Defining international terrorism: A pragmatic approach

Terrorism and Political Violence

Volumn 10, Issue 1, 1998, Pages 90-107

  Badey, Thomas J ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0032274741     PISSN: 09546553     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/09546559808427445     Document Type: Article

References (52)

1. See Neil Haffney, The United Nations and International Efforts to Deal with Terrorism. (Washington D.C.:Institute for the Study of Diplomacy, School of Foreign Service, Georgetown University, 1988) and Semour Maxwell Finger, 'The United Nations and International Terrorism', in Charles Kegley Jr (ed.), International Terrorism: Characteristics, Causes, Controls, (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1990).
2. See Neil Haffney, The United Nations and International Efforts to Deal with Terrorism. (Washington D.C.:Institute for the Study of Diplomacy, School of Foreign Service, Georgetown University, 1988) and Semour Maxwell Finger, 'The United Nations and International Terrorism', in Charles Kegley Jr (ed.), International Terrorism: Characteristics, Causes, Controls, (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1990).
3. Steven Lebaton, 'Bill on Terrorism, Once a Certainty, Derails in House', New York Times, 3 October 1995.
4. Alex P. Schmid and Albert J. Jongman, Political Terrorism (New Brunswick: Transaction Books, 1988), p.28.
5. Alex P. Schmid, 'The Response Problem as a Definition Problem', in Western Response to Terrorism, by Alex Schmid and Ronald D. Crelinsten (London: Frank Cass & Co. Ltd., 1993),p.8.
6. Peter Sederberg, 'Defining Terrorism', Annual Review of Conflict of Knowledge (New York: Garland Publishing, 1991).
7. United States Department of State, Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1995 (Washington, D.C.: Department of State Publications, 1996), p. vi.
8. Ibid.
9. Anthony Lewis, 'Anti-terrorist Bill Sounds Like Work of Joe McCarthy', St. Petersburg Times, 27 February 1995.
10. See Edward Mickolus, Transnational Terrorism: A Chronology of Events 1968-1978 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1980) and The Literature of Terrorism: A Selected Bibliography (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1988). Although somewhat lengthy, Edward Mickolus provides one of the few, in my view, functional definitions of international terrorism. He defines terrorism as: 'The use or threat of use, of anxiety inducing extra normal violence for political purposes by an individual or group, whether acting for or in opposition to established government authority, when such action is intended to influence the attitudes of a large group wider than the immediate victims and when through its location the mechanics of its resolution transcend national boundaries.'
11. See Edward Mickolus, Transnational Terrorism: A Chronology of Events 1968-1978 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1980) and The Literature of Terrorism: A Selected Bibliography (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1988). Although somewhat lengthy, Edward Mickolus provides one of the few, in my view, functional definitions of international terrorism. He defines terrorism as: 'The use or threat of use, of anxiety inducing extra normal violence for political purposes by an individual or group, whether acting for or in opposition to established government authority, when such action is intended to influence the attitudes of a large group wider than the immediate victims and when through its location the mechanics of its resolution transcend national boundaries.'
12. Patterns of Global Terrorism 1993 (United States Department of State, 1994).
13. Steven K. Paulson, 'Bombing Jury Reaches Verdict', 97.06.02, Associated Press.
14. Although not convicted Abouhalima was linked to the assassination of Rabbi Meir Kahane and the killing of Mustafa Shallabi the former head of the Afghan Refugee Center in Brooklyn who after a power struggle with Sheik Rahman had been branded a 'bad Muslim'.
15. See p.6, Patterns of Global Terrorism 1995, (United States Department of State, 1996).
16. The conspirators were linked to a plot to blow up selected targets in New York City including the United Nations building, the FBI building, and the Holland and Lincoln Tunnels, and with plans to assassinate Hosni Mubarak, former UN Secretary General Boutros-Ghali and a New York senator.
17. There are countless incidents in the United States in which criminals have espoused political views, before, during or after the crime, without being classified as terrorists.
18. See e.g. Schmid, " The Response Problem as a Definition Problem"(note 4) and Alex P. Schmid and Janny de Graaf, Violence as Communication: Insurgent Terrorism and the Western News Media (London: Sage, 1982).
19. See e.g. Schmid, " The Response Problem as a Definition Problem"(note 4) and Alex P. Schmid and Janny de Graaf, Violence as Communication: Insurgent Terrorism and the Western News Media (London: Sage, 1982).
20. See e.g. Martha Crenshaw, 'The Logic of Terrorism: Terrorism as a Product of Strategic Choice', or David C. Rapoport, 'Sacred Terror: A Contemporary Example from Islam' in Walter Reich (ed.) Origins of Terrorism: Psychologies, Ideologies, Theologies, and States of Mind, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990) pp.7-24 and pp.103-130; Ted Robert Gurr, Why Men Rebel. ( New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1970).
21. See e.g. Martha Crenshaw, 'The Logic of Terrorism: Terrorism as a Product of Strategic Choice', or David C. Rapoport, 'Sacred Terror: A Contemporary Example from Islam' in Walter Reich (ed.) Origins of Terrorism: Psychologies, Ideologies, Theologies, and States of Mind, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990) pp.7-24 and pp.103-130; Ted Robert Gurr, Why Men Rebel. ( New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1970).
22. See e.g. Martha Crenshaw, 'The Logic of Terrorism: Terrorism as a Product of Strategic Choice', or David C. Rapoport, 'Sacred Terror: A Contemporary Example from Islam' in Walter Reich (ed.) Origins of Terrorism: Psychologies, Ideologies, Theologies, and States of Mind, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990) pp.7-24 and pp.103-130; Ted Robert Gurr, Why Men Rebel. ( New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1970).
23. Harold D. Lasswell, Politics: Who Gets What, When, How (New York: Meridian, 1936).
24. Walter Laqueur, The Age of Terrorism (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1987), p.11.
25. Some also consider the audience a crucial element in the definition of terrorism. I disagree. While the audience Other than the immediate victim' helps us to explain how terrorism works and to distinguish between certain types of terrorism (solipsistic, separatist, revolutionary, etc.), other types of violence also target such audiences (ie. suicide, gang warfare, military conflict). Audiences vary greatly in nature and size and composition. As such they are not unique to terrorism and are not a distinguishing characteristic.
26. Original source unknown.
27. George A. Collier, Basta! Land and the Zapatista Rebellion in Chiapas (Oakland, California: Institute for Food and Development Policy, 1994), p. 143.
28. New York Times, June 1995.
29. E.g. Cindy C. Combs, Terrorism in the Twenty-First Century (New Jersey Prentice Hall, 1997), p. 8.
30. United States Department of State (1996).
31. For a more detailed discussion of this topic see Victor T. Le Vine, On the Victims of Terrorism and Their Innocence', The Journal of Terrorism and Political Violence, 9/3 (1997), pp.55-62.
32. See Schmid and Jongman (note 3)
33. See e.g. Wayman C. Mullins, A Sourcebook on Domestic and International Terrorism: An Analysis of Issues, Organizations, Tactics and Responses, 2nd ed. (Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas Publisher, Ltd., 1997); or Yonah Alexander and Dennis A. Pluchinsky (eds.), Europe s Red Terrorists: the Fighting Communist Organizations (London; Portland, OR: Frank Cass and Co. Ltd., 1992).
34. See e.g. Wayman C. Mullins, A Sourcebook on Domestic and International Terrorism: An Analysis of Issues, Organizations, Tactics and Responses, 2nd ed. (Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas Publisher, Ltd., 1997); or Yonah Alexander and Dennis A. Pluchinsky (eds.), Europe s Red Terrorists: the Fighting Communist Organizations (London; Portland, OR: Frank Cass and Co. Ltd., 1992).
35. See e.g. Claire Sterling, The Terror Network: The Secret War of International Terrorism (New York: Holt, Rhinehart and Winston, 1981); Joseph Bodansky, Target America (New York: S.P.I. Books, 1993); Steven Emerson, Jihad in America. (Alexandria, VA: PBS Video, 1994).
36. See e.g. Claire Sterling, The Terror Network: The Secret War of International Terrorism (New York: Holt, Rhinehart and Winston, 1981); Joseph Bodansky, Target America (New York: S.P.I. Books, 1993); Steven Emerson, Jihad in America. (Alexandria, VA: PBS Video, 1994).
37. See e.g. Claire Sterling, The Terror Network: The Secret War of International Terrorism (New York: Holt, Rhinehart and Winston, 1981); Joseph Bodansky, Target America (New York: S.P.I. Books, 1993); Steven Emerson, Jihad in America. (Alexandria, VA: PBS Video, 1994).
38. Ask Muammar Qaddafi or Saddam Hussein.
39. See David C. Rapoport and Yonah Alexander, The Morality of Terrorism, 2nd edition (New York: Columbia University Press, 1989), pp. 127-219.
40. See Patterns of Global Terrorism 1995 (United States Department of State, 1996).
41. Ibid., p.24.
42. Ibid., p.26.
43. Ibid., p.23.
44. Patterns of Global Terrorism 1996 (United States Department of State, 1997).
45. For example, Sterling (note 29).
46. Gregory Treverton, Covert Action. (New York: Basic Books, 1987), p. 165.
47. Martha Crenshaw, "Is International Terrorism Primarily State-Sponsored? In International Terrorism: Characteristics, Causes, Controls., ed. Charles W. Kegley Jr. (New York: St. Martin"s Press, 1990).
48. Patterns of Global Terrorism 1993, 1994, 1995, (United States Department of State, 1994-1996).
49. Karen Gardela and Bruce Hoffman, The RAND Chronology of International Terrorism for 1987 (Santa Monica, CA: Rand, 1991).
50. See Bodansky (note 29) and Emerson (note 29).
51. For example, The Oklahoma City Bombing or the TWA flight 800 crash.
52. Laqueur (note 29), p.9.