Citizenship and place: Spatial definitions of oppression and agency in South Africa

Africa Today

Volumn 45, Issue 3-4, 1998, Pages 439-460

  Lalloo, Kiran ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0032280163     PISSN: 00019887     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (78)

1. Bryan S. Turner, "Citizenship Studies: A General Theory," Citizenship Studies 1, no. 1 (1997): 5-18.
2. Anthony D. King, "Introduction," in King, ed., Buildings and Society: Essays on the Social Development of the Built Environment (London and Boston: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1980), pp. 1-33.
3. In this article, race groups are referred to by the terms that are in general usage in South Africa. Therefore, Africans are descendants of the inhabitants who were in South Africa when the white settlers arrived. Whites are descendants of European (and some U.S.) settlers who arrived after 1652; coloreds are those of mixed descent; and Indians are descendants of East Asian settlers who arrived after 1860. Blacks refers to Africans, coloreds, and Indians. Afrikaner refers to a white South African whose original language is Afrikaans (a derivative of Dutch).
4. Bryan S. Turner, "Contemporary Problems in the Theory of Citizenship," in Turner, ed., Citizenship and Social Theory (London, Newbury Park, and New Delhi: Sage Publications, 1993), p. 2.
5. T. H. Marshall and Tom Bottomore, Citizenship and Social Class (London and Concord, Mass.: Pluto Press, 1992).
6. Ibid.
7. Crawford B. Macpherson, "The Meaning of Property," in Macpherson, ed., Property: Mainstream and Critical Positions (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1992), pp. 1-13.
8. J. M. Barbalet, "Citizenship, Class Inequality and Resentment," in Turner, Citizenship and Social Theory, p. 42.
9. Tessa Marcus, "National, Class, and Gender Issues in Land Reform," in Michael de Klerk, ed., A Harvest of Discontent: The Land Question in South Africa (Cape Town: Institute for a Democratic Alternative for South Africa, 1991), p. 25.
10. Morris Cohen, "Property and Sovereignty," in Macpherson, Property, p. 159.
11. Ibid.
12. Deborah Posel, The Making of Apartheid 1948-1961 : Conflict and Compromise (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991), p. 222.
13. The Khoisan are descendants of the San hunter-gatherers and the Khoikhoi pastoralists. The Khoisan subsistence depended upon a mixed hunter-gatherer and pastoral way of life.
14. This relationship was also recognized by Africans. Peter Delius quotes a remark made by Pedi Chief Sekwati when he refused Boer offers of cattle in exchange for land. He reportedly stated that if he bartered away his land he would no longer be master of his people. Cited in Derek Van der Merwe, "Land Tenure in South Africa: A Brief History and Some Reform Proposals," Tydskrif vir die Suid-Afrikaanse Reg, Issue 4 (1989): 663-692.
15. John Browett, "The Evolution of Unequal Development Within South Africa: An Overview," in David M. Smith, ed., Living Under Apartheid: Aspects of Urbanization and Social Change in South Africa (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1982), p. 13. See also Saul Dubow, "The Elaboration of Segregationist Ideology," in William Beinart and Saul Dubow, eds., Segregation and Apartheid in Twentieth-Century South Africa (London and New York: Routledge, 1995), p. 155. Browett notes that many whites felt that Africans were naturally part of the land and should be kept away from the city, which was an alien environment - a site of vice and immorality that Africans could not resist.
16. John Browett, "The Evolution of Unequal Development Within South Africa: An Overview," in David M. Smith, ed., Living Under Apartheid: Aspects of Urbanization and Social Change in South Africa (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1982), p. 13. See also Saul Dubow, "The Elaboration of Segregationist Ideology," in William Beinart and Saul Dubow, eds., Segregation and Apartheid in Twentieth-Century South Africa (London and New York: Routledge, 1995), p. 155. Browett notes that many whites felt that Africans were naturally part of the land and should be kept away from the city, which was an alien environment - a site of vice and immorality that Africans could not resist.
17. Hermann Giliomee, "The Changing Political Functions of the Homelands," in Hermann Giliomee and Lawrence Schlemmer, eds., Up Against the Fences: Poverty, Passes and Privilege in South Africa (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1985), pp. 40-41.
18. Ibid., p. 39.
19. Ibid., pp. 46-47.
20. This policy was contained in the Bantu Authorities Act of 1951 (which designated specific territories for Africans on an ethnic basis) and the Bantu Self-Government Act (which allowed for the establishment of "self-government" in each of these territories). See also C. R. D. Halisi and Patrick O'Meara, "South Africa," in Phyllis M. Martin and Patrick O'Meara, eds., Africa (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1995), p. 397.
21. Under Section 10 of the Native (Urban Areas) Consolidation Act of 1945, permanent residence in urban areas was permitted for those Africans who had continuously resided in those areas since birth, had lawfully and continuously resided in them for fifteen years, or had worked for the same employer for ten years. Dependents of those who qualified were also granted permanent residence - with the exception of women who were refused entry since 1964 unless they qualified independently of their husbands. Anthony Lemon, "Migrant Labour and Frontier Commuters: Reorganizing South Africa's Black Labour Supply," in Smith, Living Under Apartheid, pp. 66-67.
22. In the 1960s, 340,000 labor tenants, 656,000 squatters, and 97,000 people from "black spots" were removed. From 1970 to 1979, an additional 305,000 labor tenants were removed. (Alan Baldwin, "Mass Removals and Separate Development," Journal of Southern African Studies 1, no. 2 [1975]: 215-217; and Loraine Gordon and Seamus Cleary, eds., A Survey of Race Relations in South Africa, 1980 [Johannesburg: South African Institute of Race Relations, 1981], as cited in Lemon, "Migrant Labour," p. 78.)
23. In the 1960s, 340,000 labor tenants, 656,000 squatters, and 97,000 people from "black spots" were removed. From 1970 to 1979, an additional 305,000 labor tenants were removed. (Alan Baldwin, "Mass Removals and Separate Development," Journal of Southern African Studies 1, no. 2 [1975]: 215-217; and Loraine Gordon and Seamus Cleary, eds., A Survey of Race Relations in South Africa, 1980 [Johannesburg: South African Institute of Race Relations, 1981], as cited in Lemon, "Migrant Labour," p. 78.)
24. In the 1960s, 340,000 labor tenants, 656,000 squatters, and 97,000 people from "black spots" were removed. From 1970 to 1979, an additional 305,000 labor tenants were removed. (Alan Baldwin, "Mass Removals and Separate Development," Journal of Southern African Studies 1, no. 2 [1975]: 215-217; and Loraine Gordon and Seamus Cleary, eds., A Survey of Race Relations in South Africa, 1980 [Johannesburg: South African Institute of Race Relations, 1981], as cited in Lemon, "Migrant Labour," p. 78.)
25. Giliomee, "Changing Political Functions," p. 45.
26. Ibid., p. 51.
27. Anthony Lemon, "Migrant Labour," p. 82; and Giliomee, "Changing Political Functions," p. 51.
28. Anthony Lemon, "Migrant Labour," p. 82; and Giliomee, "Changing Political Functions," p. 51.
29. South African Institute of Race Relations (SAIRR), Race Relations Survey 1993/1994 (Johannesburg: SAIRR, 1994), p. 214. According to the SAIRR, in 1993 the population of South Africa was estimated to be 40,308,000, of which 17,796,800 (44.2 percent) lived in the homelands. The total land area in South Africa is 119,600,000 hectares, of which 17,300,000 hectares (14.5 percent) had been designated as homelands.
30. Cherryl Walker, Women and Resistance in South Africa (Cape Town and Johannesburg: David Philip, 1991), p. 6; and Giliomee, "Changing Political Functions," p. 45.
31. Cherryl Walker, Women and Resistance in South Africa (Cape Town and Johannesburg: David Philip, 1991), p. 6; and Giliomee, "Changing Political Functions," p. 45.
32. In 1990 the amount of farmland per person in "nonhomeland" South Africa was 15.7 hectares; in the homelands it was 0.2 hectares (SAIRR, Race Relations Survey, p. 214).
33. In the KwaZulu homeland, for instance, 80 percent of rural households and 40 percent of urban households were living below the poverty line in 1993 (SAIRR, Race Relations Survey, pp. 492-493).
34. Examples of this type of urban settlement are Botshabelo (60 kilometers outside Bloemfontein), Kanyamazane (20 kilometers outside Nelspruit), Winterveld, Mabopane, and numerous settlements in KwaNdebele (between 30 and 110 kilometers north of Pretoria). Owen Crankshaw and Susan Parnell, "Housing Provision and the Need for an Urbanisation Policy in the New South Africa," Urban Forum 7, no. 2 (1996): 234.
35. Lemon, "Migrant Labour," p. 87.
36. See note 20 above.
37. Lemon, "Migrant Labour," p. 86.
38. Hermann Giliomee, "The Implications of the Rural Crisis for the State and Business in South Africa," in Giliomee and Schlemmer, Up Against the Fences, pp. 321-323.
39. Eddie Webster, "The Rise of Social-Movement Unionism: The Two Faces of Black Trade Union Movement in South Africa," in Philip Frankel, Noam Pines, and Mark Swilling, eds., State, Resistance and Change in South Africa (New York: Croom Helm, 1988), pp. 174-196.
40. Posel, Making of Apartheid, p. 226.
41. Walker, Women and Resistance, p. 128.
42. Ibid., p. 13.
43. Ibid., p. 7.
44. See, for example, ibid.; Belinda Bozzoli, "Marxism, Feminism and South African Studies," Journal of Southern African Studies 9, no. 2 (April 1983): 139-171; Catherine Cross, "Informal Tenures Against the State: Landholding Systems in African Rural Areas," in de Klerk, A Harvest of Discontent, pp. 63-98; and Sheila Meintjies, "Gender, Citizenship and Democracy in Post-Apartheid South Africa" (Seminar Paper No. 376, University of Witwatersrand Institute for Advanced Social Research, April 1995).
45. See, for example, ibid.; Belinda Bozzoli, "Marxism, Feminism and South African Studies," Journal of Southern African Studies 9, no. 2 (April 1983): 139-171; Catherine Cross, "Informal Tenures Against the State: Landholding Systems in African Rural Areas," in de Klerk, A Harvest of Discontent, pp. 63-98; and Sheila Meintjies, "Gender, Citizenship and Democracy in Post-Apartheid South Africa" (Seminar Paper No. 376, University of Witwatersrand Institute for Advanced Social Research, April 1995).
46. See, for example, ibid.; Belinda Bozzoli, "Marxism, Feminism and South African Studies," Journal of Southern African Studies 9, no. 2 (April 1983): 139-171; Catherine Cross, "Informal Tenures Against the State: Landholding Systems in African Rural Areas," in de Klerk, A Harvest of Discontent, pp. 63-98; and Sheila Meintjies, "Gender, Citizenship and Democracy in Post-Apartheid South Africa" (Seminar Paper No. 376, University of Witwatersrand Institute for Advanced Social Research, April 1995).
47. See, for example, ibid.; Belinda Bozzoli, "Marxism, Feminism and South African Studies," Journal of Southern African Studies 9, no. 2 (April 1983): 139-171; Catherine Cross, "Informal Tenures Against the State: Landholding Systems in African Rural Areas," in de Klerk, A Harvest of Discontent, pp. 63-98; and Sheila Meintjies, "Gender, Citizenship and Democracy in Post-Apartheid South Africa" (Seminar Paper No. 376, University of Witwatersrand Institute for Advanced Social Research, April 1995).
48. Cross, "Informal Tenures," pp. 72-73.
49. Walker, Women and Resistance, pp. 127-128, provides a good overview of the reasons why state initiatives seek to restrict women to the homelands. These reasons include the need to retain the status of the homelands as a source of cheap labor (the reproductive function), the need to ensure an adequate supply of labor for the agricultural sector, and the concern that the presence of women in the urban areas would render the African labor force more permanent. (The intent was to keep the permanently settled urban African labor force to a minimum.)
50. Ibid., pp. 41, 125-130; and Lemon, "Migrant Labour," pp. 66-67.
51. Ibid., pp. 41, 125-130; and Lemon, "Migrant Labour," pp. 66-67.
52. Walker, Women and Resistance, p. 128.
53. Women were outnumbered in urban areas, while men were outnumbered in rural areas. See ibid., pp. 11, 42, 147.
54. Ibid., pp. 146-147.
55. A. J. Christopher, The Atlas of Apartheid (Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, 1994), p. 38.
56. Philip Bonner, Peter Delius, and Deborah Posel, "The Shaping of Apartheid: Contradiction, Continuity and Popular Struggle," in Bonner, Delius, and Posel, eds., Apartheid's Genesis, 1935-1962 (Braamfontein: Ravan Press, 1987), p. 24.
57. Ibid.; Mark Swilling, "The Politics of Stalemate," in Frankel et al., State, Resistance and Change, p. 3; and Timothy Hart, "South Africa," in Willem van Vliet, ed., International Handbook of Housing Policies and Practices (New York: Greenwood Press, 1990), pp. 588-621.
58. Ibid.; Mark Swilling, "The Politics of Stalemate," in Frankel et al., State, Resistance and Change, p. 3; and Timothy Hart, "South Africa," in Willem van Vliet, ed., International Handbook of Housing Policies and Practices (New York: Greenwood Press, 1990), pp. 588-621.
59. Ibid.; Mark Swilling, "The Politics of Stalemate," in Frankel et al., State, Resistance and Change, p. 3; and Timothy Hart, "South Africa," in Willem van Vliet, ed., International Handbook of Housing Policies and Practices (New York: Greenwood Press, 1990), pp. 588-621.
60. Trevor Huddlestone, Naught for Your Comfort (Glasgow: Collins Fount Paperbacks, 1987 [first published in 1956 by William Collins Sons and Co., Glasgow]), pp. 94-95.
61. David Dewar, "The Housing Question in South Africa: We Are Missing the Point," Architecture SA (September-October 1993): 22-23.
62. Swilling, "Politics of Stalemate," p. 3.
63. Robert Price, "Cracks in the Monolith," in Price, ed., The Apartheid State in Crisis (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), pp. 56-57.
64. Giliomee, "Implications of the Rural Crisis," p. 321.
65. Laurine Platzky and Cherryl Walker, The Surplus People: Forced Removals in South Africa (Johannesburg: Ravan Press, 1985), p. 35. The act also targeted Indian traders who were considered a threat to white businesses. Many traders were compelled to give up long-established businesses and seek wage employment. Fatima Meer, The Ghetto People: A Study of the Effects of Uprooting the Indian People of South Africa (London: The Africa Publications Trust, 1975), pp. 12-16.
66. The act also targeted Indian traders who were considered a threat to white businesses. Many traders were compelled to give up long-established businesses and seek wage employment. Fatima Meer, The Ghetto People: A Study of the Effects of Uprooting the Indian People of South Africa (London: The Africa Publications Trust, 1975), pp. 12-16.
67. For example, see Meer, The Ghetto People; and Duncan Innes, Disqualified: A Study of the Effects of Uprooting the Coloured People in South Africa (London: The Africa Publications Trust, 1975).
68. For example, see Meer, The Ghetto People; and Duncan Innes, Disqualified: A Study of the Effects of Uprooting the Coloured People in South Africa (London: The Africa Publications Trust, 1975).
69. Platzky and Walker, The Surplus People, p. 101.
70. Julian Cooke, "The Anatomy of Migrant Labour Hostels" (unpublished paper, University of Cape Town School of Architecture, 1995-1996).
71. See also Marie Wentzel, "Historical Origins of Hostels in South Africa: Migrant Labour Compounds," in Anthony Minnaar, ed., Communities in Isolation: Perspectives on Hostels in South Africa (Pretoria: Human Sciences Research Council, 1993), p. 1.
72. Cooke, "Anatomy of Migrant Labour Hostels," p. 2.
73. Faction fights in mining compounds were reported as early as 1897. Wentzel, "Historical Origins," pp. 5-8, documents the history of such conflicts in migrant labor compounds.
74. Giliomee, "Implications of the Rural Crisis," p. 321.
75. Cooke, "The Anatomy of Migrant Labour Hostels."
76. Ibid., pp. 24-25.
77. Dan Smit, "From Anonymity to Notoriety: Hostels in South Africa" (paper presented at workshop in Pretoria, 1991), p. 10, as cited in Wentzel, "Historical Origins," p. 6.
78. Dan Smit, "From Anonymity to Notoriety: Hostels in South Africa" (paper presented at workshop in Pretoria, 1991), p. 10, as cited in Wentzel, "Historical Origins," p. 6.