India's place in the tropical world, 1770-1930

Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History

Volumn 26, Issue 1, 1998, Pages 1-21

  Arnold, David ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LONDON   (United Kingdom)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0032220615     PISSN: 03086534     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/03086539808583013     Document Type: Article

References (120)

1. Ronald Ross, Memoirs (London, 1923).
2. Pardey Lukis, 'Opportunities for Medical Research in India', Indian Journal of Medical Research, 4 (1917), 384-5.
3. C. G. Pandit and K. Someswara Rao, Indian Research Fund Association and Indian Council of Medical Research, 1911-1961: Fifty Years of Progress (Delhi, 1961).
4. Ronald Ross, The Prevention of Malaria (London, 1910).
5. An Appeal on Behalf of the Calcutta School of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene (Calcutta, 1920), 1.
6. For example, T. Bhaskara Menon, An Introduction to Tropical Pathology (Calcutta, 1931); V. B. Green-Armytage and P. C. Dutta, A Text Book of Midwifery in the Tropics (Calcutta, 1933); Journal of Tropical Veterinary Science (Calcutta, 1906).
7. For example, T. Bhaskara Menon, An Introduction to Tropical Pathology (Calcutta, 1931); V. B. Green-Armytage and P. C. Dutta, A Text Book of Midwifery in the Tropics (Calcutta, 1933); Journal of Tropical Veterinary Science (Calcutta, 1906).
8. For example, T. Bhaskara Menon, An Introduction to Tropical Pathology (Calcutta, 1931); V. B. Green-Armytage and P. C. Dutta, A Text Book of Midwifery in the Tropics (Calcutta, 1933); Journal of Tropical Veterinary Science (Calcutta, 1906).
9. Edward W. Said, Orientalism (London, 1978).
10. A view influentially reflected in Pierre Gourou, The Tropical World (3rd edition, London, 1961).
11. Immanuel Wallerstein, The Modern World System II: Mercantilism and the Consolidation of the European World-Economy, 1600-1750 (New York, 1980), 103.
12. Valerie I. J. Flint, The Imaginative Landscape of Christopher Columbus (Princeton, 1992).
13. Richard H. Grove, Green Imperialism: Colonial Expansion, Tropical Island Edens and the Origins of Environmentalism, 1600-1860 (Cambridge, 1995).
14. Philip D. Curtin, The Image of Africa: British Ideas and Action, 1780-1850 (Madison, 1964), 58, 60.
15. Malcolm Nicolson, 'Alexander von Humboldt, Humboldtian Science and the Origins of the Study of Vegetation', History of Science, 25 (1987), 167-94; Susan Faye Cannon, Science in Culture: The Early Victorian Period (New York, 1978), 73-110.
16. Malcolm Nicolson, 'Alexander von Humboldt, Humboldtian Science and the Origins of the Study of Vegetation', History of Science, 25 (1987), 167-94; Susan Faye Cannon, Science in Culture: The Early Victorian Period (New York, 1978), 73-110.
17. Alexander von Humboldt, Personal Narrative of a Journey to the Equinoctial Regions of the New Continent (Harmondsworth, 1995); Cosmos: A Sketch of a Physical Description of the Universe (London, 1901), I, 3-14.
18. Alexander von Humboldt, Personal Narrative of a Journey to the Equinoctial Regions of the New Continent (Harmondsworth, 1995); Cosmos: A Sketch of a Physical Description of the Universe (London, 1901), I, 3-14.
19. Alfred Russel Wallace's Tropical Nature (London, 1878) was, for example, used as a source for the effects of tropical climate in India: William Logan, Malabar (Madras, 1887), I, 31.
20. Alfred Russel Wallace's Tropical Nature (London, 1878) was, for example, used as a source for the effects of tropical climate in India: William Logan, Malabar (Madras, 1887), I, 31.
21. John Crawfurd, History of the Indian Archipelago (Edinburgh, 1820), I, 11; III, 213.
22. John Crawfurd, History of the Indian Archipelago (Edinburgh, 1820), I, 11; III, 213.
23. For Humboldt's interest in India, see Jean Théodoridès, 'Humboldt and England', British Journal for the History of Science, 3 (1966), 43-4.
24. J. Forbes Royle, Illustrations of the Botany and Other Branches of the Natural History of the Himalayan Mountains (London, 1839), I, 281-4.
25. For the Calcutta garden, see Kalipada Biswas, The Original Correspondence of Sir Joseph Banks Relating to the Foundation of the Royal Botanic Garden, Calcutta (Calcutta, 1950).
26. Karen Ordahl Kupperman, 'Fear of Hot Climates in the Anglo-American Colonial Experience', William and Mary Quarterly, 41 (1984), 213-40; Philip D. Curtin, 'The White Man's Grave: Image and Reality, 1780-1850', Journal of British Studies, 1 (1961), 94-110.
27. Karen Ordahl Kupperman, 'Fear of Hot Climates in the Anglo-American Colonial Experience', William and Mary Quarterly, 41 (1984), 213-40; Philip D. Curtin, 'The White Man's Grave: Image and Reality, 1780-1850', Journal of British Studies, 1 (1961), 94-110.
28. Benjamin Moseley, A Treatise on Tropical Diseases, on Military Operations and on the Climate of the West Indies (2nd edition, London, 1789), 16.
29. James Johnson, The Influence of Tropical Climates, More Especially the Climate of India, on European Constitutions (London, 1813), 25; William Twining, Clinical Illustrations of the More Important Diseases of Bengal (2nd edition, Calcutta, 1835), I, 20.
30. James Johnson, The Influence of Tropical Climates, More Especially the Climate of India, on European Constitutions (London, 1813), 25; William Twining, Clinical Illustrations of the More Important Diseases of Bengal (2nd edition, Calcutta, 1835), I, 20.
31. John Clark, Observations on the Diseases of Long Voyages to Hot Countries and Particularly those which Prevail in the East Indies (London, 1773), 41-2; Twining, Clinical Illustrations (1835), I, 27; James Ranald Martin, The Influence of Tropical Climates on European Constitutions (London, 1856), 39.
32. John Clark, Observations on the Diseases of Long Voyages to Hot Countries and Particularly those which Prevail in the East Indies (London, 1773), 41-2; Twining, Clinical Illustrations (1835), I, 27; James Ranald Martin, The Influence of Tropical Climates on European Constitutions (London, 1856), 39.
33. John Clark, Observations on the Diseases of Long Voyages to Hot Countries and Particularly those which Prevail in the East Indies (London, 1773), 41-2; Twining, Clinical Illustrations (1835), I, 27; James Ranald Martin, The Influence of Tropical Climates on European Constitutions (London, 1856), 39.
34. Twining, Clinical Illustrations (1835), I, 6, 46.
35. Richard Reece, The Medical Companion for Visitors to the East and West Indies (London, 1817), 187, 206; James Wallace, A Voyage to India (London, 1824), 129.
36. Richard Reece, The Medical Companion for Visitors to the East and West Indies (London, 1817), 187, 206; James Wallace, A Voyage to India (London, 1824), 129.
37. James Ranald Martin, Notes on the Medical Topography of Calcutta (Calcutta, 1837), 164.
38. [Anon.], 'Martin on the Re-occupation of Negrais', Calcutta Review, 11 (1849), 258; Richard M. Eaton, The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204-1760 (Berkeley, 1993), 144, 168-9.
39. [Anon.], 'Martin on the Re-occupation of Negrais', Calcutta Review, 11 (1849), 258; Richard M. Eaton, The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204-1760 (Berkeley, 1993), 144, 168-9.
40. Francis Zimmermann, The Jungle and the Aroma of Meats: An Ecological Theme in Hindu Medicine (Berkeley, 1987); C. A. Bayly, Empire and Information: Intelligence Gathering and Social Communication in India, 1780-1870 (Cambridge, 1996), 302-5.
41. Francis Zimmermann, The Jungle and the Aroma of Meats: An Ecological Theme in Hindu Medicine (Berkeley, 1987); C. A. Bayly, Empire and Information: Intelligence Gathering and Social Communication in India, 1780-1870 (Cambridge, 1996), 302-5.
42. Alexander Dow, The History of Hindostan (London, 1770), III, vii.
43. Robert Orme, A History of the Military Transactions of the British Nation in Indostan from the Year MDCCXLV (new edition, 1803), II, 5.
44. Thomas Babington Macaulay, Critical and Historical Essays (London, 1907), I, 502-3, 552, 562.
45. Twining, Clinical Illustrations (1835), II, 418.
46. Robert Kyd, 'Some Remarks on the Soil and Vegetation of the Western Side of the River Hooghly', 1791, Mss Eur. 95/1, Oriental and India Office Collections [OIOC], London.
47. Zimmermann, Jungle, 14-18. In 1813 'jangle' was defined as 'A wood or thicket, a country overrun with wood or long grass, in a rude and uncultivated state': 'Glossary' by Charles Wilkins, in The Fifth Report from the Select Committee of the House of Commons on the Affairs of the East India Company, ed. Walter Firminger (Calcutta, 1918), III, 22.
48. Zimmermann, Jungle, 14-18. In 1813 'jangle' was defined as 'A wood or thicket, a country overrun with wood or long grass, in a rude and uncultivated state': 'Glossary' by Charles Wilkins, in The Fifth Report from the Select Committee of the House of Commons on the Affairs of the East India Company, ed. Walter Firminger (Calcutta, 1918), III, 22.
49. As in Joseph Conrad's An Outcast of the Islands (London, 1896).
50. The extent to which contrasts were repeatedly drawn with Europe, and the elaboration of so insistent a language of difference across so many fields of scientific and governmental discourse, calls into the question the view that the tropics represented little more than one, albeit extreme, example of nineteenth-century European climatic discourse: cf. Harish Naraindas, 'Poisons, Putrescence and the Weather: A Genealogy of the Advent of Tropical Medicine', Contributions to Indian Sociology, 30 (1996), 3.
51. F. P. Strong, Extracts from the Topography and Vital Statistics of Calcutta (Calcutta, 1837), 9-10; James Taylor, A Sketch of the Topography and Statistics of Dacca (Calcutta, 1840), 322-31.
52. F. P. Strong, Extracts from the Topography and Vital Statistics of Calcutta (Calcutta, 1837), 9-10; James Taylor, A Sketch of the Topography and Statistics of Dacca (Calcutta, 1840), 322-31.
53. Johnson, Tropical Climates; for Johnson's significance, see Mark Harrison, 'Tropical Medicine in Nineteenth-Century India', British Journal for the History of Science, 25 (1992), 299-318.
54. Johnson, Tropical Climates; for Johnson's significance, see Mark Harrison, 'Tropical Medicine in Nineteenth-Century India', British Journal for the History of Science, 25 (1992), 299-318.
55. Wallace, Voyage to India, 159-60.
56. Reece, Medical Companion, xi, xvi.
57. John Peter Wade, A Paper on the Prevention and Treatment of the Disorders of Seamen and Soldiers in Bengal (London, 1793), 41.
58. Ibid., 50.
59. Martin, Medical Topography, 155-8; Dane Kennedy, The Magic Mountains: Hill Stations and the British Raj (Berkeley, 1996), 32-3.
60. Martin, Medical Topography, 155-8; Dane Kennedy, The Magic Mountains: Hill Stations and the British Raj (Berkeley, 1996), 32-3.
61. James Annesley, Researches into the Causes, Nature and Treatment of the Most Prevalent Diseases of India, and of Warm Climates Generally (London, 1828), I, vii, 7, 52, 64-5.
62. William Twining, Clinical Illustrations of the More Important Diseases of Bengal (Calcutta, 1832), 561.
63. Twining, Clinical Illustrations (1835), I, 45-6.
64. C. H. Cameron, minute, 1 Feb. 1839, 'Papers respecting Slavery in the East Indies', Parliamentary Papers, 238, 1841, 38-9; Lord Auckland, minute, 6 May 1841, 'Letter from the Governor-General of India in Council on the Subject of Slavery in the East Indies', Parliamentary Papers, 54 [1841], 1-2.
65. C. H. Cameron, minute, 1 Feb. 1839, 'Papers respecting Slavery in the East Indies', Parliamentary Papers, 238, 1841, 38-9; Lord Auckland, minute, 6 May 1841, 'Letter from the Governor-General of India in Council on the Subject of Slavery in the East Indies', Parliamentary Papers, 54 [1841], 1-2.
66. J. F. Royle, An Essay on the Antiquity of Hindoo Medicine (London, 1837), 2-3. For Royle's career, see Dictionary of National Biography (London, 1897), XLIX, 375-6.
67. J. F. Royle, An Essay on the Antiquity of Hindoo Medicine (London, 1837), 2-3. For Royle's career, see Dictionary of National Biography (London, 1897), XLIX, 375-6.
68. J. F. Royle, 'Account of the Honourable Company's Botanic Garden at Saharanpur', Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1 (1832), 41-58.
69. Cf. Thomas R. Metcalf, Ideologies of the Raj (Cambridge, 1994), 9.
70. David Arnold, The Problem of Nature: Environment, Culture and European Expansion (Oxford, 1996), 29-38, 158-62.
71. George Watt, Memorandum on the Resources of British India (Calcutta, 1894), 5.
72. Harold B. Carter, Sir Joseph Banks, 1743-1820 (London, 1988), 272; David Mackay, In the Wake of Cook: Exploration, Science and Empire, 1780-1801 (London, 1985), 174-5.
73. Harold B. Carter, Sir Joseph Banks, 1743-1820 (London, 1988), 272; David Mackay, In the Wake of Cook: Exploration, Science and Empire, 1780-1801 (London, 1985), 174-5.
74. David Arnold, 'White Colonization and Labour in Nineteenth-Century India', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 11 (1983) 133-58.
75. Arthur S. Thomson, 'Could the Natives of a Temperate Climate Colonize and Increase in a Tropical Country and Vice Versa?', Transactions of the Medical and Physical Society of Bombay, 4 (1843), 112-38.
76. T. Pennant, Indian Zoology (2nd edition, London, 1790).
77. R. Wilcox, 'Memoir of a Survey of Asam and the Neighbouring Countries Executed in 1825-6-7-8', Asiatic Researches, 17 (1832), 314-469; William Griffith, Journal of Travels in Assam, Burma, Bootan, Afghanistan and the Neighbouring Countries (Calcutta, 1847), 208-25, 298. Very little of India's tropicality found its way onto canvas, except at the hands of amateur artists like Marianne North: A Vision of Eden: The Life and Work of Marianne North (New York, 1980), 123-50; cf. Katherine Emma Manthorne, Tropical Renaissance: North American Artists Exploring Latin America, 1839-1879 (Washington, 1989).
78. R. Wilcox, 'Memoir of a Survey of Asam and the Neighbouring Countries Executed in 1825-6-7-8', Asiatic Researches, 17 (1832), 314-469; William Griffith, Journal of Travels in Assam, Burma, Bootan, Afghanistan and the Neighbouring Countries (Calcutta, 1847), 208-25, 298. Very little of India's tropicality found its way onto canvas, except at the hands of amateur artists like Marianne North: A Vision of Eden: The Life and Work of Marianne North (New York, 1980), 123-50; cf. Katherine Emma Manthorne, Tropical Renaissance: North American Artists Exploring Latin America, 1839-1879 (Washington, 1989).
79. R. Wilcox, 'Memoir of a Survey of Asam and the Neighbouring Countries Executed in 1825-6-7-8', Asiatic Researches, 17 (1832), 314-469; William Griffith, Journal of Travels in Assam, Burma, Bootan, Afghanistan and the Neighbouring Countries (Calcutta, 1847), 208-25, 298. Very little of India's tropicality found its way onto canvas, except at the hands of amateur artists like Marianne North: A Vision of Eden: The Life and Work of Marianne North (New York, 1980), 123-50; cf. Katherine Emma Manthorne, Tropical Renaissance: North American Artists Exploring Latin America, 1839-1879 (Washington, 1989).
80. R. Wilcox, 'Memoir of a Survey of Asam and the Neighbouring Countries Executed in 1825-6-7-8', Asiatic Researches, 17 (1832), 314-469; William Griffith, Journal of Travels in Assam, Burma, Bootan, Afghanistan and the Neighbouring Countries (Calcutta, 1847), 208-25, 298. Very little of India's tropicality found its way onto canvas, except at the hands of amateur artists like Marianne North: A Vision of Eden: The Life and Work of Marianne North (New York, 1980), 123-50; cf. Katherine Emma Manthorne, Tropical Renaissance: North American Artists Exploring Latin America, 1839-1879 (Washington, 1989).
81. Royle, Illustrations, I, xxx, xxxiii.
82. J. D. Hooker and Thomas Thomson, Flora Indica (London, 1855), I, 94.
83. Royle, Illustrations, I, 15.
84. James Lind, An Essay on Diseases Incidental to Europeans in Warm Climates (London, 1808), 2.
85. Joseph Dalton Hooker, Himalayan Journals (London, 1854), I, 1-2, 7, 109-12.
86. Ibid., 119-20. In his formal woks, however, Hooker was critical of Royle's temperate/tropical division of India and proposed a far more complex scheme of botanical provinces: Hooker Thompson, I, Flora Indica, 107-16.
87. Ibid., 119-20. In his formal woks, however, Hooker was critical of Royle's temperate/tropical division of India and proposed a far more complex scheme of botanical provinces: Hooker Thompson, I, Flora Indica, 107-16.
88. Francis Buchanan, A Journey from Madras through the Countries of Mysore, Canara, and Malabar (London, 1807), I, 6, 30; II, 346-7.
89. Francis Buchanan, A Journey from Madras through the Countries of Mysore, Canara, and Malabar (London, 1807), I, 6, 30; II, 346-7.
90. Valentine Ball, Jungle Life in India (London, 1880), 23.
91. Ernst Haeckel, A Visit to Ceylon (London, 1883), 69.
92. N. A. Dalzell, Observations on the Influence of Forests, and on the General Principles of Management as Applicable to Bombay (Bombay, 1863), 26-7.
93. Seventh Congress of the Far Eastern Association of Tropical Medicine Souvenir: The Indian Empire (Calcutta, 1927). For criticism of the neglect of medical research, see Ernest Hart, The Medical Profession in India: Its Position and Its Work, 25-7, 73-5.
94. Seventh Congress of the Far Eastern Association of Tropical Medicine Souvenir: The Indian Empire (Calcutta, 1927). For criticism of the neglect of medical research, see Ernest Hart, The Medical Profession in India: Its Position and Its Work, 25-7, 73-5.
95. League of Nations, Annual Report of the Health Organization for 1927 (Geneva, 1928), 3, 6, 15-17; Annual Report of the Health Organization for 1928 (Geneva, 1929), 49-50. India had been involved in the Far Eastern Association from the outset, with malaria, plague, beriberi high on the agenda: A. Hooton, Report on the First Biennial Meeting of the Far Eastern Association of Tropical Medicine Held at Manila March 1910 (Bombay, 1910).
96. League of Nations, Annual Report of the Health Organization for 1927 (Geneva, 1928), 3, 6, 15-17; Annual Report of the Health Organization for 1928 (Geneva, 1929), 49-50. India had been involved in the Far Eastern Association from the outset, with malaria, plague, beriberi high on the agenda: A. Hooton, Report on the First Biennial Meeting of the Far Eastern Association of Tropical Medicine Held at Manila March 1910 (Bombay, 1910).
97. League of Nations, Annual Report of the Health Organization for 1927 (Geneva, 1928), 3, 6, 15-17; Annual Report of the Health Organization for 1928 (Geneva, 1929), 49-50. India had been involved in the Far Eastern Association from the outset, with malaria, plague, beriberi high on the agenda: A. Hooton, Report on the First Biennial Meeting of the Far Eastern Association of Tropical Medicine Held at Manila March 1910 (Bombay, 1910).
98. J. C. Willis, Agriculture in the Tropics: An Elementary Treatise (Cambridge, 1909).
99. Alfred Deakin, Irrigated India: An Australian View of India and Ceylon (London, 1893).
100. James Emerson Tennent, Ceylon: An Account of the Island, Physical, Historical and Topographical (3rd edition, London, 1859).
101. Louise E. Howard, Sir Albert Howard in India (London, 1953), 36.
102. Mrinalini Sinha, Colonial Masculinity: The 'Manly Englishman' and the 'Effeminate Bengali' in the late Nineteenth Century (Manchester, 1995).
103. 'Arcydae', 'The Past and Future of Bengal', Bengal Magazine, Jan. 1873, 251.
104. Ibid., 259-60. For a later critique of Buckle, see [B. D. Basu], 'The So-Called Inferiority of the Coloured Races, II', Modern Review, Feb. 1909, 143-4.
105. Ibid., 259-60. For a later critique of Buckle, see [B. D. Basu], 'The So-Called Inferiority of the Coloured Races, II', Modern Review, Feb. 1909, 143-4.
106. Bholanauth Chunder, Raja Digambar Mitra: His Life and Career (2nd edition, 1896), I, 180-201; II, appendix E. For the wider issues involved, see David Arnold, '"An Ancient Race Outworn": Malaria and Race in Colonial India, 1860-1930', in Waltraud Ernst and Bernard Harris (eds.), Race, Science and Medicine (forthcoming).
107. Bholanauth Chunder, Raja Digambar Mitra: His Life and Career (2nd edition, 1896), I, 180-201; II, appendix E. For the wider issues involved, see David Arnold, '"An Ancient Race Outworn": Malaria and Race in Colonial India, 1860-1930', in Waltraud Ernst and Bernard Harris (eds.), Race, Science and Medicine (forthcoming).
108. Bholanauth Chunder, Raja Digambar Mitra: His Life and Career (2nd edition, 1896), I, 180-201; II, appendix E. For the wider issues involved, see David Arnold, '"An Ancient Race Outworn": Malaria and Race in Colonial India, 1860-1930', in Waltraud Ernst and Bernard Harris (eds.), Race, Science and Medicine (forthcoming).
109. J. N. Gupta, The Foundations of National Progress: A Scheme of Constructive Work for an Indian Province (Calcutta, 1927), 25.
110. Upendranath Brahmachari, Gleanings from My Researches, I: Kala-Azar, Its Chemotherapy (Calcutta, 1940); idem, 'The Role of Science in the Recent Progress of Medicine', General Presidential Address, Twenty-Third Indian Science Congress, Indore, 1936 (no publication data), 3, 7, 19-21.
111. Upendranath Brahmachari, Gleanings from My Researches, I: Kala-Azar, Its Chemotherapy (Calcutta, 1940); idem, 'The Role of Science in the Recent Progress of Medicine', General Presidential Address, Twenty-Third Indian Science Congress, Indore, 1936 (no publication data), 3, 7, 19-21.
112. R. N. Chopra, Handbook of Tropical Therapeutics (Calcutta, 1936); B. Mukherji, 'Sir Ram Nath Chopra', Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy (New Delhi, 1976), IV, 171-85.
113. R. N. Chopra, Handbook of Tropical Therapeutics (Calcutta, 1936); B. Mukherji, 'Sir Ram Nath Chopra', Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy (New Delhi, 1976), IV, 171-85.
114. Bhagavat Sinh Jee, Aryan Medical Science: A Short History (1895, reprinted Delhi, 1993), 203.
115. Secretary, Finance and Commerce Department, India, to Secretary of State, London, 18 Aug. 1904, L/E/7/431: 1127, OIOC.
116. T. H. Hendley, Inspector-General Civil Hospitals, Bengal, to Secretary, Municipal, Bengal, 16 Oct. 1899, in ibid.
117. They were certainly intended to be complementary, as demonstrated by the opening of a public health institute alongside the Calcutta School of Tropical Medicine in 1932: Annual Report of the All-India Institute of Hygiene and Public Health, Calcutta, 1934 (Calcutta, 1935), 13-14.
118. Proceedings of the Conference Held at Simla on the 21st and 22nd July 1930 to Discuss the Location of the Proposed Central Medical Research Institute (Simla, 1931).
119. Represented by the establishment of the National Planning Committee of the Indian National Congress in 1938, and the Bhore Committee of 1943-4: Report of the Health Survey and Development Committee (Delhi, 1946).
120. Charles Morrow Wilson, The Tropics: World of Tomorrow (New York, 1951), 206.