The politics of female circumcision in the central province of colonial Kenya, 1920-30

Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History

Volumn 26, Issue 1, 1998, Pages 93-126

  Hetherington, Penelope ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0032220618     PISSN: 03086534     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/03086539808583017     Document Type: Article

References (114)

1. 1. See Carl G. Rosberg and John Nottingham, The Myth of Mau Mau: Nationalism in Colonial Kenya (London, 1966), and Jeremy Murray-Brown, Kenyatta (London, 1972). For the most detailed history of the controversy over female circumcision, see Robert L. Tignor, The Colonial Transformation of Kenya: the Kamba, Kikuyu and Maasai from 1900 to 1939 (Princeton, 1976), 235-54, which gives a clear account of the politics of the crisis in the context of the development of Kikuyu nationalism. See, also, Cora Ann Presley, Kikuyu Women, the Mau Mau Rebellion and Social Thought in Kenya (Boulder, 1992), Chapter 5. Presley provides a description of the circumcision ceremony as it was conducted at that time, based on oral evidence from participants.
2. 1. See Carl G. Rosberg and John Nottingham, The Myth of Mau Mau: Nationalism in Colonial Kenya (London, 1966), and Jeremy Murray-Brown, Kenyatta (London, 1972). For the most detailed history of the controversy over female circumcision, see Robert L. Tignor, The Colonial Transformation of Kenya: the Kamba, Kikuyu and Maasai from 1900 to 1939 (Princeton, 1976), 235-54, which gives a clear account of the politics of the crisis in the context of the development of Kikuyu nationalism. See, also, Cora Ann Presley, Kikuyu Women, the Mau Mau Rebellion and Social Thought in Kenya (Boulder, 1992), Chapter 5. Presley provides a description of the circumcision ceremony as it was conducted at that time, based on oral evidence from participants.
3. 1. See Carl G. Rosberg and John Nottingham, The Myth of Mau Mau: Nationalism in Colonial Kenya (London, 1966), and Jeremy Murray-Brown, Kenyatta (London, 1972). For the most detailed history of the controversy over female circumcision, see Robert L. Tignor, The Colonial Transformation of Kenya: the Kamba, Kikuyu and Maasai from 1900 to 1939 (Princeton, 1976), 235-54, which gives a clear account of the politics of the crisis in the context of the development of Kikuyu nationalism. See, also, Cora Ann Presley, Kikuyu Women, the Mau Mau Rebellion and Social Thought in Kenya (Boulder, 1992), Chapter 5. Presley provides a description of the circumcision ceremony as it was conducted at that time, based on oral evidence from participants.
4. 1. See Carl G. Rosberg and John Nottingham, The Myth of Mau Mau: Nationalism in Colonial Kenya (London, 1966), and Jeremy Murray-Brown, Kenyatta (London, 1972). For the most detailed history of the controversy over female circumcision, see Robert L. Tignor, The Colonial Transformation of Kenya: the Kamba, Kikuyu and Maasai from 1900 to 1939 (Princeton, 1976), 235-54, which gives a clear account of the politics of the crisis in the context of the development of Kikuyu nationalism. See, also, Cora Ann Presley, Kikuyu Women, the Mau Mau Rebellion and Social Thought in Kenya (Boulder, 1992), Chapter 5. Presley provides a description of the circumcision ceremony as it was conducted at that time, based on oral evidence from participants.
5. 2. See Jocelyn Murray, 'The C M S and the 'female circumcision' issue in Kenya, 1929-1932', Journal of Religion in Africa, 8 (1976), 92-104, and also her collaboration in writing chapter 8 of Robert W. Strayer's book, The Making of Mission Communities in East Africa; Anglicans and Africans in Colonial Kenya, 1875-1935 (London, 1978). See, also, David P. Sangren, Christianity and the Kikuyu: Religious Divisions and Social Conflict (New York, 1989), which is a study of Kikuyu responses to the African Inland Mission in Kenya and deals with the beginnings, before the circumcision crisis, of the independent churches and schools.
6. 2. See Jocelyn Murray, 'The C M S and the 'female circumcision' issue in Kenya, 1929-1932', Journal of Religion in Africa, 8 (1976), 92-104, and also her collaboration in writing chapter 8 of Robert W. Strayer's book, The Making of Mission Communities in East Africa; Anglicans and Africans in Colonial Kenya, 1875-1935 (London, 1978). See, also, David P. Sangren, Christianity and the Kikuyu: Religious Divisions and Social Conflict (New York, 1989), which is a study of Kikuyu responses to the African Inland Mission in Kenya and deals with the beginnings, before the circumcision crisis, of the independent churches and schools.
7. 2. See Jocelyn Murray, 'The C M S and the 'female circumcision' issue in Kenya, 1929-1932', Journal of Religion in Africa, 8 (1976), 92-104, and also her collaboration in writing chapter 8 of Robert W. Strayer's book, The Making of Mission Communities in East Africa; Anglicans and Africans in Colonial Kenya, 1875-1935 (London, 1978). See, also, David P. Sangren, Christianity and the Kikuyu: Religious Divisions and Social Conflict (New York, 1989), which is a study of Kikuyu responses to the African Inland Mission in Kenya and deals with the beginnings, before the circumcision crisis, of the independent churches and schools.
8. 3. Marshall S. Clough, Fighting Two Sides: Kenyan Chiefs and Politicians, 1918-1940 (Colorado, 1990).
9. 4. Historians may have been unduly influenced by the first 'history' of the circumcision crisis which was prepared by the Mission Council of the Church of Scotland in 1931-32. See CO 533/418/2, Public Record Office, London. The typewritten copy of this Memorandum Prepared by the Mission Council of the Church of Scotland, which can be seen in the Kenya Archives, amongst other places, is 75 pages long, not including various appendices.
10. 5. Margaret Strobel, Muslim Women in Mombasa 1890-1975 (New Haven,1979); Luise White, The Comforts of Home: Prostitution in Colonial Nairobi (Chicago, 1990); Susan Pederson, 'National Bodies, Unspeakable Acts: The Sexual Politics of Colonial Policy Making', Journal of Modern History, 63 (1991), 647-80; John Lonsdale,'The Moral Economy of Mau Mau: Wealth, Poverty and Civic Virtue in Kikuyu Political Thought', in Bruce Berman and John Lonsdale, Unhappy Valley: Conflict in Kenya and Africa, Book 2 (London, 1992).
11. 5. Margaret Strobel, Muslim Women in Mombasa 1890-1975 (New Haven,1979); Luise White, The Comforts of Home: Prostitution in Colonial Nairobi (Chicago, 1990); Susan Pederson, 'National Bodies, Unspeakable Acts: The Sexual Politics of Colonial Policy Making', Journal of Modern History, 63 (1991), 647-80; John Lonsdale,'The Moral Economy of Mau Mau: Wealth, Poverty and Civic Virtue in Kikuyu Political Thought', in Bruce Berman and John Lonsdale, Unhappy Valley: Conflict in Kenya and Africa, Book 2 (London, 1992).
12. 5. Margaret Strobel, Muslim Women in Mombasa 1890-1975 (New Haven,1979); Luise White, The Comforts of Home: Prostitution in Colonial Nairobi (Chicago, 1990); Susan Pederson, 'National Bodies, Unspeakable Acts: The Sexual Politics of Colonial Policy Making', Journal of Modern History, 63 (1991), 647-80; John Lonsdale,'The Moral Economy of Mau Mau: Wealth, Poverty and Civic Virtue in Kikuyu Political Thought', in Bruce Berman and John Lonsdale, Unhappy Valley: Conflict in Kenya and Africa, Book 2 (London, 1992).
13. 5. Margaret Strobel, Muslim Women in Mombasa 1890-1975 (New Haven,1979); Luise White, The Comforts of Home: Prostitution in Colonial Nairobi (Chicago, 1990); Susan Pederson, 'National Bodies, Unspeakable Acts: The Sexual Politics of Colonial Policy Making', Journal of Modern History, 63 (1991), 647-80; John Lonsdale,'The Moral Economy of Mau Mau: Wealth, Poverty and Civic Virtue in Kikuyu Political Thought', in Bruce Berman and John Lonsdale, Unhappy Valley: Conflict in Kenya and Africa, Book 2 (London, 1992).
14. 6. Jomo Kenyatta, Facing Mount Kenya: The Tribal Life of the Gikuyu (London, 1938), 133.
15. 7. See Mwangi wa Githumo, Land and Nationalism: The Impact of Land Expropriation and Land Grievances upon the Rise and Development of the Nationalist Movement in Kenya. 1885-1939 (Washington, 1981), for a detailed account of the gradual process of land alienation. See, also the recent account by Clough, Fighting Two Sides, especially 48f and 68f.
16. 8. See Bruce Berman, Control and Crisis in Colonial Kenya: The Dialectic of Domination (London, 1990), chapter 4.
17. 9. For a detailed history of these events and of the activities of the people involved in Great Britain and East Africa, see Robert G. Gregory, Sidney Webb and East Africa: Labour's Experiment wth the Doctrine of Native Paramountcy (Berkeley, 1962).
18. 10. See George Bennett, Kenya: A Political History: The Colonial Period (Oxford, 1963), chapters 6 and 7. The Report of the Hilton Young Commission, which had been set up by Amery, took up the question of the franchise, and all members except the chairman urged as an ideal 'a common roll on an equal franchise with no discrimination between the races'.
19. 11. Kenya Native Affairs Department, Annual Report, 1925, 3.
20. 12. Two years later the fears of Africans that further land would be alienated proved to be justified when gold was discovered in Kakamega and an area of land was excised fom the reserves.
21. 13. See Sangren,Christianity and the Kikuyu, 32f, for details of land alienation.
22. 14. See B. A. Ogot, 'Kenya under the British, 1895 to 1963', in Ogot (ed.), Zamani: A Survey of East African History, new edition 1974, 265-9.
23. 15. The synchronic approach of the ethnographers means that they must be read with caution. See W.S. and K. Routledge, With a Prehistoric People: The Akikuyu of British East Africa (London, 1910); C. Cagnolo, The Akikuyu: Their Customs, Traditions and Folklore (Consolata Missionary School, 1933); L.S.B. Leakey, The Southern Kikuyu before 1903, Vois. 1-3, completed in 1937 but not published until 1977, and Jomo Kenyatta, Facing Mount Kenya. Perhaps more valuable is Jean Davison, Voices from Mutira: Lives of Rural Women (Boulder, 1989).
24. 15. The synchronic approach of the ethnographers means that they must be read with caution. See W.S. and K. Routledge, With a Prehistoric People: The Akikuyu of British East Africa (London, 1910); C. Cagnolo, The Akikuyu: Their Customs, Traditions and Folklore (Consolata Missionary School, 1933); L.S.B. Leakey, The Southern Kikuyu before 1903, Vois. 1-3, completed in 1937 but not published until 1977, and Jomo Kenyatta, Facing Mount Kenya. Perhaps more valuable is Jean Davison, Voices from Mutira: Lives of Rural Women (Boulder, 1989).
25. 15. The synchronic approach of the ethnographers means that they must be read with caution. See W.S. and K. Routledge, With a Prehistoric People: The Akikuyu of British East Africa (London, 1910); C. Cagnolo, The Akikuyu: Their Customs, Traditions and Folklore (Consolata Missionary School, 1933); L.S.B. Leakey, The Southern Kikuyu before 1903, Vois. 1-3, completed in 1937 but not published until 1977, and Jomo Kenyatta, Facing Mount Kenya. Perhaps more valuable is Jean Davison, Voices from Mutira: Lives of Rural Women (Boulder, 1989).
26. 15. The synchronic approach of the ethnographers means that they must be read with caution. See W.S. and K. Routledge, With a Prehistoric People: The Akikuyu of British East Africa (London, 1910); C. Cagnolo, The Akikuyu: Their Customs, Traditions and Folklore (Consolata Missionary School, 1933); L.S.B. Leakey, The Southern Kikuyu before 1903, Vois. 1-3, completed in 1937 but not published until 1977, and Jomo Kenyatta, Facing Mount Kenya. Perhaps more valuable is Jean Davison, Voices from Mutira: Lives of Rural Women (Boulder, 1989).
27. 15. The synchronic approach of the ethnographers means that they must be read with caution. See W.S. and K. Routledge, With a Prehistoric People: The Akikuyu of British East Africa (London, 1910); C. Cagnolo, The Akikuyu: Their Customs, Traditions and Folklore (Consolata Missionary School, 1933); L.S.B. Leakey, The Southern Kikuyu before 1903, Vois. 1-3, completed in 1937 but not published until 1977, and Jomo Kenyatta, Facing Mount Kenya. Perhaps more valuable is Jean Davison, Voices from Mutira: Lives of Rural Women (Boulder, 1989).
28. 16. Lonsdale, Unhappy Valley, 389.
29. 17. Circular on circumcision sent to D.C.'s by the Provincial Commissioner, D.R. Crampton, in May 1920. Kenya National Archives, 681/22/c/20.
30. 18. Replies from D.C.'s to Provincial Commissioner, 570/13/1/20; 562/13/2/20; 230/14/a/20.
31. 19. Kenya Native Affairs Department, Annual Report, 1925, 64. For detail about the labour of women and children in this period see Sharon Stichter, 'Women and the Labour Force in Kenya, 1895-1964', Rural Africana, 29 (1975/76), 45-67.
32. 20. See Tabitha Kanogo, Squatters and the Roots of Mau Mau, 1905-1963 (London, 1987), on the genesis of the squatter community and the survival of circumcision practices in 'settled areas'.
33. 21. See Minutes of Kiambu Local Council Meeting, 4 April 1927, PC/CENT/2/1/4.
34. 22. See letter from H.E. Lambert to the Senior Commissioner, Nyeri, 4 June 1929,DC/KBU/7/3.
35. 23. See Minutes of Kiambu native council, 5 July 1929, PC/CENT/2/1/4.
36. 24. In 1902 the core of the Kenia-Kikuyu province was created by merging the districts of Nyeri and Fort Hall, originally part of the Ukamba Province. For this paper it is important to note that Meru and Embu were merged with the province in 1918 and Kiambu in 1924. In that year the name 'Kenia' was dropped in favour of 'Kikuyu' as the name of the province although the administration almost always used the term 'Central Province'. For details of subsequent boundary changes, see Britain, Colonial Office, Kenya: Report of the Regional Boundaries Commission Cmnd. 1899 (London, 1962).
37. 25. See, for example, the report of the inaugural meeting of the Meru Local native council, CP/CENT/2/1/3.
38. 26. Lonsdale, Unhappy Valley, 390-3.
39. 27. Minutes of Embu local native council meeting, 12 June 1925, PC/CENT/2/1/2.
40. 28. Minutes of the Kiambu local native council meeting, 17 July 1925, PC/CENT/2/1/4.
41. 29. Minutes of Meru local council meeting, 17 and 18 Aug. 1925, PC/CENT/2/1/3. The 'simpler 'form presumably involved only the ritual cutting of the hood over the clitoris rather than the removal of the clitoris,or of the labia minora and part of the labia majora, although the outcome of the operation was notoriously difficult to predict because of the instruments used and the varying skills of the female circumcisor. See Memorandum, section 1.
42. 30. Circular no. 36 to all Senior Commissioners, 21 Sept. 1925, DC/KBU/7/3.
43. 31. Minutes of Meru local council meeting, 12 Oct. 1925, PC/CENT/2/1/3.
44. 32. Minutes of Fort Hall local native council meeting, 18 and 19 Oct. 1925, PC/CENT/2/1/5.
45. 33. Minutes of Nyeri local council Meeting, 27 and 28 Oct. 1925, PC/CENT/2/1/1.
46. 34. Minutes of Embu native council meeting, 25 Nov. 1925, PC/CENT/2/1/2.
47. 35. See Memorandum, 21.
48. 36. This is taken almost verbatim from the Nyeri native council minutes of 13 April 1927, PC/CP/6/4/5.
49. 37. C.M. Dobbs to all provincial commissioners, 10 Dec. 1928, PC/CP/8/1/1.
50. 38. For the detailed replies from the district commissioners of Meru, Embu, South Nyeri and Fort Hall, see the file PC/8/1/1/1. The reply from Kiambu Council is in the file numbered CP/CENT/2/1/4.
51. 39. C.M. Dobbs, Acting chief native commissioner to P.C. Nyeri, 1 May 1929. PC/CP/8/1/1.
52. 40. See Clough, Fighting Two Sides, chapter 6, for the relationship between the Kikuyu Association and the Kikuyu Central Association
53. 41. In 1916 H.R. Tate reported the presence in the Kenia Province of 8 stations of the Church Missionary Society, 1 of the Church of Scotland Mission, 2 of the African Inland Mission, 15 of the Italian Roman Catholics and 1 of the United Methodist Mission. See KNA, PC/CP/ 1/1/1.
54. 42. For details of the activities of Chief Kinyanjui, see Clough, Fighting Two Sides.
55. 43. Murray-Brown, Kenyatta, 144.
56. 44. Kenyatta, Facing Mount Kenya, 135.
57. 45. See Rosberg and Nottingham, Myth of Mau Mau, 114f. and Tignor, Colonial Transformation, 240. Seven elders left the mission over this issue. Both groups had some success in the council elections.
58. 46. See Murray-Brown, Kenyatta, 136, for the wording of three submissions which were supported by the elders.
59. 47. For biographical details about Dr. Arthur, see Anne King, 'J.W. Arthur and African Interests', in B.E. Kiprorir (ed.), Biographical Essays on Imperialism and Collaboration in Colonial Kenya (Nairobi, 1980), 87-111.
60. 48. East African Standard, 10 Aug. 1929.
61. 49. Ibid., 17 Aug. 1929.
62. 50. John W. Arthur, 'Memorandum on the Circumcision of Kikuyu Native Girls', 27 Aug. 1929, PC/CP/8/1/1.
63. 51. East African Standard, 17 Aug. 1929.
64. 52. Ibid., 31 Aug. 1929.
65. 53. See Murray, 'The C. M. S. and the Circumcision Issue' for these events and the response of the C.M.S.
66. 54. East African Standard, 7 Sept. 1929.
67. 55. Ibid., 21 Sept. 1929.
68. 56. Ibid., 19 Oct. 1929. See Murray, 'The C. M. S. and the Circumcision Issue' for details about Rev. J. Comely.
69. 57. Kenya Native Affairs Department, Annual Report, 1929.
70. 58. Murray-Brown, Kenyatta, 143-4.
71. 59. G.V. Maxwell to all Provincial Commissioners, Circular number 54, 16 Sept. 1929,PC/CP/8/1/1.
72. 60. Berman, Control and Crisis, 153-4.
73. 61. D.C. Kikuyu, E.B. Horne, to Senior Commissioner, Nyeri, 12 Oct. 1929, PC/CP/8/1/1.
74. 62. D.C. Kiambu, F.H. Fazan, to Senior Commissioner, Nyeri, 16 Oct. 1929, PC/CP/8/1/1.
75. 63. D.C. Fort Hall, P.C. Lamb, to Senior Commissioner, Nyeri, 8 Nov. 1929, PC/CP/8/1/1.
76. 64. D.C. Embu, H.E. Lambert, to Senior Commissioner, Nyeri, 14 Oct. 1929, and an extract from the confidential file of H.E. Lambert, 15 Oct. 1929, PC/CP/8/1/1.
77. 64. D.C. Embu, H.E. Lambert, to Senior Commissioner, Nyeri, 14 Oct. 1929, and an extract from the confidential file of H.E. Lambert, 15 Oct. 1929, PC/CP/8/1/1.
78. 65. See, Gregory, Sidney Webb and East Africa, 76-77.
79. 66. A detailed account of the individuals and groups involved in the controversy in Britain and in the Colonial Office can be found in Pederson,' National Bodies, Unspeakable Acts'.
80. 67. Kenya Legislative Council Debates, Governor Grigg addressing the chamber, 9 Nov. 1929.
81. 68. East African Standard, Editorial, 'The Native Lands Trust Bill', 2 Nov. 1929.
82. 69. D.C. Fort Hall, P.C. Lamb, to Senior Commissioner, Nyeri, 25 Nov. and 10 Dec. 1929, PC/CP/8/1/1.
83. 70. Circular from K.K. Joseph for Kikuyu Central Association to all the chiefs of Kikuyu country, n.d., but dated 17 Aug. 1929, according to a letter from D.C. Fort Hall, P.C. Lamb, to the Provincial Commissioner, Nyeri, dated 17 Dec. 1929, PC/CP/8/1/1.
84. 71. See Theodore Natsoulias, The Rise and Fall of the Kikuyu Karing'a Education Association of Kenya, 1929-1952', Journal of Asian and African Studies, 23 (1988), 219-33. In this article the author refers to the growing demand in the 1920s for more and different schools.
85. 72. See Donald D. Schilling, 'Local native councils and the Politics of Education in Kenya 1925-1939', International Journal of African Historical Studies, 9, 2 (1976), 218-47.
86. 73. These are the words of a settler who claimed to have observed the dancing. See East African Standard, 25 Jan. 1930. The singing of scurrilous songs as an expression of political protest in the largely oral culture of Kenya deserves close analysis. For more detail about such songs see Jocelyn Murray, The Kikuyu Female Circumcision Controversy, with special reference to the Church Missionary Society's sphere of influence', Ph.D. thesis, University of California, Los Angeles, 1974. Lonsdale points to additional sources in note 655.
87. 74. See The Times, The Morning Post, and the Daily Express, 6 Jan. 1930.
88. 75. See East African Standard, 15 Feb. 1930.
89. 76. Edward Grigg, later Lord Altrincham, was governor of Kenya from 1925 to 1930 and was involved in attempts by the settlers to achieve responsible government for Kenya, at the expense of the African population.
90. 77. Telegram from Governor Grigg to Colonial Office, 20 Jan. 1930, CO 533/394/77/1930.
91. 78. Governor Grigg to Lord Passfield, 22 Jan.,1930, CO 533/394/77/1930.
92. 79. See Murray-Brown, Kenyatta, 148, and Tignor, Colonial Transformation, 248.
93. 79. See Murray-Brown, Kenyatta, 148, and Tignor, Colonial Transformation, 248.
94. 80. Kenyatta to Drummond Shiels, 22 Jan. 1930, CO 533/394/10/1930.
95. 81. See Diane Wylie 'Confrontation over Kenya: The Colonial Office and its Critics, 1918-1940', Journal of African History, 18, 3 (1977), 427-47, for details of the role played at this time by MacGregor-Ross, Leys, and others, in influencing the outcome of events. The relationships between these activists and various Colonial Office officials can be followed in Gregory, Sidney Webb and East Africa. 82. Report by MacGregor-Ross of a meeting between Dr Drummond Shiels, Johnstone Kenyatta, and William MacGregor-Ross, 23 Jan. 1930, CO 533/395/27/1930.
96. 83. Lord Passfield to Governor Grigg, 6 Feb. 1930, CO 533/394/10/1930.
97. 84. See Murray-Brown, Kenyatta, 140.
98. 85. Ibid., chapter 11, for Dr Arthur's relations with Kenyatta.
99. 86. See Schilling, 'Local Native Councils'.
100. 87. See Lord Altrincham, Kenya's Opportunity: Memories, Hopes and Ideas (London, 1985), 98. In this account Grigg claims that he was advised by his administrators as to the dangers of forcing the process of change on this issue. 'Much against the grain I felt myself obliged to advise Downing Street accordingly, and my advice was accepted.'
101. 88. D.C. Kiambu, F.H. Fazan, to Provincial Commissioner, Nyeri, 6 March. 1930, PC/CP/8/1/1.
102. 89. D.C. Fort Hall, P.C. Lamb, to Provincial Commissioner, Nyeri, 4 March. 1930, PC/CP/8/1/1.
103. 90. Lambert, who had previously been D.C. in Kiambu, arrived in Embu in 1929. A linguist and an ethnographer, Lambert believed that the Kikuyu could be persuaded to modify the operation. See Murray, 'The C. M. S. and female circumcision'.
104. 91. Governor Grigg to Lord Passfield, 15 March. 1930, CO 533/394/10/1930.
105. 92. See the record of the meeting between Governor Grigg and members of the Kenya Missionary Council on 22 Feb. 1930, CO 533/394/10/1930.
106. 93. A report of a senior commissioner's meeting, 4 March. 1930, CO 533/395/27/1930.
107. 94. Governor Grigg to Lord Passfield, 15 March 1930, CO 533/394/77/1930.
108. 95. Lord Passfield to Governor Grigg, 23 April 1930, CO 533/394/77/1930. The details of the pressures put on Grigg and his representations to the Colonial Office can be followed in the many exchanges recorded in these files. The detail of these exchanges are only briefly summarized in this article.
109. 96. These groups included the Committee on the Status of African Women, the Women's Medical Federation, and the Council for the Representation of Native Women on the League of Nations, CO 533/394/10/1930 and CO 533/394/17/1930. See Pederson, 'National Bodies' for an account of these activities.
110. 97. Telegram from Grigg to Passfield, 9 Sept. 1930, CO 533/394/77. The exchanges between Grigg and the Colonial Office reveal that the decision to abandon the proposal to change the legal code came from Kenya and not from the Colonial Office.
111. 98. Provincial Commissioner E.B. Horne to chief native commissioner, Nairobi, 9 Oct. 1930, PC/CP/8/1/2.
112. 99. Hon. M. Moore, Secretary to the Governor of Kenya, to Lord Passfield, 6 Nov. 1930, CO 533/394/10/1930.
113. 100. The chief native commissioner to the Provincial Commissioner, 14 Oct. 1930, PC/CP/8/1/1.
114. 101. Kenya Native Affairs Department, Annual Report, 1930, 4 and 10.