Militarizing inequality: A conceptual framework

Theory and Society

Volumn 27, Issue 6, 1998, Pages 873-904

  Levy, Yagil ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0032281268     PISSN: 03042421     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1023/A:1006962331533     Document Type: Review

References (143)

1. Among these writers are: J. Habermas, Toward a Rational Society: Student Protest, Science and Politics (London: Heinemann, 1971), 81-122; D. A. Gold et al., "Recent Developments in Marxist Theories of the Capitalist State" (Part II), Monthly Review 6 (1975): 36-51; L. Althusser, "Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses," in L. Althuser, editor, Essays on Ideology (London: Verso, 1976); M. Zeitlin, "On Classes, Class Conflict, and the State: An Introductory Note," in M. Zeitlin, editor, Classes, Class Conflict, and the State: Empirical Studies in Class Analysis (Cambridge, Mass.: Winthrop Publishers, 1980), 22-28; M. Carnoy, The State and Political Theory (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984).
2. Among these writers are: J. Habermas, Toward a Rational Society: Student Protest, Science and Politics (London: Heinemann, 1971), 81-122; D. A. Gold et al., "Recent Developments in Marxist Theories of the Capitalist State" (Part II), Monthly Review 6 (1975): 36-51; L. Althusser, "Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses," in L. Althuser, editor, Essays on Ideology (London: Verso, 1976); M. Zeitlin, "On Classes, Class Conflict, and the State: An Introductory Note," in M. Zeitlin, editor, Classes, Class Conflict, and the State: Empirical Studies in Class Analysis (Cambridge, Mass.: Winthrop Publishers, 1980), 22-28; M. Carnoy, The State and Political Theory (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984).
3. Among these writers are: J. Habermas, Toward a Rational Society: Student Protest, Science and Politics (London: Heinemann, 1971), 81-122; D. A. Gold et al., "Recent Developments in Marxist Theories of the Capitalist State" (Part II), Monthly Review 6 (1975): 36-51; L. Althusser, "Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses," in L. Althuser, editor, Essays on Ideology (London: Verso, 1976); M. Zeitlin, "On Classes, Class Conflict, and the State: An Introductory Note," in M. Zeitlin, editor, Classes, Class Conflict, and the State: Empirical Studies in Class Analysis (Cambridge, Mass.: Winthrop Publishers, 1980), 22-28; M. Carnoy, The State and Political Theory (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984).
4. Among these writers are: J. Habermas, Toward a Rational Society: Student Protest, Science and Politics (London: Heinemann, 1971), 81-122; D. A. Gold et al., "Recent Developments in Marxist Theories of the Capitalist State" (Part II), Monthly Review 6 (1975): 36-51; L. Althusser, "Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses," in L. Althuser, editor, Essays on Ideology (London: Verso, 1976); M. Zeitlin, "On Classes, Class Conflict, and the State: An Introductory Note," in M. Zeitlin, editor, Classes, Class Conflict, and the State: Empirical Studies in Class Analysis (Cambridge, Mass.: Winthrop Publishers, 1980), 22-28; M. Carnoy, The State and Political Theory (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984).
5. Among these writers are: J. Habermas, Toward a Rational Society: Student Protest, Science and Politics (London: Heinemann, 1971), 81-122; D. A. Gold et al., "Recent Developments in Marxist Theories of the Capitalist State" (Part II), Monthly Review 6 (1975): 36-51; L. Althusser, "Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses," in L. Althuser, editor, Essays on Ideology (London: Verso, 1976); M. Zeitlin, "On Classes, Class Conflict, and the State: An Introductory Note," in M. Zeitlin, editor, Classes, Class Conflict, and the State: Empirical Studies in Class Analysis (Cambridge, Mass.: Winthrop Publishers, 1980), 22-28; M. Carnoy, The State and Political Theory (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984).
6. See, for example, K. Fidel, "Militarism and Development: An Introduction," in K. Fidel, editor, Militarism in Developing Countries (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Books, 1975); A. Stepan, The State and Society: Peru in Comparative Perspective (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978); G. Harries-Jenkins, "The Sociology of Military Institution Today," in T. Bottomore et al., editors, Sociology, the State of the Art (London: Sage Publications, 1982); J. S. Migdal, Strong Societies and Weak States: State-Society Relations and State Capabilities in the Third World (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988), 23.
7. See, for example, K. Fidel, "Militarism and Development: An Introduction," in K. Fidel, editor, Militarism in Developing Countries (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Books, 1975); A. Stepan, The State and Society: Peru in Comparative Perspective (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978); G. Harries-Jenkins, "The Sociology of Military Institution Today," in T. Bottomore et al., editors, Sociology, the State of the Art (London: Sage Publications, 1982); J. S. Migdal, Strong Societies and Weak States: State-Society Relations and State Capabilities in the Third World (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988), 23.
8. See, for example, K. Fidel, "Militarism and Development: An Introduction," in K. Fidel, editor, Militarism in Developing Countries (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Books, 1975); A. Stepan, The State and Society: Peru in Comparative Perspective (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978); G. Harries-Jenkins, "The Sociology of Military Institution Today," in T. Bottomore et al., editors, Sociology, the State of the Art (London: Sage Publications, 1982); J. S. Migdal, Strong Societies and Weak States: State-Society Relations and State Capabilities in the Third World (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988), 23.
9. See, for example, K. Fidel, "Militarism and Development: An Introduction," in K. Fidel, editor, Militarism in Developing Countries (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Books, 1975); A. Stepan, The State and Society: Peru in Comparative Perspective (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978); G. Harries-Jenkins, "The Sociology of Military Institution Today," in T. Bottomore et al., editors, Sociology, the State of the Art (London: Sage Publications, 1982); J. S. Migdal, Strong Societies and Weak States: State-Society Relations and State Capabilities in the Third World (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988), 23.
10. See, for example, H. Bienen, "Armed Forces and National Modernization: Continuing the Debate," Comparative Politics 16 (1983): 1-16; D.H. Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985), 472-525; H. Dietz et al., editors, Ethnicity, Integration, and the Military (Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1991); R. M. Williams, "The Sociology of Ethnic Conflicts: Comparative International Perspectives," Annual Review of Sociology 20 (1994): 69-71.
11. See, for example, H. Bienen, "Armed Forces and National Modernization: Continuing the Debate," Comparative Politics 16 (1983): 1-16; D.H. Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985), 472-525; H. Dietz et al., editors, Ethnicity, Integration, and the Military (Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1991); R. M. Williams, "The Sociology of Ethnic Conflicts: Comparative International Perspectives," Annual Review of Sociology 20 (1994): 69-71.
12. See, for example, H. Bienen, "Armed Forces and National Modernization: Continuing the Debate," Comparative Politics 16 (1983): 1-16; D.H. Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985), 472-525; H. Dietz et al., editors, Ethnicity, Integration, and the Military (Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1991); R. M. Williams, "The Sociology of Ethnic Conflicts: Comparative International Perspectives," Annual Review of Sociology 20 (1994): 69-71.
13. See, for example, H. Bienen, "Armed Forces and National Modernization: Continuing the Debate," Comparative Politics 16 (1983): 1-16; D.H. Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985), 472-525; H. Dietz et al., editors, Ethnicity, Integration, and the Military (Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1991); R. M. Williams, "The Sociology of Ethnic Conflicts: Comparative International Perspectives," Annual Review of Sociology 20 (1994): 69-71.
14. C. Enloe, Ethnic Soldiers: State Security in Divided Societies (Athens: The University of Georgia Press, 1980).
15. See, for a critique of the modernization approach, R. H. Thompson, Theories of Ethnicity: A Critical Appraisal (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1989), 85.
16. The analysis in this and the following sections relies heavily on the conceptual framework of categorical inequality put forward by Charles Tilly. C. Tilly, Durable Inequality (Berkeley, California: University of California Press, 1998).
17. M. Mann, "The Roots and Contradictions of Modern Militarism," New Left Review 162 (1987): 35.
18. J. Burk, "Citizenship Status and Military Service: The Quest For Inclusion By Minorities and Conscientious Objectors." Armed Forces and Society 21 (1995): 504. See also, W. L. Young, Minorities and the Military: A Cross-National Study in World Perspectives (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1982), 254-256.
19. J. Burk, "Citizenship Status and Military Service: The Quest For Inclusion By Minorities and Conscientious Objectors." Armed Forces and Society 21 (1995): 504. See also, W. L. Young, Minorities and the Military: A Cross-National Study in World Perspectives (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1982), 254-256.
20. M. Janowitz, "Military Institutions and Citizenship in Western Societies," Armed Forces and Society 2 (1976), 190-193; R. Brubaker, Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992), 91-110; B. D. Porter, War and the Rise of the State: The Military Foundations of Modern Politics (New York: The Free Press, 1994), 10.
21. M. Janowitz, "Military Institutions and Citizenship in Western Societies," Armed Forces and Society 2 (1976), 190-193; R. Brubaker, Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992), 91-110; B. D. Porter, War and the Rise of the State: The Military Foundations of Modern Politics (New York: The Free Press, 1994), 10.
22. M. Janowitz, "Military Institutions and Citizenship in Western Societies," Armed Forces and Society 2 (1976), 190-193; R. Brubaker, Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992), 91-110; B. D. Porter, War and the Rise of the State: The Military Foundations of Modern Politics (New York: The Free Press, 1994), 10.
23. E. Weede, "The Impact of Military Participation on Economic Growth and Income Inequality: Some New Evidence," Journal of Political and Military Sociology 21 (1993): 241-258.
24. P. Bourdieu and L. J. D. Wacquant, An Invitation to Reflexive Sociology (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), 119.
25. C. W. Mills, The Power Elite (London: Oxford University Press, 1956).
26. C. Dandeker, Surveillance, Power and Modernity: Bureaucracy and Discipline From 1700 to the Present Day (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1990), 70.
27. C. Tilly, "Durable Inequality," Working Paper 224 (Center for Studies of Social Change, New School for Social Research, 1995), 31.
28. See, for example, K. Marx, The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte (New York: International Publishers, 1963), 130; A. De Tocqueville, "Democracy and the Army," in W. C. McWilliams, editor, Garrisons and Government: Politics and Military in New States (San Francisco: Chandler Publishing Company, 1967), 59-64; M. Mann, "The Roots and Contradictions of Modern Militarism," 35-50; J. Best, "The Militarization of European Society, 1870-1914," in J. R. Gillis, editor, The Militarization of the Western World (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1989), 24-25.
29. See, for example, K. Marx, The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte (New York: International Publishers, 1963), 130; A. De Tocqueville, "Democracy and the Army," in W. C. McWilliams, editor, Garrisons and Government: Politics and Military in New States (San Francisco: Chandler Publishing Company, 1967), 59-64; M. Mann, "The Roots and Contradictions of Modern Militarism," 35-50; J. Best, "The Militarization of European Society, 1870-1914," in J. R. Gillis, editor, The Militarization of the Western World (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1989), 24-25.
30. See, for example, K. Marx, The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte (New York: International Publishers, 1963), 130; A. De Tocqueville, "Democracy and the Army," in W. C. McWilliams, editor, Garrisons and Government: Politics and Military in New States (San Francisco: Chandler Publishing Company, 1967), 59-64; M. Mann, "The Roots and Contradictions of Modern Militarism," 35-50; J. Best, "The Militarization of European Society, 1870-1914," in J. R. Gillis, editor, The Militarization of the Western World (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1989), 24-25.
31. See, for example, K. Marx, The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte (New York: International Publishers, 1963), 130; A. De Tocqueville, "Democracy and the Army," in W. C. McWilliams, editor, Garrisons and Government: Politics and Military in New States (San Francisco: Chandler Publishing Company, 1967), 59-64; M. Mann, "The Roots and Contradictions of Modern Militarism," 35-50; J. Best, "The Militarization of European Society, 1870-1914," in J. R. Gillis, editor, The Militarization of the Western World (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1989), 24-25.
32. See P. L. van den Berghe, The Ethnic Phenomenon (New York: Elsevier, 1981), 216-224.
33. R. H. Thompson, Theories of Ethnicity, 155-157.
34. C. Tilly, "Durable Inequality," 29.
35. For example, in 1940 there were only five African-American officers on active duty. J. S. Butler, Inequality in the Military: The Black Experience (Saratoga, Cal.: Century Twenty One Publishing, 1980), 26. Only in 1941, within the boundaries of the policy known as "separate but equal," were African-Americans allowed to join the Air Force as pilots, mobilization exceeded the 10 percent quota, the first African-American was nominated as a brigadier-general, and so forth. B. C. Nalty, Strength for the Fight: A History of Black Americans in the Military (New York: The Free Press, 1986), 134-142.
36. For example, in 1940 there were only five African-American officers on active duty. J. S. Butler, Inequality in the Military: The Black Experience (Saratoga, Cal.: Century Twenty One Publishing, 1980), 26. Only in 1941, within the boundaries of the policy known as "separate but equal," were African-Americans allowed to join the Air Force as pilots, mobilization exceeded the 10 percent quota, the first African-American was nominated as a brigadier-general, and so forth. B. C. Nalty, Strength for the Fight: A History of Black Americans in the Military (New York: The Free Press, 1986), 134-142.
37. See A. W. Marx, "Race-Making and the Nation-State," World Politics 49 (1996): 180-208.
38. C. Enloe, Ethnic Soldiers, 69.
39. Quoted in J. S. Butler, Inequality in the Military, 15.
40. R. Shilts, Conduct Unbecoming: Lesbians and Gays in the U.S. Military, Vietnam to the Persian Gulf (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1993), 380.
41. See J. W. Chambers, To Raise an Army: The Draft Comes to Modern America (New York: The Free Press, 1987), 27-29.
42. Chambers, ibid., 268-270; S. P. Huntington, "The Soldier and the State in the 1970s," in A. J. Goodpaster and S. P. Huntington, editors, Civil-Military Relations (Washington: American Enterprise Institute for Public, 1977), 9-11.
43. Chambers, ibid., 268-270; S. P. Huntington, "The Soldier and the State in the 1970s," in A. J. Goodpaster and S. P. Huntington, editors, Civil-Military Relations (Washington: American Enterprise Institute for Public, 1977), 9-11.
44. On the militarization of American society, see A. D. Grossman, "Atomic Fantasies and Make-Believe War: The American State, Social Control, and Civil Defense Planning, 1946-1952," Political Power and Social Theory 9 (1995): 91-120. On citizenship, see A. Silver. "Democratic Citizenship and High Military Strategy: The Inheritance, Decay, and Reshaping of Political Culture," Democracy and Society 2 (1994): 317-349. On social mobility, see C. Enloe, Ethnic Soldiers, 68-69.
45. On the militarization of American society, see A. D. Grossman, "Atomic Fantasies and Make-Believe War: The American State, Social Control, and Civil Defense Planning, 1946-1952," Political Power and Social Theory 9 (1995): 91-120. On citizenship, see A. Silver. "Democratic Citizenship and High Military Strategy: The Inheritance, Decay, and Reshaping of Political Culture," Democracy and Society 2 (1994): 317-349. On social mobility, see C. Enloe, Ethnic Soldiers, 68-69.
46. On the militarization of American society, see A. D. Grossman, "Atomic Fantasies and Make-Believe War: The American State, Social Control, and Civil Defense Planning, 1946-1952," Political Power and Social Theory 9 (1995): 91-120. On citizenship, see A. Silver. "Democratic Citizenship and High Military Strategy: The Inheritance, Decay, and Reshaping of Political Culture," Democracy and Society 2 (1994): 317-349. On social mobility, see C. Enloe, Ethnic Soldiers, 68-69.
47. See S. Tobias, "Shifting Heroism: The Uses of Military Service in Politics," in J. B. Elshtain and S. Tobias, editors, Women, Militarism, and War: Essays in History, Politics, and Social Theory (Savage. Md.: Rowman and Littlefield, 1990).
48. See B. C. Nalty, Strength for the Fight, 134-142, 208-248.
49. Nalty, ibid., 204-208; P. J. Mitchell, Race Riots in Black and White (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1970); D. Kryder, "The American State and the Management of Race Conflict in the Workplace and in the Army, 1941-1945," Polity 26 (1994): 606-634.
50. Nalty, ibid., 204-208; P. J. Mitchell, Race Riots in Black and White (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1970); D. Kryder, "The American State and the Management of Race Conflict in the Workplace and in the Army, 1941-1945," Polity 26 (1994): 606-634.
51. Nalty, ibid., 204-208; P. J. Mitchell, Race Riots in Black and White (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1970); D. Kryder, "The American State and the Management of Race Conflict in the Workplace and in the Army, 1941-1945," Polity 26 (1994): 606-634.
52. A.W. Marx, "Race-Making and the Nation-State," 200. See also J. Solomos and L. Black, "Marxism, Racism, and Ethnicity." American Behavioral Scientist 38 (1995): 407-420.
53. A.W. Marx, "Race-Making and the Nation-State," 200. See also J. Solomos and L. Black, "Marxism, Racism, and Ethnicity." American Behavioral Scientist 38 (1995): 407-420.
54. See, at the theoretical level, S. Tarrow, Power in Movement: Social Movements, Collective Action and Politics (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 62-99.
55. J. Burk, "Citizenship Status and Military Service." 508-511.
56. On the impact of the Vietnam War, see also J. S. Butler, Inequality in the Military, 30-33.
57. Quoted in P. Karsten, Soldiers and Society: The Effects of Military Service and War on American Life (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1978), 30.
58. This process followed a well-established tradition of rewarding veterans. See T. Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States (Cambridge, Mass.: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1992).
59. M. Binkin and M. J. Eitelberg, Blacks and the Military (Washington: The Brookings Institution, 1982), 65-75.
60. See J. D. Angrist and A. B. Krueger, "Why Do World War II Veterans Earn More than Nonveterans?" Journal of Labor Economics 12 (1994): 74-97.
61. See, for example B. C. Nalty, Strength for the Fight, 299-300. Furthermore, as much as manpower scarcity in the armed forces of World War II and the Cold War bolstered the status of African-Americans in the military, the wars were also instrumental in opening new tracks for their mobility: the industrialization set in motion by World War II erased discrimination in industry, and the Cold War-induced growth of the federal government resulted in the expansion of the African-American middle class. On these processes, see W. J. Wilson, "The Declining Significance of Race, Revisited but Not Revised," in C.V. Willie, editor, The Caste and Class Controversy (New York: General Hall Publishers, 1979), 126-129; M. Reich, Racial Inequality: A Political-Economic Analysis (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1981), 25, 51.
62. See, for example B. C. Nalty, Strength for the Fight, 299-300. Furthermore, as much as manpower scarcity in the armed forces of World War II and the Cold War bolstered the status of African-Americans in the military, the wars were also instrumental in opening new tracks for their mobility: the industrialization set in motion by World War II erased discrimination in industry, and the Cold War-induced growth of the federal government resulted in the expansion of the African-American middle class. On these processes, see W. J. Wilson, "The Declining Significance of Race, Revisited but Not Revised," in C.V. Willie, editor, The Caste and Class Controversy (New York: General Hall Publishers, 1979), 126-129; M. Reich, Racial Inequality: A Political-Economic Analysis (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1981), 25, 51.
63. See, for example B. C. Nalty, Strength for the Fight, 299-300. Furthermore, as much as manpower scarcity in the armed forces of World War II and the Cold War bolstered the status of African-Americans in the military, the wars were also instrumental in opening new tracks for their mobility: the industrialization set in motion by World War II erased discrimination in industry, and the Cold War-induced growth of the federal government resulted in the expansion of the African-American middle class. On these processes, see W. J. Wilson, "The Declining Significance of Race, Revisited but Not Revised," in C.V. Willie, editor, The Caste and Class Controversy (New York: General Hall Publishers, 1979), 126-129; M. Reich, Racial Inequality: A Political-Economic Analysis (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1981), 25, 51.
64. For public opinion, see M. Reich, Racial Inequality, 69-70. For voting trends, see S. Fisher, From Margin to Mainstream: The Social Progress of Black Americans (New York: Praeger, 1982), 57.
65. For public opinion, see M. Reich, Racial Inequality, 69-70. For voting trends, see S. Fisher, From Margin to Mainstream: The Social Progress of Black Americans (New York: Praeger, 1982), 57.
66. M. R. Dennis, "Introduction: The Black Middle Class as a Racial Class," Research in Race and Ethnic Relations 8 (1995): 1, 13-14.
67. M. Marable, "History and Black Consciousness: The Political Culture of Black America," Monthly Review 47 (1995): 71-88.
68. R. H. Thompson, Theories of Ethnicity, 98.
69. B. C. Nalty, Strength for the Fight, 301-302, 318-332.
70. E. U. Essien-Udom, Black Nationalism: A Search for an Identity in America (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1967), 14, 292-293.
71. On the notion of solidarity, see H. P. Newton, "The Black Panther Party," in G.T. Marx, editor, Racial Conflict: Tension and Change in American Society (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1971), 204.
72. Quoted in P.S. Foner, The Black Panthers Speak (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1970), 92.
73. On the war's effects, see B.C. Nalty, Strength for the Fight, 295, 301-302; C. G. Appy, Working Class War: American Combat Soldiers and Vietnam (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1993), 35-43.
74. On the war's effects, see B.C. Nalty, Strength for the Fight, 295, 301-302; C. G. Appy, Working Class War: American Combat Soldiers and Vietnam (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1993), 35-43.
75. J. S. Butler, Inequality in the Military, 58-100, and idem., " Inequality in the Military: An Examination of Promotion Time," American Sociological Review 41 (1981): 807-818; J. Miller and E. Ransford, "Inequality in the Military: Implications For Organizations, Occupational Mobility and Social Stratification," Journal of Political and Military Sociology 6 (1978): 65-74. Furthermore, in the 1970s, African-Americans still experienced systematically slower promotion than their white counterparts even under conditions of equal education, resulting in their concentration in low-ranking jobs. For evidence, see M. Binkin and M. J. Eitelberg, Blacks and the Military, 58-61.
76. J. S. Butler, Inequality in the Military, 58-100, and idem., " Inequality in the Military: An Examination of Promotion Time," American Sociological Review 41 (1981): 807-818; J. Miller and E. Ransford, "Inequality in the Military: Implications For Organizations, Occupational Mobility and Social Stratification," Journal of Political and Military Sociology 6 (1978): 65-74. Furthermore, in the 1970s, African-Americans still experienced systematically slower promotion than their white counterparts even under conditions of equal education, resulting in their concentration in low-ranking jobs. For evidence, see M. Binkin and M. J. Eitelberg, Blacks and the Military, 58-61.
77. J. S. Butler, Inequality in the Military, 58-100, and idem., " Inequality in the Military: An Examination of Promotion Time," American Sociological Review 41 (1981): 807-818; J. Miller and E. Ransford, "Inequality in the Military: Implications For Organizations, Occupational Mobility and Social Stratification," Journal of Political and Military Sociology 6 (1978): 65-74. Furthermore, in the 1970s, African-Americans still experienced systematically slower promotion than their white counterparts even under conditions of equal education, resulting in their concentration in low-ranking jobs. For evidence, see M. Binkin and M. J. Eitelberg, Blacks and the Military, 58-61.
78. J. S. Butler, Inequality in the Military, 58-100, and idem., " Inequality in the Military: An Examination of Promotion Time," American Sociological Review 41 (1981): 807-818; J. Miller and E. Ransford, "Inequality in the Military: Implications For Organizations, Occupational Mobility and Social Stratification," Journal of Political and Military Sociology 6 (1978): 65-74. Furthermore, in the 1970s, African-Americans still experienced systematically slower promotion than their white counterparts even under conditions of equal education, resulting in their concentration in low-ranking jobs. For evidence, see M. Binkin and M. J. Eitelberg, Blacks and the Military, 58-61.
79. C. G. Appy, Working Class War, 12. See also C. C. Moskos, "Race in the United States: A Military Symposium," Armed Forces and Society 6 (1980): 589-590; F.H. Wilson, "Rising Tide or Ebb Tide? Recent Changes in the Black Middle Class in the U.S., 1980-1990," Research in Race and Ethnic Relations 8 (1995): 21-55.
80. C. G. Appy, Working Class War, 12. See also C. C. Moskos, "Race in the United States: A Military Symposium," Armed Forces and Society 6 (1980): 589-590; F.H. Wilson, "Rising Tide or Ebb Tide? Recent Changes in the Black Middle Class in the U.S., 1980-1990," Research in Race and Ethnic Relations 8 (1995): 21-55.
81. C. G. Appy, Working Class War, 12. See also C. C. Moskos, "Race in the United States: A Military Symposium," Armed Forces and Society 6 (1980): 589-590; F.H. Wilson, "Rising Tide or Ebb Tide? Recent Changes in the Black Middle Class in the U.S., 1980-1990," Research in Race and Ethnic Relations 8 (1995): 21-55.
82. C. C. Moskos, "The Citizen-Soldier and the All-Volunteer Force," in M. L. Martin and E. Stern-McCrate, editors, The Military, Militarism, and the Polity: Essays in Honor of Morris Janowitz (New York: The Free Press, 1984), 142-143.
83. See D. Segal and N. Verdugo. "Demographic Trends and Personnel Politics as Determinants of the Racial Composition of the Volunteer Army," Armed Forces and Society 20 (1994): 619-632.
84. J. S. Butler, "Race in the United States: A Military Symposium," Armed Forces and Society 6 (1980): 598.
85. S. P. Huntington, "The Soldier and the State in the 1970s." 12-13.
86. J. Burk, "Citizenship Status and Military Service," 504.
87. J. D. Angrist and A. B. Krueger, "Why Do World War II Veterans Earn More than Nonveterans?" 75.
88. See J. D. Angrist, "The Effect of Veterans' Benefits on Education and Earning," Industrial and Labor Relations Review 46 (1993): 637-652.
89. On these trends, see J. D. Angrist, "The Draft Lottery and Voluntary Enlistment in the Vietnam Era," Journal of the American Statistical Association 86 (1991): 584-595; J. D. Teachman et al., "The Selectivity of Military Enlistment," Journal of Political and Military Sociology 21 (1993): 304; J. D. Angrist and A.B. Krueger, "Why Do World War II Veterans Earn More than Nonveterans?" 74-97.
90. On these trends, see J. D. Angrist, "The Draft Lottery and Voluntary Enlistment in the Vietnam Era," Journal of the American Statistical Association 86 (1991): 584-595; J. D. Teachman et al., "The Selectivity of Military Enlistment," Journal of Political and Military Sociology 21 (1993): 304; J. D. Angrist and A.B. Krueger, "Why Do World War II Veterans Earn More than Nonveterans?" 74-97.
91. On these trends, see J. D. Angrist, "The Draft Lottery and Voluntary Enlistment in the Vietnam Era," Journal of the American Statistical Association 86 (1991): 584-595; J. D. Teachman et al., "The Selectivity of Military Enlistment," Journal of Political and Military Sociology 21 (1993): 304; J. D. Angrist and A.B. Krueger, "Why Do World War II Veterans Earn More than Nonveterans?" 74-97.
92. See also M. Binkin and M. J. Eitelberg, Blacks and the Military, 73-75.
93. Ibid., 304-305; D. Segal and N. Verdugo, "Demographic Trends and Personnel Politics as Determinants of the Racial Composition of the Volunteer Army," 628.
94. Ibid., 304-305; D. Segal and N. Verdugo, "Demographic Trends and Personnel Politics as Determinants of the Racial Composition of the Volunteer Army," 628.
95. On increasing integration, see S. A. Holmes, "Time and Money Producing Racial Harmony in Military," The New York Times, April 5 (1995): 1.
96. To offer some illustrations, the average black-white male earnings ratio rose only from 0.71 in 1949 to 0.74 in 1969. See M. Reich, Racial Inequality, 53. Between 1970 and 1990. moreover, the mean income of African-American families rose about 17 percent as compared with 22.5 percent among whites. See F.H. Wilson, "Rising Tide or Ebb Tide? Recent Changes in the Black Middle Class in the U.S., 1980-1990," 32.
97. To offer some illustrations, the average black-white male earnings ratio rose only from 0.71 in 1949 to 0.74 in 1969. See M. Reich, Racial Inequality, 53. Between 1970 and 1990. moreover, the mean income of African-American families rose about 17 percent as compared with 22.5 percent among whites. See F.H. Wilson, "Rising Tide or Ebb Tide? Recent Changes in the Black Middle Class in the U.S., 1980-1990," 32.
98. To illustrate some long-term outcomes, in 1961 only about 35 percent of Orientals born in Israel completed 9-12 years of schooling, compared to 65 percent of the Westerners born in Israel. A similar gap existed between the parents of these youngsters, indicating that the gap was transmitted from the parents to the second generation. Y. Ben-Porath, "Diversity in Population and in the Labor Force," in Y. Ben-Porath, editor, The Israeli Economy: Maturing Through Crises (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1986), 159. Likewise, in 1972 only about 10 percent of the Orientals worked in professional, white-collar occupations, as compared to about 30 percent of Westerners, while about 45 percent of the Orientals held blue-collar jobs, as compared to about 27 percent of the Westerners. S. Swirski, Orientals and Ashkenazis in Israel: The Ethnic Division of Labor (Haifa: Machbarot Lemechkar Vlebikoret, 1981), 59 (Hebrew). Finally, in 1969 the income of Western Israeli-born males was 62 percent higher than that of Oriental Israeli-born males. In 1976 the figure was 77 percent, showing that gaps had continued to grow, especially in the second generation. These gaps grew by approximately 10 percent between 1975 and 1992 among men, and at a similar rate between the preferred group - Western men - and the other Jewish groups: Western women, Oriental men, and Oriental women. Fishelson et al.. "Ethnical Origin and Income Differentials Among Israeli Males, 1969-1976," in A. Arian, editor, Israel - A Developing Society (Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv University, 1980); Y. Haberfeld and Y. Cohen, Schooling and Income Gaps Between Western and Eastern Jews in Israel, 1975-1992 (Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv University, Golda Meir Institute for Social and Labour Research, 1995).
99. To illustrate some long-term outcomes, in 1961 only about 35 percent of Orientals born in Israel completed 9-12 years of schooling, compared to 65 percent of the Westerners born in Israel. A similar gap existed between the parents of these youngsters, indicating that the gap was transmitted from the parents to the second generation. Y. Ben-Porath, "Diversity in Population and in the Labor Force," in Y. Ben-Porath, editor, The Israeli Economy: Maturing Through Crises (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1986), 159. Likewise, in 1972 only about 10 percent of the Orientals worked in professional, white-collar occupations, as compared to about 30 percent of Westerners, while about 45 percent of the Orientals held blue-collar jobs, as compared to about 27 percent of the Westerners. S. Swirski, Orientals and Ashkenazis in Israel: The Ethnic Division of Labor (Haifa: Machbarot Lemechkar Vlebikoret, 1981), 59 (Hebrew). Finally, in 1969 the income of Western Israeli-born males was 62 percent higher than that of Oriental Israeli-born males. In 1976 the figure was 77 percent, showing that gaps had continued to grow, especially in the second generation. These gaps grew by approximately 10 percent between 1975 and 1992 among men, and at a similar rate between the preferred group - Western men - and the other Jewish groups: Western women, Oriental men, and Oriental women. Fishelson et al.. "Ethnical Origin and Income Differentials Among Israeli Males, 1969-1976," in A. Arian, editor, Israel - A Developing Society (Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv University, 1980); Y. Haberfeld and Y. Cohen, Schooling and Income Gaps Between Western and Eastern Jews in Israel, 1975-1992 (Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv University, Golda Meir Institute for Social and Labour Research, 1995).
100. To illustrate some long-term outcomes, in 1961 only about 35 percent of Orientals born in Israel completed 9-12 years of schooling, compared to 65 percent of the Westerners born in Israel. A similar gap existed between the parents of these youngsters, indicating that the gap was transmitted from the parents to the second generation. Y. Ben-Porath, "Diversity in Population and in the Labor Force," in Y. Ben-Porath, editor, The Israeli Economy: Maturing Through Crises (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1986), 159. Likewise, in 1972 only about 10 percent of the Orientals worked in professional, white-collar occupations, as compared to about 30 percent of Westerners, while about 45 percent of the Orientals held blue-collar jobs, as compared to about 27 percent of the Westerners. S. Swirski, Orientals and Ashkenazis in Israel: The Ethnic Division of Labor (Haifa: Machbarot Lemechkar Vlebikoret, 1981), 59 (Hebrew). Finally, in 1969 the income of Western Israeli-born males was 62 percent higher than that of Oriental Israeli-born males. In 1976 the figure was 77 percent, showing that gaps had continued to grow, especially in the second generation. These gaps grew by approximately 10 percent between 1975 and 1992 among men, and at a similar rate between the preferred group - Western men - and the other Jewish groups: Western women, Oriental men, and Oriental women. Fishelson et al.. "Ethnical Origin and Income Differentials Among Israeli Males, 1969-1976," in A. Arian, editor, Israel - A Developing Society (Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv University, 1980); Y. Haberfeld and Y. Cohen, Schooling and Income Gaps Between Western and Eastern Jews in Israel, 1975-1992 (Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv University, Golda Meir Institute for Social and Labour Research, 1995).
101. To illustrate some long-term outcomes, in 1961 only about 35 percent of Orientals born in Israel completed 9-12 years of schooling, compared to 65 percent of the Westerners born in Israel. A similar gap existed between the parents of these youngsters, indicating that the gap was transmitted from the parents to the second generation. Y. Ben-Porath, "Diversity in Population and in the Labor Force," in Y. Ben-Porath, editor, The Israeli Economy: Maturing Through Crises (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1986), 159. Likewise, in 1972 only about 10 percent of the Orientals worked in professional, white-collar occupations, as compared to about 30 percent of Westerners, while about 45 percent of the Orientals held blue-collar jobs, as compared to about 27 percent of the Westerners. S. Swirski, Orientals and Ashkenazis in Israel: The Ethnic Division of Labor (Haifa: Machbarot Lemechkar Vlebikoret, 1981), 59 (Hebrew). Finally, in 1969 the income of Western Israeli-born males was 62 percent higher than that of Oriental Israeli-born males. In 1976 the figure was 77 percent, showing that gaps had continued to grow, especially in the second generation. These gaps grew by approximately 10 percent between 1975 and 1992 among men, and at a similar rate between the preferred group - Western men - and the other Jewish groups: Western women, Oriental men, and Oriental women. Fishelson et al.. "Ethnical Origin and Income Differentials Among Israeli Males, 1969-1976," in A. Arian, editor, Israel - A Developing Society (Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv University, 1980); Y. Haberfeld and Y. Cohen, Schooling and Income Gaps Between Western and Eastern Jews in Israel, 1975-1992 (Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv University, Golda Meir Institute for Social and Labour Research, 1995).
102. Deeming them part of the Arab nation with which Israel was engaged in a violent conflict, the Palestinians suffered overt discrimination at the hands of the state. Military government and economic repression reproduced the disadvantageous status of Israeli Palestinians, a situation, in which ascriptive-based exclusion from military service played a major key.
103. H. Herzog, "The Ethnic Lists in Election 1981: An Ethnic Political Identity?" in E. Krausz, editor, Studies of Israeli Society, Vol. 3: Politics and Society in Israel (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Books, 1985); Y. Peled, "Ethnic Democracy and the Legal Construction of Citizenship: Arab Citizens of the Jewish State," American Political Science Review 86 (1992): 432-443.
104. H. Herzog, "The Ethnic Lists in Election 1981: An Ethnic Political Identity?" in E. Krausz, editor, Studies of Israeli Society, Vol. 3: Politics and Society in Israel (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Books, 1985); Y. Peled, "Ethnic Democracy and the Legal Construction of Citizenship: Arab Citizens of the Jewish State," American Political Science Review 86 (1992): 432-443.
105. On this issue, see R. Gal, The Portrait of the Israeli Soldier (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1986), 83; A. Bar-Haim, "Patterns of Ethnic Integration Among the Israeli Military Elite," Megamot 30 (1987): 276-287 (Hebrew).
106. On this issue, see R. Gal, The Portrait of the Israeli Soldier (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1986), 83; A. Bar-Haim, "Patterns of Ethnic Integration Among the Israeli Military Elite," Megamot 30 (1987): 276-287 (Hebrew).
107. A. Wollansky, IDF's Conscription Policy Towards Peripheral Groups (Jerusalem: Jerusalem Institute for Israel Studies, 1986), 11 (Hebrew).
108. On this issue, see Y. Yinon and N. Freedman, "Why Do Kibbutz-Born Soldiers Perform Better than City-Born Soldiers in the Army?" Megamot 23 (1977): 110-118 (Hebrew); M. Roumani, From Immigrant to Citizen: The Contribution of the Army to National Integration in Israel: The Case of Oriental Jews (The Hague: Foundation for the Study of Plural Societies, 1979), 70-86; E. Ben-Rafael, The Emergence of Ethnicity: Cultural Groups and Social Conflict in Israel (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1982), 188-193; S. Smooha, "Ethnicity and the Military in Israel: Theses for Discussion and Research," Medina, Mimshal, Viyahasim Benleumiyyim 2 (1984): 5-32 (Hebrew).
109. On this issue, see Y. Yinon and N. Freedman, "Why Do Kibbutz-Born Soldiers Perform Better than City-Born Soldiers in the Army?" Megamot 23 (1977): 110-118 (Hebrew); M. Roumani, From Immigrant to Citizen: The Contribution of the Army to National Integration in Israel: The Case of Oriental Jews (The Hague: Foundation for the Study of Plural Societies, 1979), 70-86; E. Ben-Rafael, The Emergence of Ethnicity: Cultural Groups and Social Conflict in Israel (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1982), 188-193; S. Smooha, "Ethnicity and the Military in Israel: Theses for Discussion and Research," Medina, Mimshal, Viyahasim Benleumiyyim 2 (1984): 5-32 (Hebrew).
110. On this issue, see Y. Yinon and N. Freedman, "Why Do Kibbutz-Born Soldiers Perform Better than City-Born Soldiers in the Army?" Megamot 23 (1977): 110-118 (Hebrew); M. Roumani, From Immigrant to Citizen: The Contribution of the Army to National Integration in Israel: The Case of Oriental Jews (The Hague: Foundation for the Study of Plural Societies, 1979), 70-86; E. Ben-Rafael, The Emergence of Ethnicity: Cultural Groups and Social Conflict in Israel (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1982), 188-193; S. Smooha, "Ethnicity and the Military in Israel: Theses for Discussion and Research," Medina, Mimshal, Viyahasim Benleumiyyim 2 (1984): 5-32 (Hebrew).
111. On this issue, see Y. Yinon and N. Freedman, "Why Do Kibbutz-Born Soldiers Perform Better than City-Born Soldiers in the Army?" Megamot 23 (1977): 110-118 (Hebrew); M. Roumani, From Immigrant to Citizen: The Contribution of the Army to National Integration in Israel: The Case of Oriental Jews (The Hague: Foundation for the Study of Plural Societies, 1979), 70-86; E. Ben-Rafael, The Emergence of Ethnicity: Cultural Groups and Social Conflict in Israel (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1982), 188-193; S. Smooha, "Ethnicity and the Military in Israel: Theses for Discussion and Research," Medina, Mimshal, Viyahasim Benleumiyyim 2 (1984): 5-32 (Hebrew).
112. D. Ben-Gurion, Uniqueness and Destiny (Tel Aviv: Ma'arachot, 1971), 10 (Hebrew).
113. S. Smooha, "Ethnicity and the Military in Israel," 19.
114. An interview with R. Dovrat, Yediot Aharonot Supplement, April 19 (1996): 15-16 (Hebrew).
115. See S. Swirski, Seeds of Inequality (Tel Aviv: Breirot, 1995), 107 (Hebrew).
116. See B. Kimmerling, "The Status Perception of Security Roles in Israel," Medina, Mimshal Viyahasim Benleumiyyim 2 (1971): 141-149 (Hebrew); N. Gertz, "Within the Eternal Present, Without Hopes, Without Memories," IGRA 2 (1985-6): 269 (Hebrew).
117. See B. Kimmerling, "The Status Perception of Security Roles in Israel," Medina, Mimshal Viyahasim Benleumiyyim 2 (1971): 141-149 (Hebrew); N. Gertz, "Within the Eternal Present, Without Hopes, Without Memories," IGRA 2 (1985-6): 269 (Hebrew).
118. See Y. Peled, "Ethnic Democracy and the Legal Construction of Citizenship," 432-443.
119. S. Smooha, "Ethnicity and the Military in Israel," 5-32.
120. E. Sivan, The 1948 Generation: Myth, Profile and Memory (Tel Aviv: Ministry of Defense, 1991), 55-101 (Hebrew).
121. Y. Shapiro, Democracy in Israel (Ramat Gan: Massada, 1977), 163-165 (Hebrew); U. Ben-Eliezer, "Israel's Native-born Generation: Social Superiority Conditioned by Political Inferiority," Medina, Mimshal Viyahasim Benleumiyyim 23 (1984): 29-30 (Hebrew). On this issue, see more in Y. Levy, Trial and Error: Israel's Route From War to De-Escalation (Albany: SUNY Press, 1997), 39-48.
122. Y. Shapiro, Democracy in Israel (Ramat Gan: Massada, 1977), 163-165 (Hebrew); U. Ben-Eliezer, "Israel's Native-born Generation: Social Superiority Conditioned by Political Inferiority," Medina, Mimshal Viyahasim Benleumiyyim 23 (1984): 29-30 (Hebrew). On this issue, see more in Y. Levy, Trial and Error: Israel's Route From War to De-Escalation (Albany: SUNY Press, 1997), 39-48.
123. Y. Shapiro, Democracy in Israel (Ramat Gan: Massada, 1977), 163-165 (Hebrew); U. Ben-Eliezer, "Israel's Native-born Generation: Social Superiority Conditioned by Political Inferiority," Medina, Mimshal Viyahasim Benleumiyyim 23 (1984): 29-30 (Hebrew). On this issue, see more in Y. Levy, Trial and Error: Israel's Route From War to De-Escalation (Albany: SUNY Press, 1997), 39-48.
124. E. Etzioni-Halevi, "Protest Politics in the Israeli Democracy," Political Science Quarterly 90 (1975): 497-520.
125. Ibid., 505.
126. A. Idan, "On War and Equality," Apirion 1 (1983):41 (Hebrew). On this issue, see also M. Roumani, "The Military, Ethnicity, and Integration in Israel Revisited," in H. Dietz et al., editors, Ethnicity, Integration, and the Military (Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1991), 70.
127. A. Idan, "On War and Equality," Apirion 1 (1983):41 (Hebrew). On this issue, see also M. Roumani, "The Military, Ethnicity, and Integration in Israel Revisited," in H. Dietz et al., editors, Ethnicity, Integration, and the Military (Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1991), 70.
128. See Yehoshua Ariely, "Israeli Democracy Under the Test of the Lebanon War," in R. Rosenthal, editor, Lebanon: The Other War (Tel Aviv: Sifriat Hapoalim, 1983), 158 (Hebrew).
129. L. Grinberg, Split Corporatism in Israel (Albany: SUNY Press, 1991), 66-71.
130. S. Gordon, "In Favor of Selective Service," Ma'arachot 328 (1992): 36 (Hebrew).
131. C. Enloe, Ethnic Soldiers, 9. See also A. Smith, "Chosen People: Why Ethnic Groups Survive?" Ethnic and Racial Studies 15 (1992): 437.
132. C. Enloe, Ethnic Soldiers, 9. See also A. Smith, "Chosen People: Why Ethnic Groups Survive?" Ethnic and Racial Studies 15 (1992): 437.
133. See E. Ben-Rafael, The Emergence of Ethnicity, 156-177; S. Smooha, "Class, Ethnic, National Cleavages, and Democracy in Israel," in Israeli Society: Critical Perspectives, ed. Uri Ram (Tel Aviv: Breirot, 1993), 176 (Hebrew).
134. See E. Ben-Rafael, The Emergence of Ethnicity, 156-177; S. Smooha, "Class, Ethnic, National Cleavages, and Democracy in Israel," in Israeli Society: Critical Perspectives, ed. Uri Ram (Tel Aviv: Breirot, 1993), 176 (Hebrew).
135. B. Yemini, Political Punch (Haifa: Mifras, 1986), 98 (Hebrew, my emphasis).
136. Y. Peled, "Ethnic Exclusionism in the Periphery: The Case of Oriental Jews in Israel's Development Towns," Ethnic and Racial Studies 13 (1990): 345-367.
137. See S. Smooha, "Class, Ethnic, National Cleavages, and Democracy in Israel," 176-178.
138. Roumani, From Immigrant to Citizen, 70-86.
139. See M. Radom, "Military Officers and Business Leaders - An Israeli Study in Contrasts," Columbia Journal of World Business 3 (1968): 27-34.
140. On networks of "high society," see S. N. Eisenstadt, The Transformation of Israeli Society: An Essay in Interpretation (Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1985), 242-247.
141. On materialism, see A. Gottlieb and E. Yuchtman-Yaar, "Materialism, Postmaterialism, and Public Views on Socioeconomic Policy: The Case of Israel," in E. Krausz, editor, Studies of Israeli Society, Vol. 3: Politics and Society in Israel (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Books, 1985).
142. See C Haberman, "Israel's Army. Once Sacrosanct, Is Now Becoming Deglamorized," New York Times, May 31 (1995): 10A.
143. Only from this cornerstone in which selectivity grew, does the veteran/non-veteran differentiation become relevant, similar to the American experience. However, the proximity of events does not allow us to estimate quantitatively the impact of military service on the social mobility of each ethnic group.