As did Howard Hutchinson, Executive Director of the Coalition of Arizona and New Mexico Counties, who in a 30 Jan. 1997 telephone interview explained to me his reasons for airing a 1993 radio advertisement with the following, alarming narrative, 'Did you know that modern environmentalism is rooted in pagan worship?... Many of these environmental leaders aren't just demanding better conservation practices, they are seeking a total transformation of society, one that seeks to destroy or totally restructure our current economic system and [dismantle] technology and civilization.' New Mexico Earth First!, 'Deep Ecology Cults', Earth First! 3/6 (21 June 1993) p.25.
65. Jeffrey Kaplan, 'The Anti-Cult Movement in America: A History of Culture Perspective', Syzygy: Journal of Alternative Religion and Culture 2/3-4 (1993) pp.267-96.
66. See notes 8 and 9. See also Thomas Robbins and Dick Anthony, 'Sects and Violence', in Stuart Wright (ed.), Armageddon at Waco (Chicago: Chicago University Press 1995) originally, and later, Thomas Robbins and Susan J. Palmer, 'Introduction', in Millennium, Messiahs, and Mayhem (note 8) make a helpful distinction contrasting two types of variables that should be analyzed when assessing the likelihood of violence emerging from a group or movement: 'endogenous factors implicating the leadership, beliefs or organization of the group' and 'exogenous or environmental factors often involving some kind of hostility or persecution in the movement's environment' (pp. 16-17). They acknowledge that exogenous repression can contribute to and provoke violence. Robbins especially, however, fears that an emphasis on such factors can obscure the criminal culpability of those in radical groups. See also T. Robbins, 'Religious Movements and Violence: A Friendly Critique of the Interpretive Approach', Nova Religio 1/1 (Feb. 1997) pp.13-29 and for a rejoinder see J. Kaplan, 'Interpreting the Interpretive Approach' (note 21) pp.30-49.
67. See notes 8 and 9. See also Thomas Robbins and Dick Anthony, 'Sects and Violence', in Stuart Wright (ed.), Armageddon at Waco (Chicago: Chicago University Press 1995) originally, and later, Thomas Robbins and Susan J. Palmer, 'Introduction', in Millennium, Messiahs, and Mayhem (note 8) make a helpful distinction contrasting two types of variables that should be analyzed when assessing the likelihood of violence emerging from a group or movement: 'endogenous factors implicating the leadership, beliefs or organization of the group' and 'exogenous or environmental factors often involving some kind of hostility or persecution in the movement's environment' (pp. 16-17). They acknowledge that exogenous repression can contribute to and provoke violence. Robbins especially, however, fears that an emphasis on such factors can obscure the criminal culpability of those in radical groups. See also T. Robbins, 'Religious Movements and Violence: A Friendly Critique of the Interpretive Approach', Nova Religio 1/1 (Feb. 1997) pp.13-29 and for a rejoinder see J. Kaplan, 'Interpreting the Interpretive Approach' (note 21) pp.30-49.
68. See notes 8 and 9. See also Thomas Robbins and Dick Anthony, 'Sects and Violence', in Stuart Wright (ed.), Armageddon at Waco (Chicago: Chicago University Press 1995) originally, and later, Thomas Robbins and Susan J. Palmer, 'Introduction', in Millennium, Messiahs, and Mayhem (note 8) make a helpful distinction contrasting two types of variables that should be analyzed when assessing the likelihood of violence emerging from a group or movement: 'endogenous factors implicating the leadership, beliefs or organization of the group' and 'exogenous or environmental factors often involving some kind of hostility or persecution in the movement's environment' (pp. 16-17). They acknowledge that exogenous repression can contribute to and provoke violence. Robbins especially, however, fears that an emphasis on such factors can obscure the criminal culpability of those in radical groups. See also T. Robbins, 'Religious Movements and Violence: A Friendly Critique of the Interpretive Approach', Nova Religio 1/1 (Feb. 1997) pp.13-29 and for a rejoinder see J. Kaplan, 'Interpreting the Interpretive Approach' (note 21) pp.30-49.
69. See notes 8 and 9. See also Thomas Robbins and Dick Anthony, 'Sects and Violence', in Stuart Wright (ed.), Armageddon at Waco (Chicago: Chicago University Press 1995) originally, and later, Thomas Robbins and Susan J. Palmer, 'Introduction', in Millennium, Messiahs, and Mayhem (note 8) make a helpful distinction contrasting two types of variables that should be analyzed when assessing the likelihood of violence emerging from a group or movement: 'endogenous factors implicating the leadership, beliefs or organization of the group' and 'exogenous or environmental factors often involving some kind of hostility or persecution in the movement's environment' (pp. 16-17). They acknowledge that exogenous repression can contribute to and provoke violence. Robbins especially, however, fears that an emphasis on such factors can obscure the criminal culpability of those in radical groups. See also T. Robbins, 'Religious Movements and Violence: A Friendly Critique of the Interpretive Approach', Nova Religio 1/1 (Feb. 1997) pp.13-29 and for a rejoinder see J. Kaplan, 'Interpreting the Interpretive Approach' (note 21) pp.30-49.
70. Jeffrey Kaplan, 'The Context of American Millenarian Revolutionary Theology: The Case of the "Identity Christian" Church of Israel', TPV 5/1 (Spring 1993) pp.30-82; idem., 'Right Wing Violence in North America' (note 15).
71. Jeffrey Kaplan, 'The Context of American Millenarian Revolutionary Theology: The Case of the "Identity Christian" Church of Israel', TPV 5/1 (Spring 1993) pp.30-82; idem., 'Right Wing Violence in North America' (note 15).
72. Yet she was also clear that the time was not ripe to take up arms. Nicholas Wilson, 'Judi Bari Dies But Her Spirit Lives On', Albion Monitor (5 March 1997), . See Judy Bari, 'Monkeywrenching', Earth First! 14/3 (2 Feb. 1994) p.8, and idem., 'The Secret History of Tree Spiking', Earth First! 15/2 (21 Dec. 1994) pp. 11, 15, for her arguments against tree spiking, especially that it does not work. See also Steve Marsden, 'Kalmiopsis EF! Replies', Earth First! 13/1 (2 Nov. 1992) p.30, who argued similarly that the tactic is ineffective, while former timber worker Gene Lawhorn argued that spiking was dangerous to workers because management does not care about worker safety. See Gene Lawhom, 'Why Earth First! Should Renounce Tree Spiking', Earth First! 10/8 (22 Sept. 1990) p.9. See also Jamie Melanowski, 'Monkey-Wrenching Around', The Nation (2 May 1987) pp.568-70, for specific dangers to mill workers posed by tree spiking. On the other hand, after Leroy Watson, 'Spikin", Earth First! 2/2 (21 Dec. 1981) p.6, first introduced and promoted the tactic, many more writers have defended it, including Dave Foreman, who has advocated many forms of ecotage (e.g. Dave Foreman, 'An Environmental Strategy for the 80s', Earth First! 2/8 (21 Sept. 1982) p.7, Paul Watson who claims to have invented the tactic, Paul Watson, 'In Defense of Tree Spiking', Earth First! 10/8 (22 Sept. 1989) pp.8-9, and idem., 'In Defense of Tree Spiking', Earth First! 15/3 (2 Feb. 1995) pp. 10-11. Watson might have written the article attributed to Leroy Watson; see also William Haywood, 'Tree Spiking', Earth First! 4/4 (1984) p.14; George Wuerthner, 'Tree Spiking and Moral Maturity', Earth First! (1 Aug. 1985) p.20; Mike Roselle, 'Forest Grump', Earth First! 15/2 (21 Dec. 1994) p.23; idem., 'Meares Island: Canada's Old Growth Struggle', Earth First! 5/3 (2 Feb. 1985) pp.1, 5; idem., 'Spike a Tree for Me', Earth First! 15/3 (2 Feb. 1995) p.9; Alexander Berkman, 'Of the "War on Drugs" and Tree Spiking', Earth First! 9/4 (21 March 1989) p.35; CM, 'An Appraisal of Monkeywrenching', Earth First! 10/3 (2 Feb. 1990) p.30; and Anonymous, 'Comment on Spiking', Earth First! 2/3 (2 Feb. 1982) p.6. Cf. the recent letters continuing the tree spiking debate by May, Haun, Bari, Woo and Lawhorn in Earth First! 15/3 (2 Feb. 1995).
73. Yet she was also clear that the time was not ripe to take up arms. Nicholas Wilson, 'Judi Bari Dies But Her Spirit Lives On', Albion Monitor (5 March 1997), . See Judy Bari, 'Monkeywrenching', Earth First! 14/3 (2 Feb. 1994) p.8, and idem., 'The Secret History of Tree Spiking', Earth First! 15/2 (21 Dec. 1994) pp. 11, 15, for her arguments against tree spiking, especially that it does not work. See also Steve Marsden, 'Kalmiopsis EF! Replies', Earth First! 13/1 (2 Nov. 1992) p.30, who argued similarly that the tactic is ineffective, while former timber worker Gene Lawhorn argued that spiking was dangerous to workers because management does not care about worker safety. See Gene Lawhom, 'Why Earth First! Should Renounce Tree Spiking', Earth First! 10/8 (22 Sept. 1990) p.9. See also Jamie Melanowski, 'Monkey-Wrenching Around', The Nation (2 May 1987) pp.568-70, for specific dangers to mill workers posed by tree spiking. On the other hand, after Leroy Watson, 'Spikin", Earth First! 2/2 (21 Dec. 1981) p.6, first introduced and promoted the tactic, many more writers have defended it, including Dave Foreman, who has advocated many forms of ecotage (e.g. Dave Foreman, 'An Environmental Strategy for the 80s', Earth First! 2/8 (21 Sept. 1982) p.7, Paul Watson who claims to have invented the tactic, Paul Watson, 'In Defense of Tree Spiking', Earth First! 10/8 (22 Sept. 1989) pp.8-9, and idem., 'In Defense of Tree Spiking', Earth First! 15/3 (2 Feb. 1995) pp. 10-11. Watson might have written the article attributed to Leroy Watson; see also William Haywood, 'Tree Spiking', Earth First! 4/4 (1984) p.14; George Wuerthner, 'Tree Spiking and Moral Maturity', Earth First! (1 Aug. 1985) p.20; Mike Roselle, 'Forest Grump', Earth First! 15/2 (21 Dec. 1994) p.23; idem., 'Meares Island: Canada's Old Growth Struggle', Earth First! 5/3 (2 Feb. 1985) pp.1, 5; idem., 'Spike a Tree for Me', Earth First! 15/3 (2 Feb. 1995) p.9; Alexander Berkman, 'Of the "War on Drugs" and Tree Spiking', Earth First! 9/4 (21 March 1989) p.35; CM, 'An Appraisal of Monkeywrenching', Earth First! 10/3 (2 Feb. 1990) p.30; and Anonymous, 'Comment on Spiking', Earth First! 2/3 (2 Feb. 1982) p.6. Cf. the recent letters continuing the tree spiking debate by May, Haun, Bari, Woo and Lawhorn in Earth First! 15/3 (2 Feb. 1995).
74. Yet she was also clear that the time was not ripe to take up arms. Nicholas Wilson, 'Judi Bari Dies But Her Spirit Lives On', Albion Monitor (5 March 1997), . See Judy Bari, 'Monkeywrenching', Earth First! 14/3 (2 Feb. 1994) p.8, and idem., 'The Secret History of Tree Spiking', Earth First! 15/2 (21 Dec. 1994) pp. 11, 15, for her arguments against tree spiking, especially that it does not work. See also Steve Marsden, 'Kalmiopsis EF! Replies', Earth First! 13/1 (2 Nov. 1992) p.30, who argued similarly that the tactic is ineffective, while former timber worker Gene Lawhorn argued that spiking was dangerous to workers because management does not care about worker safety. See Gene Lawhom, 'Why Earth First! Should Renounce Tree Spiking', Earth First! 10/8 (22 Sept. 1990) p.9. See also Jamie Melanowski, 'Monkey-Wrenching Around', The Nation (2 May 1987) pp.568-70, for specific dangers to mill workers posed by tree spiking. On the other hand, after Leroy Watson, 'Spikin", Earth First! 2/2 (21 Dec. 1981) p.6, first introduced and promoted the tactic, many more writers have defended it, including Dave Foreman, who has advocated many forms of ecotage (e.g. Dave Foreman, 'An Environmental Strategy for the 80s', Earth First! 2/8 (21 Sept. 1982) p.7, Paul Watson who claims to have invented the tactic, Paul Watson, 'In Defense of Tree Spiking', Earth First! 10/8 (22 Sept. 1989) pp.8-9, and idem., 'In Defense of Tree Spiking', Earth First! 15/3 (2 Feb. 1995) pp. 10-11. Watson might have written the article attributed to Leroy Watson; see also William Haywood, 'Tree Spiking', Earth First! 4/4 (1984) p.14; George Wuerthner, 'Tree Spiking and Moral Maturity', Earth First! (1 Aug. 1985) p.20; Mike Roselle, 'Forest Grump', Earth First! 15/2 (21 Dec. 1994) p.23; idem., 'Meares Island: Canada's Old Growth Struggle', Earth First! 5/3 (2 Feb. 1985) pp.1, 5; idem., 'Spike a Tree for Me', Earth First! 15/3 (2 Feb. 1995) p.9; Alexander Berkman, 'Of the "War on Drugs" and Tree Spiking', Earth First! 9/4 (21 March 1989) p.35; CM, 'An Appraisal of Monkeywrenching', Earth First! 10/3 (2 Feb. 1990) p.30; and Anonymous, 'Comment on Spiking', Earth First! 2/3 (2 Feb. 1982) p.6. Cf. the recent letters continuing the tree spiking debate by May, Haun, Bari, Woo and Lawhorn in Earth First! 15/3 (2 Feb. 1995).
75. Yet she was also clear that the time was not ripe to take up arms. Nicholas Wilson, 'Judi Bari Dies But Her Spirit Lives On', Albion Monitor (5 March 1997), . See Judy Bari, 'Monkeywrenching', Earth First! 14/3 (2 Feb. 1994) p.8, and idem., 'The Secret History of Tree Spiking', Earth First! 15/2 (21 Dec. 1994) pp. 11, 15, for her arguments against tree spiking, especially that it does not work. See also Steve Marsden, 'Kalmiopsis EF! Replies', Earth First! 13/1 (2 Nov. 1992) p.30, who argued similarly that the tactic is ineffective, while former timber worker Gene Lawhorn argued that spiking was dangerous to workers because management does not care about worker safety. See Gene Lawhom, 'Why Earth First! Should Renounce Tree Spiking', Earth First! 10/8 (22 Sept. 1990) p.9. See also Jamie Melanowski, 'Monkey-Wrenching Around', The Nation (2 May 1987) pp.568-70, for specific dangers to mill workers posed by tree spiking. On the other hand, after Leroy Watson, 'Spikin", Earth First! 2/2 (21 Dec. 1981) p.6, first introduced and promoted the tactic, many more writers have defended it, including Dave Foreman, who has advocated many forms of ecotage (e.g. Dave Foreman, 'An Environmental Strategy for the 80s', Earth First! 2/8 (21 Sept. 1982) p.7, Paul Watson who claims to have invented the tactic, Paul Watson, 'In Defense of Tree Spiking', Earth First! 10/8 (22 Sept. 1989) pp.8-9, and idem., 'In Defense of Tree Spiking', Earth First! 15/3 (2 Feb. 1995) pp. 10-11. Watson might have written the article attributed to Leroy Watson; see also William Haywood, 'Tree Spiking', Earth First! 4/4 (1984) p.14; George Wuerthner, 'Tree Spiking and Moral Maturity', Earth First! (1 Aug. 1985) p.20; Mike Roselle, 'Forest Grump', Earth First! 15/2 (21 Dec. 1994) p.23; idem., 'Meares Island: Canada's Old Growth Struggle', Earth First! 5/3 (2 Feb. 1985) pp.1, 5; idem., 'Spike a Tree for Me', Earth First! 15/3 (2 Feb. 1995) p.9; Alexander Berkman, 'Of the "War on Drugs" and Tree Spiking', Earth First! 9/4 (21 March 1989) p.35; CM, 'An Appraisal of Monkeywrenching', Earth First! 10/3 (2 Feb. 1990) p.30; and Anonymous, 'Comment on Spiking', Earth First! 2/3 (2 Feb. 1982) p.6. Cf. the recent letters continuing the tree spiking debate by May, Haun, Bari, Woo and Lawhorn in Earth First! 15/3 (2 Feb. 1995).
76. Yet she was also clear that the time was not ripe to take up arms. Nicholas Wilson, 'Judi Bari Dies But Her Spirit Lives On', Albion Monitor (5 March 1997), . See Judy Bari, 'Monkeywrenching', Earth First! 14/3 (2 Feb. 1994) p.8, and idem., 'The Secret History of Tree Spiking', Earth First! 15/2 (21 Dec. 1994) pp. 11, 15, for her arguments against tree spiking, especially that it does not work. See also Steve Marsden, 'Kalmiopsis EF! Replies', Earth First! 13/1 (2 Nov. 1992) p.30, who argued similarly that the tactic is ineffective, while former timber worker Gene Lawhorn argued that spiking was dangerous to workers because management does not care about worker safety. See Gene Lawhom, 'Why Earth First! Should Renounce Tree Spiking', Earth First! 10/8 (22 Sept. 1990) p.9. See also Jamie Melanowski, 'Monkey-Wrenching Around', The Nation (2 May 1987) pp.568-70, for specific dangers to mill workers posed by tree spiking. On the other hand, after Leroy Watson, 'Spikin", Earth First! 2/2 (21 Dec. 1981) p.6, first introduced and promoted the tactic, many more writers have defended it, including Dave Foreman, who has advocated many forms of ecotage (e.g. Dave Foreman, 'An Environmental Strategy for the 80s', Earth First! 2/8 (21 Sept. 1982) p.7, Paul Watson who claims to have invented the tactic, Paul Watson, 'In Defense of Tree Spiking', Earth First! 10/8 (22 Sept. 1989) pp.8-9, and idem., 'In Defense of Tree Spiking', Earth First! 15/3 (2 Feb. 1995) pp. 10-11. Watson might have written the article attributed to Leroy Watson; see also William Haywood, 'Tree Spiking', Earth First! 4/4 (1984) p.14; George Wuerthner, 'Tree Spiking and Moral Maturity', Earth First! (1 Aug. 1985) p.20; Mike Roselle, 'Forest Grump', Earth First! 15/2 (21 Dec. 1994) p.23; idem., 'Meares Island: Canada's Old Growth Struggle', Earth First! 5/3 (2 Feb. 1985) pp.1, 5; idem., 'Spike a Tree for Me', Earth First! 15/3 (2 Feb. 1995) p.9; Alexander Berkman, 'Of the "War on Drugs" and Tree Spiking', Earth First! 9/4 (21 March 1989) p.35; CM, 'An Appraisal of Monkeywrenching', Earth First! 10/3 (2 Feb. 1990) p.30; and Anonymous, 'Comment on Spiking', Earth First! 2/3 (2 Feb. 1982) p.6. Cf. the recent letters continuing the tree spiking debate by May, Haun, Bari, Woo and Lawhorn in Earth First! 15/3 (2 Feb. 1995).
77. Yet she was also clear that the time was not ripe to take up arms. Nicholas Wilson, 'Judi Bari Dies But Her Spirit Lives On', Albion Monitor (5 March 1997), . See Judy Bari, 'Monkeywrenching', Earth First! 14/3 (2 Feb. 1994) p.8, and idem., 'The Secret History of Tree Spiking', Earth First! 15/2 (21 Dec. 1994) pp. 11, 15, for her arguments against tree spiking, especially that it does not work. See also Steve Marsden, 'Kalmiopsis EF! Replies', Earth First! 13/1 (2 Nov. 1992) p.30, who argued similarly that the tactic is ineffective, while former timber worker Gene Lawhorn argued that spiking was dangerous to workers because management does not care about worker safety. See Gene Lawhom, 'Why Earth First! Should Renounce Tree Spiking', Earth First! 10/8 (22 Sept. 1990) p.9. See also Jamie Melanowski, 'Monkey-Wrenching Around', The Nation (2 May 1987) pp.568-70, for specific dangers to mill workers posed by tree spiking. On the other hand, after Leroy Watson, 'Spikin", Earth First! 2/2 (21 Dec. 1981) p.6, first introduced and promoted the tactic, many more writers have defended it, including Dave Foreman, who has advocated many forms of ecotage (e.g. Dave Foreman, 'An Environmental Strategy for the 80s', Earth First! 2/8 (21 Sept. 1982) p.7, Paul Watson who claims to have invented the tactic, Paul Watson, 'In Defense of Tree Spiking', Earth First! 10/8 (22 Sept. 1989) pp.8-9, and idem., 'In Defense of Tree Spiking', Earth First! 15/3 (2 Feb. 1995) pp. 10-11. Watson might have written the article attributed to Leroy Watson; see also William Haywood, 'Tree Spiking', Earth First! 4/4 (1984) p.14; George Wuerthner, 'Tree Spiking and Moral Maturity', Earth First! (1 Aug. 1985) p.20; Mike Roselle, 'Forest Grump', Earth First! 15/2 (21 Dec. 1994) p.23; idem., 'Meares Island: Canada's Old Growth Struggle', Earth First! 5/3 (2 Feb. 1985) pp.1, 5; idem., 'Spike a Tree for Me', Earth First! 15/3 (2 Feb. 1995) p.9; Alexander Berkman, 'Of the "War on Drugs" and Tree Spiking', Earth First! 9/4 (21 March 1989) p.35; CM, 'An Appraisal of Monkeywrenching', Earth First! 10/3 (2 Feb. 1990) p.30; and Anonymous, 'Comment on Spiking', Earth First! 2/3 (2 Feb. 1982) p.6. Cf. the recent letters continuing the tree spiking debate by May, Haun, Bari, Woo and Lawhorn in Earth First! 15/3 (2 Feb. 1995).
78. Yet she was also clear that the time was not ripe to take up arms. Nicholas Wilson, 'Judi Bari Dies But Her Spirit Lives On', Albion Monitor (5 March 1997), . See Judy Bari, 'Monkeywrenching', Earth First! 14/3 (2 Feb. 1994) p.8, and idem., 'The Secret History of Tree Spiking', Earth First! 15/2 (21 Dec. 1994) pp. 11, 15, for her arguments against tree spiking, especially that it does not work. See also Steve Marsden, 'Kalmiopsis EF! Replies', Earth First! 13/1 (2 Nov. 1992) p.30, who
79. Yet she was also clear that the time was not ripe to take up arms. Nicholas Wilson, 'Judi Bari Dies But Her Spirit Lives On', Albion Monitor (5 March 1997), . See Judy Bari, 'Monkeywrenching', Earth First! 14/3 (2 Feb. 1994) p.8, and idem., 'The Secret History of Tree Spiking', Earth First! 15/2 (21 Dec. 1994) pp. 11, 15, for her arguments against tree spiking, especially that it does not work. See also Steve Marsden, 'Kalmiopsis EF! Replies', Earth First! 13/1 (2 Nov. 1992) p.30, who argued similarly that the tactic is ineffective, while former timber worker Gene Lawhorn argued that spiking was dangerous to workers because management does not care about worker safety. See Gene Lawhom, 'Why Earth First! Should Renounce Tree Spiking', Earth First! 10/8 (22 Sept. 1990) p.9. See also Jamie Melanowski, 'Monkey-Wrenching Around', The Nation (2 May 1987) pp.568-70, for specific dangers to mill workers posed by tree spiking. On the other hand, after Leroy Watson, 'Spikin", Earth First! 2/2 (21 Dec. 1981) p.6, first introduced and promoted the tactic, many more writers have defended it, including Dave Foreman, who has advocated many forms of ecotage (e.g. Dave Foreman, 'An Environmental Strategy for the 80s', Earth First! 2/8 (21 Sept. 1982) p.7, Paul Watson who claims to have invented the tactic, Paul Watson, 'In Defense of Tree Spiking', Earth First! 10/8 (22 Sept. 1989) pp.8-9, and idem., 'In Defense of Tree Spiking', Earth First! 15/3 (2 Feb. 1995) pp. 10-11. Watson might have written the article attributed to Leroy Watson; see also William Haywood, 'Tree Spiking', Earth First! 4/4 (1984) p.14; George Wuerthner, 'Tree Spiking and Moral Maturity', Earth First! (1 Aug. 1985) p.20; Mike Roselle, 'Forest Grump', Earth First! 15/2 (21 Dec. 1994) p.23; idem., 'Meares Island: Canada's Old Growth Struggle', Earth First! 5/3 (2 Feb. 1985) pp.1, 5; idem., 'Spike a Tree for Me', Earth First! 15/3 (2 Feb. 1995) p.9; Alexander Berkman, 'Of the "War on Drugs" and Tree Spiking', Earth First! 9/4 (21 March 1989) p.35; CM, 'An Appraisal of Monkeywrenching', Earth First! 10/3 (2 Feb. 1990) p.30; and Anonymous, 'Comment on Spiking', Earth First! 2/3 (2 Feb. 1982) p.6. Cf. the recent letters continuing the tree spiking debate by May, Haun, Bari, Woo and Lawhorn in Earth First! 15/3 (2 Feb. 1995).
80. Yet she was also clear that the time was not ripe to take up arms. Nicholas Wilson, 'Judi Bari Dies But Her Spirit Lives On', Albion Monitor (5 March 1997), . See Judy Bari, 'Monkeywrenching', Earth First! 14/3 (2 Feb. 1994) p.8, and idem., 'The Secret History of Tree Spiking', Earth First! 15/2 (21 Dec. 1994) pp. 11, 15, for her arguments against tree spiking, especially that it does not work. See also Steve Marsden, 'Kalmiopsis EF! Replies', Earth First! 13/1 (2 Nov. 1992) p.30, who argued similarly that the tactic is ineffective, while former timber worker Gene Lawhorn argued that spiking was dangerous to workers because management does not care about worker safety. See Gene Lawhom, 'Why Earth First! Should Renounce Tree Spiking', Earth First! 10/8 (22 Sept. 1990) p.9. See also Jamie Melanowski, 'Monkey-Wrenching Around', The Nation (2 May 1987) pp.568-70, for specific dangers to mill workers posed by tree spiking. On the other hand, after Leroy Watson, 'Spikin", Earth First! 2/2 (21 Dec. 1981) p.6, first introduced and promoted the tactic, many more writers have defended it, including Dave Foreman, who has advocated many forms of ecotage (e.g. Dave Foreman, 'An Environmental Strategy for the 80s', Earth First! 2/8 (21 Sept. 1982) p.7, Paul Watson who claims to have invented the tactic, Paul Watson, 'In Defense of Tree Spiking', Earth First! 10/8 (22 Sept. 1989) pp.8-9, and idem., 'In Defense of Tree Spiking', Earth First! 15/3 (2 Feb. 1995) pp. 10-11. Watson might have written the article attributed to Leroy Watson; see also William Haywood, 'Tree Spiking', Earth First! 4/4 (1984) p.14; George Wuerthner, 'Tree Spiking and Moral Maturity', Earth First! (1 Aug. 1985) p.20; Mike Roselle, 'Forest Grump', Earth First! 15/2 (21 Dec. 1994) p.23; idem., 'Meares Island: Canada's Old Growth Struggle', Earth First! 5/3 (2 Feb. 1985) pp.1, 5; idem., 'Spike a Tree for Me', Earth First! 15/3 (2 Feb. 1995) p.9; Alexander Berkman, 'Of the "War on Drugs" and Tree Spiking', Earth First! 9/4 (21 March 1989) p.35; CM, 'An Appraisal of Monkeywrenching', Earth First! 10/3 (2 Feb. 1990) p.30; and Anonymous, 'Comment on Spiking', Earth First! 2/3 (2 Feb. 1982) p.6. Cf. the recent letters continuing the tree spiking debate by May, Haun, Bari, Woo and Lawhorn in Earth First! 15/3 (2 Feb. 1995).
81. Yet she was also clear that the time was not ripe to take up arms. Nicholas Wilson, 'Judi Bari Dies But Her Spirit Lives On', Albion Monitor (5 March 1997), . See Judy Bari, 'Monkeywrenching', Earth First! 14/3 (2 Feb. 1994) p.8, and idem., 'The Secret History of Tree Spiking', Earth First! 15/2 (21 Dec. 1994) pp. 11, 15, for her arguments against tree spiking, especially that it does not work. See also Steve Marsden, 'Kalmiopsis EF! Replies', Earth First! 13/1 (2 Nov. 1992) p.30, who argued similarly that the tactic is ineffective, while former timber worker Gene Lawhorn argued that spiking was dangerous to workers because management does not care about worker safety. See Gene Lawhom, 'Why Earth First! Should Renounce Tree Spiking', Earth First! 10/8 (22 Sept. 1990) p.9. See also Jamie Melanowski, 'Monkey-Wrenching Around', The Nation (2 May 1987) pp.568-70, for specific dangers to mill workers posed by tree spiking. On the other hand, after Leroy Watson, 'Spikin", Earth First! 2/2 (21 Dec. 1981) p.6, first introduced and promoted the tactic, many more writers have defended it, including Dave Foreman, who has advocated many forms of ecotage (e.g. Dave Foreman, 'An Environmental Strategy for the 80s', Earth First! 2/8 (21 Sept. 1982) p.7, Paul Watson who claims to have invented the tactic, Paul Watson, 'In Defense of Tree Spiking', Earth First! 10/8 (22 Sept. 1989) pp.8-9, and idem., 'In Defense of Tree Spiking', Earth First! 15/3 (2 Feb. 1995) pp. 10-11. Watson might have written the article attributed to Leroy Watson; see also William Haywood, 'Tree Spiking', Earth First! 4/4 (1984) p.14; George Wuerthner, 'Tree Spiking and Moral Maturity', Earth First! (1 Aug. 1985) p.20; Mike Roselle, 'Forest Grump', Earth First! 15/2 (21 Dec. 1994) p.23; idem., 'Meares Island: Canada's Old Growth Struggle', Earth First! 5/3 (2 Feb. 1985) pp.1, 5; idem., 'Spike a Tree for Me', Earth First! 15/3 (2 Feb. 1995) p.9; Alexander Berkman, 'Of the "War on Drugs" and Tree Spiking', Earth First! 9/4 (21 March 1989) p.35; CM, 'An Appraisal of Monkeywrenching', Earth First! 10/3 (2 Feb. 1990) p.30; and Anonymous, 'Comment on Spiking', Earth First! 2/3 (2 Feb. 1982) p.6. Cf. the recent letters continuing the tree spiking debate by May, Haun, Bari, Woo and Lawhorn in Earth First! 15/3 (2 Feb. 1995).
82. Yet she was also clear that the time was not ripe to take up arms. Nicholas Wilson, 'Judi Bari Dies But Her Spirit Lives On', Albion Monitor (5 March 1997), . See Judy Bari, 'Monkeywrenching', Earth First! 14/3 (2 Feb. 1994) p.8, and idem., 'The Secret History of Tree Spiking', Earth First! 15/2 (21 Dec. 1994) pp. 11, 15, for her arguments against tree spiking, especially that it does not work. See also Steve Marsden, 'Kalmiopsis EF! Replies', Earth First! 13/1 (2 Nov. 1992) p.30, who argued similarly that the tactic is ineffective, while former timber worker Gene Lawhorn argued that spiking was dangerous to workers because management does not care about worker safety. See Gene Lawhom, 'Why Earth First! Should Renounce Tree Spiking', Earth First! 10/8 (22 Sept. 1990) p.9. See also Jamie Melanowski, 'Monkey-Wrenching Around', The Nation (2 May 1987) pp.568-70, for specific dangers to mill workers posed by tree spiking. On the other hand, after Leroy Watson, 'Spikin", Earth First! 2/2 (21 Dec. 1981) p.6, first introduced and promoted the tactic, many more writers have defended it, including Dave Foreman, who has advocated many forms of ecotage (e.g. Dave Foreman, 'An Environmental Strategy for the 80s', Earth First! 2/8 (21 Sept. 1982) p.7, Paul Watson who claims to have invented the tactic, Paul Watson, 'In Defense of Tree Spiking', Earth First! 10/8 (22 Sept. 1989) pp.8-9, and idem., 'In Defense of Tree Spiking', Earth First! 15/3 (2 Feb. 1995) pp. 10-11. Watson might have written the article attributed to Leroy Watson; see also William Haywood, 'Tree Spiking', Earth First! 4/4 (1984) p.14; George Wuerthner, 'Tree Spiking and Moral Maturity', Earth First! (1 Aug. 1985) p.20; Mike Roselle, 'Forest Grump', Earth First! 15/2 (21 Dec. 1994) p.23; idem., 'Meares Island: Canada's Old Growth Struggle', Earth First! 5/3 (2 Feb. 1985) pp.1, 5; idem., 'Spike a Tree for Me', Earth First! 15/3 (2 Feb. 1995) p.9; Alexander Berkman, 'Of the "War on Drugs" and Tree Spiking', Earth First! 9/4 (21 March 1989) p.35; CM, 'An Appraisal of Monkeywrenching', Earth First! 10/3 (2 Feb. 1990) p.30; and Anonymous, 'Comment on Spiking', Earth First! 2/3 (2 Feb. 1982) p.6. Cf. the recent letters continuing the tree spiking debate by May, Haun, Bari, Woo and Lawhorn in Earth First! 15/3 (2 Feb. 1995).
83. Yet she was also clear that the time was not ripe to take up arms. Nicholas Wilson, 'Judi Bari Dies But Her Spirit Lives On', Albion Monitor (5 March 1997), . See Judy Bari, 'Monkeywrenching', Earth First! 14/3 (2 Feb. 1994) p.8, and idem., 'The Secret History of Tree Spiking', Earth First! 15/2 (21 Dec. 1994) pp. 11, 15, for her arguments against tree spiking, especially that it does not work. See also Steve Marsden, 'Kalmiopsis EF! Replies', Earth First! 13/1 (2 Nov. 1992) p.30, who argued similarly that the tactic is ineffective, while former timber worker Gene Lawhorn argued that spiking was dangerous to workers because management does not care about worker safety. See Gene Lawhom, 'Why Earth First! Should Renounce Tree Spiking', Earth First! 10/8 (22 Sept. 1990) p.9. See also Jamie Melanowski, 'Monkey-Wrenching Around', The Nation (2 May 1987) pp.568-70, for specific dangers to mill workers posed by tree spiking. On the other hand, after Leroy Watson, 'Spikin", Earth First! 2/2 (21 Dec. 1981) p.6, first introduced and promoted the tactic, many more writers have defended it, including Dave Foreman, who has advocated many forms of ecotage (e.g. Dave Foreman, 'An Environmental Strategy for the 80s', Earth First! 2/8 (21 Sept. 1982) p.7, Paul Watson who claims to have invented the tactic, Paul Watson, 'In Defense of Tree Spiking', Earth First! 10/8 (22 Sept. 1989) pp.8-9, and idem., 'In Defense of Tree Spiking', Earth First! 15/3 (2 Feb. 1995) pp. 10-11. Watson might have written the article attributed to Leroy Watson; see also William Haywood, 'Tree Spiking', Earth First! 4/4 (1984) p.14; George Wuerthner, 'Tree Spiking and Moral Maturity', Earth First! (1 Aug. 1985) p.20; Mike Roselle, 'Forest Grump', Earth First! 15/2 (21 Dec. 1994) p.23; idem., 'Meares Island: Canada's Old Growth Struggle', Earth First! 5/3 (2 Feb. 1985) pp.1, 5; idem., 'Spike a Tree for Me', Earth First! 15/3 (2 Feb. 1995) p.9; Alexander Berkman, 'Of the "War on Drugs" and Tree Spiking', Earth First! 9/4 (21 March 1989) p.35; CM, 'An Appraisal of Monkeywrenching', Earth First! 10/3 (2 Feb. 1990) p.30; and Anonymous, 'Comment on Spiking', Earth First! 2/3 (2 Feb. 1982) p.6. Cf. the recent letters continuing the tree spiking debate by May, Haun, Bari, Woo and Lawhorn in Earth First! 15/3 (2 Feb. 1995).
84. Yet she was also clear that the time was not ripe to take up arms. Nicholas Wilson, 'Judi Bari Dies But Her Spirit Lives On', Albion Monitor (5 March 1997), . See Judy Bari, 'Monkeywrenching', Earth First! 14/3 (2 Feb. 1994) p.8, and idem., 'The Secret History of Tree Spiking', Earth First! 15/2 (21 Dec. 1994) pp. 11, 15, for her arguments against tree spiking, especially that it does not work. See also Steve Marsden, 'Kalmiopsis EF! Replies', Earth First! 13/1 (2 Nov. 1992) p.30, who argued similarly that the tactic is ineffective, while former timber worker Gene Lawhorn argued that spiking was dangerous to workers because management does not care about worker safety. See Gene Lawhom, 'Why Earth First! Should Renounce Tree Spiking', Earth First! 10/8 (22 Sept. 1990) p.9. See also Jamie Melanowski, 'Monkey-Wrenching Around', The Nation (2 May 1987) pp.568-70, for specific dangers to mill workers posed by tree spiking. On the other hand, after Leroy Watson, 'Spikin", Earth First! 2/2 (21 Dec. 1981) p.6, first introduced and promoted the tactic, many more writers have defended it, including Dave Foreman, who has advocated many forms of ecotage (e.g. Dave Foreman, 'An Environmental Strategy for the 80s', Earth First! 2/8 (21 Sept. 1982) p.7, Paul Watson who claims to have invented the tactic, Paul Watson, 'In Defense of Tree Spiking', Earth First! 10/8 (22 Sept. 1989) pp.8-9, and idem., 'In Defense of Tree Spiking', Earth First! 15/3 (2 Feb. 1995) pp. 10-11. Watson might have written the article attributed to Leroy Watson; see also William Haywood, 'Tree Spiking', Earth First! 4/4 (1984) p.14; George Wuerthner, 'Tree Spiking and Moral Maturity', Earth First! (1 Aug. 1985) p.20; Mike Roselle, 'Forest Grump', Earth First! 15/2 (21 Dec. 1994) p.23; idem., 'Meares Island: Canada's Old Growth Struggle', Earth First! 5/3 (2 Feb. 1985) pp.1, 5; idem., 'Spike a Tree for Me', Earth First! 15/3 (2 Feb. 1995) p.9; Alexander Berkman, 'Of the "War on Drugs" and Tree Spiking', Earth First! 9/4 (21 March 1989) p.35; CM, 'An Appraisal of Monkeywrenching', Earth First! 10/3 (2 Feb. 1990) p.30; and Anonymous, 'Comment on Spiking', Earth First! 2/3 (2 Feb. 1982) p.6. Cf. the recent letters continuing the tree spiking debate by May, Haun, Bari, Woo and Lawhorn in Earth First! 15/3 (2 Feb. 1995).
85. Yet she was also clear that the time was not ripe to take up arms. Nicholas Wilson, 'Judi Bari Dies But Her Spirit Lives On', Albion Monitor (5 March 1997), . See Judy Bari, 'Monkeywrenching', Earth First! 14/3 (2 Feb. 1994) p.8, and idem., 'The Secret History of Tree Spiking', Earth First! 15/2 (21 Dec. 1994) pp. 11, 15, for her arguments against tree spiking, especially that it does not work. See also Steve Marsden, 'Kalmiopsis EF! Replies', Earth First! 13/1 (2 Nov. 1992) p.30, who argued similarly that the tactic is ineffective, while former timber worker Gene Lawhorn argued that spiking was dangerous to workers because management does not care about worker safety. See Gene Lawhom, 'Why Earth First! Should Renounce Tree Spiking', Earth First! 10/8 (22 Sept. 1990) p.9. See also Jamie Melanowski, 'Monkey-Wrenching Around', The Nation (2 May 1987) pp.568-70, for specific dangers to mill workers posed by tree spiking. On the other hand, after Leroy Watson, 'Spikin", Earth First! 2/2 (21 Dec. 1981) p.6, first introduced and promoted the tactic, many more writers have defended it, including Dave Foreman, who has advocated many forms of ecotage (e.g. Dave Foreman, 'An Environmental Strategy for the 80s', Earth First! 2/8 (21 Sept. 1982) p.7, Paul Watson who claims to have invented the tactic, Paul Watson, 'In Defense of Tree Spiking', Earth First! 10/8 (22 Sept. 1989) pp.8-9, and idem., 'In Defense of Tree Spiking', Earth First! 15/3 (2 Feb. 1995) pp. 10-11. Watson might have written the article attributed to Leroy Watson; see also William Haywood, 'Tree Spiking', Earth First! 4/4 (1984) p.14; George Wuerthner, 'Tree Spiking and Moral Maturity', Earth First! (1 Aug. 1985) p.20; Mike Roselle, 'Forest Grump', Earth First! 15/2 (21 Dec. 1994) p.23; idem., 'Meares Island: Canada's Old Growth Struggle', Earth First! 5/3 (2 Feb. 1985) pp.1, 5; idem., 'Spike a Tree for Me', Earth First! 15/3 (2 Feb. 1995) p.9; Alexander Berkman, 'Of the "War on Drugs" and Tree Spiking', Earth First! 9/4 (21 March 1989) p.35; CM, 'An Appraisal of Monkeywrenching', Earth First! 10/3 (2 Feb. 1990) p.30; and Anonymous, 'Comment on Spiking', Earth First! 2/3 (2 Feb. 1982) p.6. Cf. the recent letters continuing the tree spiking debate by May, Haun, Bari, Woo and Lawhorn in Earth First! 15/3 (2 Feb. 1995).
86. Yet she was also clear that the time was not ripe to take up arms. Nicholas Wilson, 'Judi Bari Dies But Her Spirit Lives On', Albion Monitor (5 March 1997), . See Judy Bari, 'Monkeywrenching', Earth First! 14/3 (2 Feb. 1994) p.8, and idem., 'The Secret History of Tree Spiking', Earth First! 15/2 (21 Dec. 1994) pp. 11, 15, for her arguments against tree spiking, especially that it does not work. See also Steve Marsden, 'Kalmiopsis EF! Replies', Earth First! 13/1 (2 Nov. 1992) p.30, who argued similarly that the tactic is ineffective, while former timber worker Gene Lawhorn argued that spiking was dangerous to workers because management does not care about worker safety. See Gene Lawhom, 'Why Earth First! Should Renounce Tree Spiking', Earth First! 10/8 (22 Sept. 1990) p.9. See also Jamie Melanowski, 'Monkey-Wrenching Around', The Nation (2 May 1987) pp.568-70, for specific dangers to mill workers posed by tree spiking. On the other hand, after Leroy Watson, 'Spikin", Earth First! 2/2 (21 Dec. 1981) p.6, first introduced and promoted the tactic, many more writers have defended it, including Dave Foreman, who has advocated many forms of ecotage (e.g. Dave Foreman, 'An Environmental Strategy for the 80s', Earth First! 2/8 (21 Sept. 1982) p.7, Paul Watson who claims to have invented the tactic, Paul Watson, 'In Defense of Tree Spiking', Earth First! 10/8 (22 Sept. 1989) pp.8-9, and idem., 'In Defense of Tree Spiking', Earth First! 15/3 (2 Feb. 1995) pp. 10-11. Watson might have written the article attributed to Leroy Watson; see also William Haywood, 'Tree Spiking', Earth First! 4/4 (1984) p.14; George Wuerthner, 'Tree Spiking and Moral Maturity', Earth First! (1 Aug. 1985) p.20; Mike Roselle, 'Forest Grump', Earth First! 15/2 (21 Dec. 1994) p.23; idem., 'Meares Island: Canada's Old Growth Struggle', Earth First! 5/3 (2 Feb. 1985) pp.1, 5; idem., 'Spike a Tree for Me', Earth First! 15/3 (2 Feb. 1995) p.9; Alexander Berkman, 'Of the "War on Drugs" and Tree Spiking', Earth First! 9/4 (21 March 1989) p.35; CM, 'An Appraisal of Monkeywrenching', Earth First! 10/3 (2 Feb. 1990) p.30; and Anonymous, 'Comment on Spiking', Earth First! 2/3 (2 Feb. 1982) p.6. Cf. the recent letters continuing the tree spiking debate by May, Haun, Bari, Woo and Lawhorn in Earth First! 15/3 (2 Feb. 1995).
87. Yet she was also clear that the time was not ripe to take up arms. Nicholas Wilson, 'Judi Bari Dies But Her Spirit Lives On', Albion Monitor (5 March 1997), . See Judy Bari, 'Monkeywrenching', Earth First! 14/3 (2 Feb. 1994) p.8, and idem., 'The Secret History of Tree Spiking', Earth First! 15/2 (21 Dec. 1994) pp. 11, 15, for her arguments against tree spiking, especially that it does not work. See also Steve Marsden, 'Kalmiopsis EF! Replies', Earth First! 13/1 (2 Nov. 1992) p.30, who argued similarly that the tactic is ineffective, while former timber worker Gene Lawhorn argued that spiking was dangerous to workers because management does not care about worker safety. See Gene Lawhom, 'Why Earth First! Should Renounce Tree Spiking', Earth First! 10/8 (22 Sept. 1990) p.9. See also Jamie Melanowski, 'Monkey-Wrenching Around', The Nation (2 May 1987) pp.568-70, for specific dangers to mill workers posed by tree spiking. On the other hand, after Leroy Watson, 'Spikin", Earth First! 2/2 (21 Dec. 1981) p.6, first introduced and promoted the tactic, many more writers have defended it, including Dave Foreman, who has advocated many forms of ecotage (e.g. Dave Foreman, 'An Environmental Strategy for the 80s', Earth First! 2/8 (21 Sept. 1982) p.7, Paul Watson who claims to have invented the tactic, Paul Watson, 'In Defense of Tree Spiking', Earth First! 10/8 (22 Sept. 1989) pp.8-9, and idem., 'In Defense of Tree Spiking', Earth First! 15/3 (2 Feb. 1995) pp. 10-11. Watson might have written the article attributed to Leroy Watson; see also William Haywood, 'Tree Spiking', Earth First! 4/4 (1984) p.14; George Wuerthner, 'Tree Spiking and Moral Maturity', Earth First! (1 Aug. 1985) p.20; Mike Roselle, 'Forest Grump', Earth First! 15/2 (21 Dec. 1994) p.23; idem., 'Meares Island: Canada's Old Growth Struggle', Earth First! 5/3 (2 Feb. 1985) pp.1, 5; idem., 'Spike a Tree for Me', Earth First! 15/3 (2 Feb. 1995) p.9; Alexander Berkman, 'Of the "War on Drugs" and Tree Spiking', Earth First! 9/4 (21 March 1989) p.35; CM, 'An Appraisal of Monkeywrenching', Earth First! 10/3 (2 Feb. 1990) p.30; and Anonymous, 'Comment on Spiking', Earth First! 2/3 (2 Feb. 1982) p.6. Cf. the recent letters continuing the tree spiking debate by May, Haun, Bari, Woo and Lawhorn in Earth First! 15/3 (2 Feb. 1995).
88. Yet she was also clear that the time was not ripe to take up arms. Nicholas Wilson, 'Judi Bari Dies But Her Spirit Lives On', Albion Monitor (5 March 1997), . See Judy Bari, 'Monkeywrenching', Earth First! 14/3 (2 Feb. 1994) p.8, and idem., 'The Secret History of Tree Spiking', Earth First! 15/2 (21 Dec. 1994) pp. 11, 15, for her arguments against tree spiking, especially that it does not work. See also Steve Marsden, 'Kalmiopsis EF! Replies', Earth First! 13/1 (2 Nov. 1992) p.30, who argued similarly that the tactic is ineffective, while former timber worker Gene Lawhorn argued that spiking was dangerous to workers because management does not care about worker safety. See Gene Lawhom, 'Why Earth First! Should Renounce Tree Spiking', Earth First! 10/8 (22 Sept. 1990) p.9. See also Jamie Melanowski, 'Monkey-Wrenching Around', The Nation (2 May 1987) pp.568-70, for specific dangers to mill workers posed by tree spiking. On the other hand, after Leroy Watson, 'Spikin", Earth First! 2/2 (21 Dec. 1981) p.6, first introduced and promoted the tactic, many more writers have defended it, including Dave Foreman, who has advocated many forms of ecotage (e.g. Dave Foreman, 'An Environmental Strategy for the 80s', Earth First! 2/8 (21 Sept. 1982) p.7, Paul Watson who claims to have invented the tactic, Paul Watson, 'In Defense of Tree Spiking', Earth First! 10/8 (22 Sept. 1989) pp.8-9, and idem., 'In Defense of Tree Spiking', Earth First! 15/3 (2 Feb. 1995) pp. 10-11. Watson might have written the article attributed to Leroy Watson; see also William Haywood, 'Tree Spiking', Earth First! 4/4 (1984) p.14; George Wuerthner, 'Tree Spiking and Moral Maturity', Earth First! (1 Aug. 1985) p.20; Mike Roselle, 'Forest Grump', Earth First! 15/2 (21 Dec. 1994) p.23; idem., 'Meares Island: Canada's Old Growth Struggle', Earth First! 5/3 (2 Feb. 1985) pp.1, 5; idem., 'Spike a Tree for Me', Earth First! 15/3 (2 Feb. 1995) p.9; Alexander Berkman, 'Of the "War on Drugs" and Tree Spiking', Earth First! 9/4 (21 March 1989) p.35; CM, 'An Appraisal of Monkeywrenching', Earth First! 10/3 (2 Feb. 1990) p.30; and Anonymous, 'Comment on Spiking', Earth First! 2/3 (2 Feb. 1982) p.6. Cf. the recent letters continuing the tree spiking debate by May, Haun, Bari, Woo and Lawhorn in Earth First! 15/3 (2 Feb. 1995).
89. Yet she was also clear that the time was not ripe to take up arms. Nicholas Wilson, 'Judi Bari Dies But Her Spirit Lives On', Albion Monitor (5 March 1997), . See Judy Bari, 'Monkeywrenching', Earth First! 14/3 (2 Feb. 1994) p.8, and idem., 'The Secret History of Tree Spiking', Earth First! 15/2 (21 Dec. 1994) pp. 11, 15, for her arguments against tree spiking, especially that it does not work. See also Steve Marsden, 'Kalmiopsis EF! Replies', Earth First! 13/1 (2 Nov. 1992) p.30, who argued similarly that the tactic is ineffective, while former timber worker Gene Lawhorn argued that spiking was dangerous to workers because management does not care about worker safety. See Gene Lawhom, 'Why Earth First! Should Renounce Tree Spiking', Earth First! 10/8 (22 Sept. 1990) p.9. See also Jamie Melanowski, 'Monkey-Wrenching Around', The Nation (2 May 1987) pp.568-70, for specific dangers to mill workers posed by tree spiking. On the other hand, after Leroy Watson, 'Spikin", Earth First! 2/2 (21 Dec. 1981) p.6, first introduced and promoted the tactic, many more writers have defended it, including Dave Foreman, who has advocated many forms of ecotage (e.g. Dave Foreman, 'An Environmental Strategy for the 80s', Earth First! 2/8 (21 Sept. 1982) p.7, Paul Watson who claims to have invented the tactic, Paul Watson, 'In Defense of Tree Spiking', Earth First! 10/8 (22 Sept. 1989) pp.8-9, and idem., 'In Defense of Tree Spiking', Earth First! 15/3 (2 Feb. 1995) pp. 10-11. Watson might have written the article attributed to Leroy Watson; see also William Haywood, 'Tree Spiking', Earth First! 4/4 (1984) p.14; George Wuerthner, 'Tree Spiking and Moral Maturity', Earth First! (1 Aug. 1985) p.20; Mike Roselle, 'Forest Grump', Earth First! 15/2 (21 Dec. 1994) p.23; idem., 'Meares Island: Canada's Old Growth Struggle', Earth First! 5/3 (2 Feb. 1985) pp.1, 5; idem., 'Spike a Tree for Me', Earth First! 15/3 (2 Feb. 1995) p.9; Alexander Berkman, 'Of the "War on Drugs" and Tree Spiking', Earth First! 9/4 (21 March 1989) p.35; CM, 'An Appraisal of Monkeywrenching', Earth First! 10/3 (2 Feb. 1990) p.30; and Anonymous, 'Comment on Spiking', Earth First! 2/3 (2 Feb. 1982) p.6. Cf. the recent letters continuing the tree spiking debate by May, Haun, Bari, Woo and Lawhorn in Earth First! 15/3 (2 Feb. 1995).
90. Yet she was also clear that the time was not ripe to take up arms. Nicholas Wilson, 'Judi Bari Dies But Her Spirit Lives On', Albion Monitor (5 March 1997), . See Judy Bari, 'Monkeywrenching', Earth First! 14/3 (2 Feb. 1994) p.8, and idem., 'The Secret History of Tree Spiking', Earth First! 15/2 (21 Dec. 1994) pp. 11, 15, for her arguments against tree spiking, especially that it does not work. See also Steve Marsden, 'Kalmiopsis EF! Replies', Earth First! 13/1 (2 Nov. 1992) p.30, who argued similarly that the tactic is ineffective, while former timber worker Gene Lawhorn argued that spiking was dangerous to workers because management does not care about worker safety. See Gene Lawhom, 'Why Earth First! Should Renounce Tree Spiking', Earth First! 10/8 (22 Sept. 1990) p.9. See also Jamie Melanowski, 'Monkey-Wrenching Around', The Nation (2 May 1987) pp.568-70, for specific dangers to mill workers posed by tree spiking. On the other hand, after Leroy Watson, 'Spikin", Earth First! 2/2 (21 Dec. 1981) p.6, first introduced and promoted the tactic, many more writers have defended it, including Dave Foreman, who has advocated many forms of ecotage (e.g. Dave Foreman, 'An Environmental Strategy for the 80s', Earth First! 2/8 (21 Sept. 1982) p.7, Paul Watson who claims to have invented the tactic, Paul Watson, 'In Defense of Tree Spiking', Earth First! 10/8 (22 Sept. 1989) pp.8-9, and idem., 'In Defense of Tree Spiking', Earth First! 15/3 (2 Feb. 1995) pp. 10-11. Watson might have written the article attributed to Leroy Watson; see also William Haywood, 'Tree Spiking', Earth First! 4/4 (1984) p.14; George Wuerthner, 'Tree Spiking and Moral Maturity', Earth First! (1 Aug. 1985) p.20; Mike Roselle, 'Forest Grump', Earth First! 15/2 (21 Dec. 1994) p.23; idem., 'Meares Island: Canada's Old Growth Struggle', Earth First! 5/3 (2 Feb. 1985) pp.1, 5; idem., 'Spike a Tree for Me', Earth First! 15/3 (2 Feb. 1995) p.9; Alexander Berkman, 'Of the "War on Drugs" and Tree Spiking', Earth First! 9/4 (21 March 1989) p.35; CM, 'An Appraisal of Monkeywrenching', Earth First! 10/3 (2 Feb. 1990) p.30; and Anonymous, 'Comment on Spiking', Earth First! 2/3 (2 Feb. 1982) p.6. Cf. the recent letters continuing the tree spiking debate by May, Haun, Bari, Woo and Lawhorn in Earth First! 15/3 (2 Feb. 1995).
91. The ALF is made up of autonomous underground 'cells' known for liberating captive animals and for arson attacks on meat factories and research laboratories. The ALF in the United States has at least two publications devoted to their activities: Underground: The Magazine of the North American Animal Liberation Front Supporters Group and No Compromise: The Militant Direct Action Magazine of Grassroots Animal Liberationists & Their Supporters.
92. Interview with Judi Bari, Willets, California, Feb. 1993. Bari further explained that underground groups should not hold or attend movement gatherings and asserted, 'I'm not against monkeywrenching, most of it, but I can't talk to EF! because I'm totally discredited.' She was referring to her stance renouncing tree-spiking which was extremely unpopular in many movement sectors. Long-term Earth First! activist Andy Caffrey believes that much of the anger by Earth First! activists toward Bari was due to resentment about her trying to impose an anti-tree spiking and anti-monkeywrenching rule on the entire movement, a perception Bari believed was unfair. But this perception was widespread, and was reinforced by her apparent efforts to get Earth First! as a whole to renounce monkeywrenching at the national Earth First! rendezvous in California in 1995. This endeavor was consistent with Bari's belief that Earth First! should develop a mass movement. Bari later articulated a similar sentiment, noting that the Zapatistas in Mexico are mindful that they are an underground organization and they don't publish a 'Zapatista Journal with tips on taking down powerlines'. She declared that Earth First! in the US should divide into Earth First! and ELF factions, just as the movement did in England, allowing the original group to focus on non-violent civil disobedience and the latter one to focus on sabotage: 'Civil disobedience and sabotage are both powerful tactics in our movement. For the survival of both, it's time to leave the night work to the elves in the woods.' Judi Bari, 'Monkeywrenching', Earth First! 14/3 (2 Feb. 1994) p.8.
93. Nicholas Wilson, 'Judi Bari Dies But Her Spirit Lives on' (note 44).
94. Bron Taylor, 'Diggers' (note 16).
95. Jeffrey Kaplan, 'Right Wing Violence' (note 15) p.47.
96. Ibid., p.46.
97. As David C. Rapoport and Jeffrey Kaplan pointed out (personal communication), in most guerrilla wars, familial ties are often not severed. Kaplan suggests, however, that 'leaderless resistance' whether radical right, anarchist or green often depends on breaking ties.
98. These conclusions are drawn from a careful reading of the declarations submitted to the court by three court-appointed psychiatric experts. For details see Appendix B.
99. On the role of dehumanization in terrorist violence, see Ehud Sprinzak, 'Right-Wing Terrorism in a Comparative Perspective: The Case of Split Delegitimation', in Tore Bjorgo (ed.), Terror From the Extreme Right (London: Frank Cass 1995) pp. 17-43, esp. p.20.
100. Robbins and Palmer, 'Introduction', in Millennium, Messiahs, and Mayhem (note 8) pp.20-21.
101. Dave Foreman was clearly the most charismatic of Earth First!'s founders, but was unsuccessful at 'reducing internal pluralism' and failed to convince those with other views. His opponents in the movement had 'inhibitions against unconditional obedience'. Some of which makes it difficult to establish charismatic authority (Robbins and Palmer, 'Introduction' (note 8) p.21). Although Foreman clearly wanted a smaller group more in line with his own views, on his own anti-authoritarian principles, he did not aspire to, and indeed feared, leadership of the charismatic variety (various personal communications with the author since 1989). One possible exception here are the 'Environmental Rangers', a militialike radical green group that threatens to use firearms to defend the Blackfoot river in Montana against despoliation by mining. Interestingly, however, the leader of this group has willingly complied with Earth First!'s non-violence code when participating in civil disobedience protesting logging in the so-called Cove-Mallard roadless area in Idaho.
102. Cascadia Forest Defenders, 'Barry Clausen: The Unreal Truth', (1996).
103. Jeff Kaplan points out, however, that the anti-abortion rescue movement also sees life as sacred and some of them turned to deadly force, suggesting that the contradiction can be resolved in the terrorist's mind through a simple, rational calculus. By killing one doctor, X number of babies are saved. He wonders, 'Why would radical environmentalism be immune to such logic?' (e-mail message, April 1998). His point is well taken. It only takes one individual to adopt such a logic for terrorism to occur. But in general, 'intrinsic value' theory that reveres all life places a strong prima facie barrier against the turn to violence.
104. According to the prosecution's 4 May 1998 sentencing memorandum, 'In June of 1995, late in his bombing career, Kaczynski sent a manuscript (which came to be known as the 'Unabomb Manifesto') to newspapers under the alias 'FC' espousing an ideological basis for his crimes. He [Kaczynski] claimed that he 'had to kill people' to 'get a message before the public' that technology was destroying mankind. While Kaczynski adopted the pretense that he was killing for the greater good of society, two points are clear from the writings seized from his home. First, his desire to kill preceded by several years any serious concerns about technology. Second, he wanted to kill not out of some altruistic sense that he would thereby benefit society, but, in his own words, out of 'personal revenge' and without 'any kind of philosophical or moralistic justification'.
105. Henceforth simply 'manifesto'. It is widely available on the Internet and was published on 19 Sept. 1995 by The Washington Post.
106. For further details see Appendix B.
107. See section 198 of the manifesto, for example: 'Primitive INDIVIDUALS and SMALL GROUPS actually had considerable power over nature; or maybe it would be better to say power WITHIN nature. When primitive man needed food he knew how to find and prepare edible roots, how to track game and take it with homemade weapons. He knew how to protect himself from heat, cold, rain, dangerous animals, etc. But primitive man did relatively little damage to nature because the COLLECTIVE power of primitive society was negligible compared to the COLLECTIVE power of industrial society.'
108. 'Manifesto', section 206.
109. Shortly before I submitted this article for publication, during his 3 May 1998, sentencing hearing, Kaczynski issued a statement claiming that the government in its sentencing recommendations made 'false and misleading statements'. He argued that 'by discrediting me personally, they hope to discredit my political ideas'. He then promised to have more to say in later this regard, 'I ask that people reserve their judgment about me and the Unabomb case until I have a chance to respond.'
110. 'Manifesto', section 183.
111. 'Manifesto', section 194.
112. See 'Manifesto', section 184 and the related endnote #30.1 wonder if these sentiments are among those in the letter to Earth First! from 'FC' found in Kaczynski's cabin. As of this writing the full text has not been released by authorities.
113. M. Roselle, 'Forest Grump' (note 44) p.23.
114. M. Roselle, 'Movement Building Basics: Please Open to Michael 3:16', Earth First! 18/4 (20 March 1998) p.8.
115. In one recent case, for example; a 19-year old ALF activist named Douglas Joshua Ellerman was convicted of a March 1997 pipe-bombing of a Utah Fur Breeders Agricultural Co-op. Faced with a 35 year prison sentence, Ellerman agreed to cooperate with law enforcement officials, and five of his associates were soon arrested. His prison sentence was reduced to seven years. See Sheila McCann, 'Animal Rights Bomber Gets 7-Year Prison Term', The Salt Lake Tribune, B4. For earlier coverage see Anonymous, '35 Year Sentence for ALF Activist', No Compromise 8 (1998) p.5, and Anonymous, 'Josh Ellerman Update', Underground 10 (Spring 1998) p.8. Interestingly, apart from the Unabomber, this may be the most extreme ALF action in America yet, but it occurred too late to lend credibility to Arnold's Ecoterror title. Although arson is a common ALF tactic, this may have been the first use of explosives by ALF activists in North America. Interestingly, despite its claim that it practices nonviolent direct action, neither of these ALF support tabloids expressed discomfort about the use of explosives and No Compromise included an address for legal support. Apparently, in the minds of these ALF supporters, there is no morally significant difference between arson and bomb attacks, for such attacks are considered nonviolent if directed at property, not people.
116. In one recent case, for example; a 19-year old ALF activist named Douglas Joshua Ellerman was convicted of a March 1997 pipe-bombing of a Utah Fur Breeders Agricultural Co-op. Faced with a 35 year prison sentence, Ellerman agreed to cooperate with law enforcement officials, and five of his associates were soon arrested. His prison sentence was reduced to seven years. See Sheila McCann, 'Animal Rights Bomber Gets 7-Year Prison Term', The Salt Lake Tribune, B4. For earlier coverage see Anonymous, '35 Year Sentence for ALF Activist', No Compromise 8 (1998) p.5, and Anonymous, 'Josh Ellerman Update', Underground 10 (Spring 1998) p.8. Interestingly, apart from the Unabomber, this may be the most extreme ALF action in America yet, but it occurred too late to lend credibility to Arnold's Ecoterror title. Although arson is a common ALF tactic, this may have been the first use of explosives by ALF activists in North America. Interestingly, despite its claim that it practices nonviolent direct action, neither of these ALF support tabloids expressed discomfort about the use of explosives and No Compromise included an address for legal support. Apparently, in the minds of these ALF supporters, there is no morally significant difference between arson and bomb attacks, for such attacks are considered nonviolent if directed at property, not people.
117. In one recent case, for example; a 19-year old ALF activist named Douglas Joshua Ellerman was convicted of a March 1997 pipe-bombing of a Utah Fur Breeders Agricultural Co-op. Faced with a 35 year prison sentence, Ellerman agreed to cooperate with law enforcement officials, and five of his associates were soon arrested. His prison sentence was reduced to seven years. See Sheila McCann, 'Animal Rights Bomber Gets 7-Year Prison Term', The Salt Lake Tribune, B4. For earlier coverage see Anonymous, '35 Year Sentence for ALF Activist', No Compromise 8 (1998) p.5, and Anonymous, 'Josh Ellerman Update', Underground 10 (Spring 1998) p.8. Interestingly, apart from the Unabomber, this may be the most extreme ALF action in America yet, but it occurred too late to lend credibility to Arnold's Ecoterror title. Although arson is a common ALF tactic, this may have been the first use of explosives by ALF activists in North America. Interestingly, despite its claim that it practices nonviolent direct action, neither of these ALF support tabloids expressed discomfort about the use of explosives and No Compromise included an address for legal support. Apparently, in the minds of these ALF supporters, there is no morally significant difference between arson and bomb attacks, for such attacks are considered nonviolent if directed at property, not people.
118. Ron Arnold was unaware of the shooting incident I described above and apparently of the extent of violent-sounding rhetoric that I have documented in 'Diggers' (note 16). Arnold's book does reinforce my growing impression that there is a small overlap, and an increasing one, between radical environmental and animal rights activists. This development deserves further empirical scrutiny. (In October 1997 Arnold told me he was working on a revised edition of Ecoterror that would correct a couple of minor errors and contain significant new information.)
119. Also, according to Arnold's Internet site, the 'Ecoterror Response Network', Barbarash and Thurston were convicted of torching several trucks belonging to the Billingsgate Fish Company. But in e-mail and telephone communications on 10 and 11 May 1998, David Barbarash stated that only Thurston was charged and convicted of the fish company crime. When I asked him about the possible motive, he stated, 'I'm assuming that the grievance against the fish company would not have been any different than the grievances you will find against any company which kills or exploits animals for food. Most animal liberationists do not draw a line between fish, crustaceans, and other species.' He later qualified this statement that he was referring to the animal liberationists he knows best, and acknowledged a wide gap between such wilderness oriented animal liberationists and that of more urban-oriented Animal Liberation Front and animal rights activists.
120. E-mail message, 10 May 1998.
121. With regard to the 'explosive substances' charge, Barbarash told me that the 'items seized during one of the raids last year ... were not explosives at all, but items which they say can be used in the construction of an incendiary device'. According to movement tabloids, Thurston faces an additional charge of 'impersonation', which Barbarash said has something to do with possessing a false identification card. See Gina Lynn, 'Courageous Activists Under Fire', Underground 10 (Spring 1998) p.14, and 'Dogged by the Mounties in the Great White North', Earth First! 18/5 (1 May 1998) p.9. See also 'Charges Laid in "Razor Blade" Case', a 27 March 1998 news release issued by Sargent Russ Grabb, Media Relations, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (604)264-292, and Rick Ousten, 'Activists' "secret" lives probed', Vancouver Sun, 30 March 1988, A1.
122. With regard to the 'explosive substances' charge, Barbarash told me that the 'items seized during one of the raids last year ... were not explosives at all, but items which they say can be used in the construction of an incendiary device'. According to movement tabloids, Thurston faces an additional charge of 'impersonation', which Barbarash said has something to do with possessing a false identification card. See Gina Lynn, 'Courageous Activists Under Fire', Underground 10 (Spring 1998) p.14, and 'Dogged by the Mounties in the Great White North', Earth First! 18/5 (1 May 1998) p.9. See also 'Charges Laid in "Razor Blade" Case', a 27 March 1998 news release issued by Sargent Russ Grabb, Media Relations, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (604)264-292, and Rick Ousten, 'Activists' "secret" lives probed', Vancouver Sun, 30 March 1988, A1.
123. With regard to the 'explosive substances' charge, Barbarash told me that the 'items seized during one of the raids last year ... were not explosives at all, but items which they say can be used in the construction of an incendiary device'. According to movement tabloids, Thurston faces an additional charge of 'impersonation', which Barbarash said has something to do with possessing a false identification card. See Gina Lynn, 'Courageous Activists Under Fire', Underground 10 (Spring 1998) p.14, and 'Dogged by the Mounties in the Great White North', Earth First! 18/5 (1 May 1998) p.9. See also 'Charges Laid in "Razor Blade" Case', a 27 March 1998 news release issued by Sargent Russ Grabb, Media Relations, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (604)264-292, and Rick Ousten, 'Activists' "secret" lives probed', Vancouver Sun, 30 March 1988, A1.
124. Although Barbarash's own animal liberationist friends may not prefer one species to another, most animal liberationists prioritize efforts to save sentient creatures, usually mammals.
125. Barbarash, for example, in a letter written from prison for the above-mentioned crimes, exhorted readers to greater rebellion: Let's hit them where it hurts the most. Figure it out. Be secure. Be tribal. Go for the jugular. There are many options to focus on; it doesn't matter where, so much, as it matters when - time is running out. Our lives on this Earth are but the blink of an eye in the time and age of this planet. But our actions in this day will have an effect which could determine the future. My brother and sister warriors, I love all of your courageous spirits. My prayers and magic are with you on the front lines.... be proud and supportive of each other.... Keep in touch, my family. Hoka Hey! Geronimo Lives Forever! See D. Barbarash, 'Greetings from a Northern Alberta Concrete Bioregion!', Earth First! 14/7 (1 Aug. 1994) p.9. Occasionally rhetoric suggesting that activism can significantly change the course of history is heard, but such rhetoric rarely if ever qualifies as millenarian optimism. At best, activists think they have 'a ghost of a chance', to borrow a phrase from a song by Earth First! musician Danny Dollinger.
126. She recently published the lead article in No Compromise explaining Earth First! to ALF activists, arguing that habitat destruction is an animal rights issue, and urging greater collaboration between these movements. See Anne Archy, 'Frontline Forest Defense for Earth and Animal Liberation', No Compromise 8 (1998) pp.16-19.
127. Terms common in environmental philosophy for the wholistic ecosystem and speciesoriented approach are 'ecocentrism' (ecosystem-centered ethics) and 'biocentrism' (life-centered ethics). Although animal liberation and rights philosophies are often also concerned for such things, when push comes to shove, they privilege individual creatures over the well-being of ecosystems. If they do not, then they become traitors to their philosophy, converting to wholism.
128. Bill Devall and George Sessions, 'Direct Action', Earth First! 5/1 (1984) pp.18-19, 24 Illustrating, however, that everything continues to be contested among radical environmentalists, Spike and Friends, 'Cult of Ass Kissing', Earth First! 18/4 (20 March 1998) p.10, single out such professors for 'depraved todying that passes for activism' that promotes a nonviolence code certifying 'we will not destroy any property'. While urging that activists refuse to be restrained by the dominant society's rules and advocating sabotage, these anarchistic writers suggested that more aggressive resistance prevents violence.
129. Bill Devall and George Sessions, 'Direct Action', Earth First! 5/1 (1984) pp.18-19, 24 Illustrating, however, that everything continues to be contested among radical environmentalists, Spike and Friends, 'Cult of Ass Kissing', Earth First! 18/4 (20 March 1998) p.10, single out such professors for 'depraved todying that passes for activism' that promotes a nonviolence code certifying 'we will not destroy any property'. While urging that activists refuse to be restrained by the dominant society's rules and advocating sabotage, these anarchistic writers suggested that more aggressive resistance prevents violence.
130. E.g., 'Apocalypticism is also, at least in its catastrophic manifestations, decidedly dualistic. Absolute good and evil contend through history such that there is no room for moral ambiguity.' Robbins and Palmer, 'Introduction', in Millennium, Messiahs, and Mayhem (note 8) p.6.
131. David C. Rapoport, 'Messianic Sanctions for Terror', Comparative Politics 20/2 (1980) pp. 197-8.
132. Kaplan, 'Right Wing Violence' (note 15) p.52.
133. Martha Lee, Earth First! (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press 1995).
134. Rapoport, 'Messianic Sanctions' (note 80) p.201.
135. Ibid., p.204.
136. As explained to me by several activist-participants.
137. Indeed, it might even be worth suggesting the politically incorrect (and problematic) possibility that the eros-charged nature of Earth First! gatherings - their celebration and encouragement of widespread reveling in and experimentation with sexuality, their approval of gender-bending, bisexuality and gay- and group sex (so long as these are fully consensual) - might prevent at least one kind of 'deprivation' that political theorists suggest might provide the 'real' impetus toward radical rebellion.
138. See Christopher Manes, 'Paganism as Resistance', Earth First! 8/5 (1 May 1988) pp.21-2, for a movement discussion of the importance of play.
139. Eric Hoffer, Tlie True Believer (New York: Harper 1951). When I presented an earlier version of this article at the November 1997 meeting of the American Academy of Religion, David Rapoport reminded me that much of the radicalism of the 1960s started as Yippie-like funfests, but did not end up that way. His point is well taken, frustrations can multiply, transforming the character of a movement or of some of its participants. Jean Rosenfeld's cautions are also relevant in this regard, illustrating how quickly millenarian groups can 'alternate between peaceful and violent phases'. J. Rosenfeld, 'Pai Marire: Peace and Violence in a New Zealand Millenarian Tradition', TPV 7/3 (Autumn 1993) pp.83-108. She also suggested (during the aforementioned American Academy of Religion session) that the likelihood of violence emerging from millenarian groups escalates during periods of official repression. I simply do not find close the comparisons between these examples and the groups I have studied. Rosenfeld writes, for example, 'a millennial movement does not respond to threat or force in conventional terms, but acts according to its own revelation concerning God's plan. When it is attacked, it may resist to the last person. When it is least vulnerable, it may perceive a delay of God's judgment and pour its energies and expectations into peaceful religious creations' (p.96). Such theistic assumptions are largely absent from the worldviews of most radical environmentalists. In my view, this absence reduces the prospects for violence emerging from them. Indeed, if Rapoport is correct (and this seems right to me) that (1) with religiously-motivated terrorism 'the transcendent source of holy terror is its most critical distinguishing characteristic; the deity is perceived as being directly involved in the determination of ends and means' [David C. Rapoport, 'Fear and Trembling' (note 37) p.674] and (2) that religious terrorists believe Only a transcendent purpose which fulfills the meaning of the universe can justify terror' [ibid., p.659], then again, I would suggest widespread terrorist violence is unlikely to emerge from radical environmental groups.
140. Eric Hoffer, Tlie True Believer (New York: Harper 1951). When I presented an earlier version of this article at the November 1997 meeting of the American Academy of Religion, David Rapoport reminded me that much of the radicalism of the 1960s started as Yippie-like funfests, but did not end up that way. His point is well taken, frustrations can multiply, transforming the character of a movement or of some of its participants. Jean Rosenfeld's cautions are also relevant in this regard, illustrating how quickly millenarian groups can 'alternate between peaceful and violent phases'. J. Rosenfeld, 'Pai Marire: Peace and Violence in a New Zealand Millenarian Tradition', TPV 7/3 (Autumn 1993) pp.83-108. She also suggested (during the aforementioned American Academy of Religion session) that the likelihood of violence emerging from millenarian groups escalates during periods of official repression. I simply do not find close the comparisons between these examples and the groups I have studied. Rosenfeld writes, for example, 'a millennial movement does not respond to threat or force in conventional terms, but acts according to its own revelation concerning God's plan. When it is attacked, it may resist to the last person. When it is least vulnerable, it may perceive a delay of God's judgment and pour its energies and expectations into peaceful religious creations' (p.96). Such theistic assumptions are largely absent from the worldviews of most radical environmentalists. In my view, this absence reduces the prospects for violence emerging from them. Indeed, if Rapoport is correct (and this seems right to me) that (1) with religiously-motivated terrorism 'the transcendent source of holy terror is its most critical distinguishing characteristic; the deity is perceived as being directly involved in the determination of ends and means' [David C. Rapoport, 'Fear and Trembling' (note 37) p.674] and (2) that religious terrorists believe Only a transcendent purpose which fulfills the meaning of the universe can justify terror' [ibid., p.659], then again, I would suggest widespread terrorist violence is unlikely to emerge from radical environmental groups.
141. Eric Hoffer, Tlie True Believer (New York: Harper 1951). When I presented an earlier version of this article at the November 1997 meeting of the American Academy of Religion, David Rapoport reminded me that much of the radicalism of the 1960s started as Yippie-like funfests, but did not end up that way. His point is well taken, frustrations can multiply, transforming the character of a movement or of some of its participants. Jean Rosenfeld's cautions are also relevant in this regard, illustrating how quickly millenarian groups can 'alternate between peaceful and violent phases'. J. Rosenfeld, 'Pai Marire: Peace and Violence in a New Zealand Millenarian Tradition', TPV 7/3 (Autumn 1993) pp.83-108. She also suggested (during the aforementioned American Academy of Religion session) that the likelihood of violence emerging from millenarian groups escalates during periods of official repression. I simply do not find close the comparisons between these examples and the groups I have studied. Rosenfeld writes, for example, 'a millennial movement does not respond to threat or force in conventional terms, but acts according to its own revelation concerning God's plan. When it is attacked, it may resist to the last person. When it is least vulnerable, it may perceive a delay of God's judgment and pour its energies and expectations into peaceful religious creations' (p.96). Such theistic assumptions are largely absent from the worldviews of most radical environmentalists. In my view, this absence reduces the prospects for violence emerging from them. Indeed, if Rapoport is correct (and this seems right to me) that (1) with religiously-motivated terrorism 'the transcendent source of holy terror is its most critical distinguishing characteristic; the deity is perceived as being directly involved in the determination of ends and means' [David C. Rapoport, 'Fear and Trembling' (note 37) p.674] and (2) that religious terrorists believe Only a transcendent purpose which fulfills the meaning of the universe can justify terror' [ibid., p.659], then again, I would suggest widespread terrorist violence is unlikely to emerge from radical environmental groups.
142. Eric Hoffer, Tlie True Believer (New York: Harper 1951). When I presented an earlier version of this article at the November 1997 meeting of the American Academy of Religion, David Rapoport reminded me that much of the radicalism of the 1960s started as Yippie-like funfests, but did not end up that way. His point is well taken, frustrations can multiply, transforming the character of a movement or of some of its participants. Jean Rosenfeld's cautions are also relevant in this regard, illustrating how quickly millenarian groups can 'alternate between peaceful and violent phases'. J. Rosenfeld, 'Pai Marire: Peace and Violence in a New Zealand Millenarian Tradition', TPV 7/3 (Autumn 1993) pp.83-108. She also suggested (during the aforementioned American Academy of Religion session) that the likelihood of violence emerging from millenarian groups escalates during periods of official repression. I simply do not find close the comparisons between these examples and the groups I have studied. Rosenfeld writes, for example, 'a millennial movement does not respond to threat or force in conventional terms, but acts according to its own revelation concerning God's plan. When it is attacked, it may resist to the last person. When it is least vulnerable, it may perceive a delay of God's judgment and pour its energies and expectations into peaceful religious creations' (p.96). Such theistic assumptions are largely absent from the worldviews of most radical environmentalists. In my view, this absence reduces the prospects for violence emerging from them. Indeed, if Rapoport is correct (and this seems right to me) that (1) with religiously-motivated terrorism 'the transcendent source of holy terror is its most critical distinguishing characteristic; the deity is perceived as being directly involved in the determination of ends and means' [David C. Rapoport, 'Fear and Trembling' (note 37) p.674] and (2) that religious terrorists believe Only a transcendent purpose which fulfills the meaning of the universe can justify terror' [ibid., p.659], then again, I would suggest widespread terrorist violence is unlikely to emerge from radical environmental groups.
143. Jeffrey Kaplan, 'Absolute Rescue: Absolutism, Defensive Action and the Resort to Force', TPV 7/3 (Autumn 1995) pp.128-63.
144. Jeffrey Kaplan, 'The Anti-Cult Movement in America' (note 41) pp.267-96.
145. Formal response at the 1997 American Academy of Religion meeting. Melton also noted that, in general, 'the bodies are not found with apocalyptic groups', and when this does occur, 'it is usually triggered by the paranoia of the society around them'.
146. See Arnold's Ecoterror (note 9) p.12, for an uncritical recitation of this definition and his entire volume for an example of the result of such an overbroad definition. Brent Smith (note 7) pp.3, 160, at least tries to defend the use of the FBI definition, but his use of the term contributes to his tendency to express greater alarm than the facts he compiled would suggest is necessary.
147. As identified by D.C. Rapoport in 'Messianic Sanctions' (note 80) pp.196-7.
148. See Noel Molland, 'A New Spectre?', Underground 1 (Summer 1998) pp.21-2, who added that although he disapproves of violence he nevertheless thinks readers should know about it.